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Low Schooling for Girls, Slower Growth for All? Cross‐Country Evidence on the Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Development | The World Bank Economic Review | Oxford Academic

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Using cross‐country and panel regressions, this article investigates how gender inequality in education affects long‐term economic growth. Such inequality is found to have an effect on economic growth that is robust to changes in specifications and controls for potential endogeneities. The results suggest that gender inequality in education directly affects economic growth by lowering the average level of human capital.

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                                                         GENDER INEQUAILTY

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                                                         GENDER INEQUAILTY

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Such inequality is hardly unique to the United States, however. In the following Q&A, Mary Brinton-sociology professor at Harvard University-answered a few questions about how the United States compares to other postindustrial countries on gender inequality, as well as how gender equality can help solve declining birth rates.

WHAT DO YOU THINK IS THE BIGGEST OBSTACLE FOR GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE TODAY?

It is important to incorporate men into the theoretical framework. Let's talk about how workplaces need to adapt to the "whole person," both women and men.

There is not a problem with female achievement. Women have caught up with men in terms of education. In fact, in the United States and a number of other countries, women now actually surpass men in educational achievement.

The problem arises when young adults try to balance work and family, and women end up carrying nearly all of the caregiving responsibilities.

If women put many more hours into these household activities than men, this greatly disadvantages women in the workplace. It is unrealistic to expect gender equality if workplaces demand that women be available all the time.

YOUR RESEARCH FOCUSES ON DECLINING FERTILITY RATES IN POSTINDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES. HOW DO FERTILITY RATES CONNECT WITH GENDER EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE?

A fertility rate-meaning birth rate-of 2.1 is necessary for a country to naturally replace its population. Since the 1980s, fertility rates have steadily declined around the world. In the United States, the fertility rate is 1.9. In Southern Europe and East Asia, rates are now below 1.3.

In Japan, for example, entrenched attitudes about women in the workforce and as mothers are likely contributing to the low birth rate. The cultural emphasis on being the ideal mother, along with a corporate culture that demands long work hours, makes motherhood very difficult for women with careers.

It's interesting to note that the countries with high female labor force participation rates tend to have higher birth rates. The postindustrial countries that have made it possible for women (and men) to balance work and family typically have replacement-level birth rates. Increased gender equality-both in the workplace and at home-is an important part of the solution to declining birth rates.

IN YOUR RESEARCH ON JAPAN, YOU DESCRIBE A "DEMOGRAPHIC TIME BOMB." WHAT IS THIS?

Japanese women are getting more education and want to have a career. But within the home, gender equality is not on pace with workforce equality. Woman end up doing a "second shift" of housework and childcare when they return home from work. The result is that many women are waiting longer to get into a partnership. They are choosing, instead, to focus on their career. And when they do get married, they have fewer children.

Japan's population is projected to drop by one-sixth by 2020, and by 2025, 40 percent of the population will be 65 years of age or older. This means skyrocketing health care and pension costs as the population ages. The reduced number of young, homegrown workers entering the workforce and paying into the pension systems could undermine Japan's economy.

WHAT CAN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES DO TO INCREASE GENDER EQUALITY?

Gender stereotypes are hard to break and, like it or not, we are all prone to engaging in stereotyping at one time or another. It's important to study our biases and quantify inequality, such as the work conducted here at Harvard, so that we can understand how to effect change.

In both Japan and the United States, public policy is an important part of increasing gender equality in the workplace and at home, but not all of it.

As a society, we need to continue to encourage people to go beyond stereotypes and recognize the contributions that each individual, male or female, can make to the workplace and to relationships at home.

Related Courses

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Gender Inequality and Women in the Workplace

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Such inequality is hardly unique to the United States, however. In the following Q&A, Mary Brinton-sociology professor at Harvard University-answered a few questions about how the United States compares to other postindustrial countries on gender inequality, as well as how gender equality can help solve declining birth rates.

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Download the latest Gender Inequality Index Data
View the GII Frequently Asked Questions

Gender inequality remains a major barrier to human development. Girls and women have made major strides since 1990, but they have not yet gained gender equity. The disadvantages facing women and girls are a major source of inequality. All too often, women and girls are discriminated against in health, education, political representation, labour market, etc.-with negative consequences for development of their capabilities and their freedom of choice.

The GII is an inequality index. It measures gender inequalities in three important aspects of human development-reproductive health, measured by maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates; empowerment, measured by proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females and proportion of adult females and males aged 25 years and older with at least some secondary education; and economic status, expressed as labour market participation and measured by labour force participation rate of female and male populations aged 15 years and older. The GII is built on the same framework as the IHDI-to better expose differences in the distribution of achievements between women and men. It measures the human development costs of gender inequality. Thus the higher the GII value the more disparities between females and males and the more loss to human development.

The GII sheds new light on the position of women in 160 countries; it yields insights in gender gaps in major areas of human development. The component indicators highlight areas in need of critical policy intervention and it stimulates proactive thinking and public policy to overcome systematic disadvantages of women.

More details on calculation of the GII are given in Technical Notes.

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Download the latest Gender Inequality Index Data View the GII Frequently Asked Questions Gender inequality remains a major barrier to human development. Girls and women have made major strides since 1990, but they have not yet gained gender equity. The disadvantages facing women and girls are a major source of inequality.

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