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Zygotic embryogenesis is the development of the plant zygote into a mature embryo through a sequence of differentiation stages forming the three embryonic tissue systems (dermal, vascular, and ground), cotyledons, root apical meristem (RAM), shoot apical meristem (SAM), root, and hypocotyl (Harada et al., 2010).

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Stages of Embryogenic Development (Eudicot & Monocot)

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Stages of Embryogenic Development (Eudicot & Monocot)

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Eudicot embryogenesis starts on the division of the zygote into upper apical and lower basal cells. It creates the suspensor that attaches the micropyle to the embryo as a nutrition route. Second, the apical cells divide to form the proembryo. Third is the globular stage, where the proembryo continuously splits, resulting to the embryo proper. The embryo proper then generates the cotyledons (heart stage) that elongate and form a torpedo shape (torpedo stage). Between the cotyledons’ shoot tip, the shoot apical meristem is the region where the cell division is focused. Lastly, the mature embryo forms the radicle or the embryonic root. This is the part where cell division and metabolic activity stops, unless the seed germinates (Ha, 2021).

In opposition, monocot embryogenesis is the same with the eudicot except for some parts which are the following: (1) no heart stage; (2) only one cotyledon is formed; (3) embryo proper forms a cylindrical shape; (4) and the shoot apical meristem is not found at the cotyledon’s shoot tip (Ha, 2021).

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Background:
Au Hotels. (n.d.). Chocolate Hills in Bohol. Accessed May 13, 2021, <https://au.hotels.com/go/philippines/best-bohol-island-things-to-do>

Seed banks:
Gangale, R. (February 25, 2020). Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Accessed May 13, 2021, <https://www.newscientist.com/article/2235116-svalbard-doomsday-vault-gets-first-big-seed-deposit-since-upgrade/>

Stuppy, W. (n.d.). Seeds stored at Kew's Millenium Seed Bank. Accessed May 13, 2021, <https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/the-worlds-richest-bank-millenium-seed-bank>

NORDGEN. (February 25, 2020). The new varieties arrived at the seed vault on February 25. Accessed May 13, 2021, <https://e360.yale.edu/global/digest/global-seed-bank-receives-its-one-millionth-variety>

Botanic Gardens Conservation International, (n.d.). Seed storage at the millenium seedbank. Wakehurst Place – Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Ardingly, West Sussex, UK. Accessed May 13, 2021, <https://www.bgci.org/our-work/plant-conservation/seed-conservation/>

Parts of the seed:
BioNinja. (n.d.). Seed structure. Accessed May 23, 2021, <https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-9-plant-biology/untitled-3/seed-structure.html>

Seed scarification:
Laidback Gardener. (2020). Some like it cold: Cold treatment for seeds. Accessed May 23, 2021, <https://laidbackgardener.blog/2020/01/15/some-like-it-cold-cold-treatment-for-seeds/>

Lamlom, S. H. (2016). Effects of various pre-sowing treatments on seed germination of Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) from Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar area (Balagrae, Al-Baida, Libya). IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 9(9), 16-24.

Samanthi. (2020). Difference between stratification and scarification. Accessed May 23, 2021, <https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-stratification-and-scarification/>

The Gardeners Almanac. (n.d.). Scarification and stratification. Accessed May 23, 2021, <http://www.thegardenersalmanac.co.uk/Content/P/Prop22-Scarification>

Seed germination:
Jürgens, G. (2001). Apical-basal pattern formation in Arabidopsis embryogenesis. The EMBO Journal, 20, 3609-3616.

Powell River Garden Club. (2011). Monocots and dicots. Accessed May 23, 2021, <http://powellrivergardenclubblog.blogspot.com/2011/03/monocots-and-dicots.html>

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In this output, we talk about seed banks and the global effort to maintain our planet's biodiversity. We also dive into processes of seed embryogenesis, germination, and dormancy.

We hope you enjoy reading!

♡,
Gale & Krissy

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What are the different mechanisms and pathways involved during the inhibition of water, mobilization of food reserves, and tropisms?

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What are the different mechanisms and pathways involved during the inhibition of water, mobilization of food reserves, and tropisms?

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Seed germination and food/water storage mobilization are both affected by light and temperature. After seed germination, food and water reserves are mobilized to act as resources for the seed until it becomes photoautotrophic. The β-oxidation and glyoxylate cycles are the ones responsible for the usage of food reserves (composed of lipid, protein, and carbohydrate) for seed germination. These cycles break down the storage reserves into sucrose, a signaling molecule responsible for seed germination regulation and seedling development. On the other hand, these cycles also catabolize fatty acids released by the triacylglycerol (TAGs). Abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellin (GA) hormones were found to function as regulators of the genes used in creating enzymes for carbohydrate and protein mobilization in barley, wheat, and rice plants (Pritchard et al., 2002).

In contrast, the transpiration stream mechanism is the one that controls the uptake of water inside the plants via root pressure and capillary action. The main force that drives the movement of water inside the plant is the water potential difference between the substomatal cavity of the plant and the soil (Felle et al., 2005).

Tropism (phototropism, hydrotropism, gravitropism, and thigmotropism) responses are controlled by different genetic systems, molecules, and hormones. Phototropism is regulated by the auxin hormone and involves the usage of phototropins (PHOT1 and PHOT2). Gravitropism is controlled by the starch-filled amyloplasts that moves when the center of gravity changes located at the root cap (statoliths) and shoot endodermal cells (statocytes). Thigmotropism is facilitated by the TOUCH (TCH) gene family that encode various important proteins such as Calmodulin. Hydrotropism, as mentioned earlier, is mainly affected by the difference in water potential (Esmon et al., 2005).

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Aureo, W., Reyes, T., Mutia, F., Jose, R., & Sarnowski, M. (2020). Diversity and composition of plant species in the forest over limestone of Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape, Bohol, Philippines. Biodiversity Data Journal, 8. doi: 10.3897/bdj.8.e55790

Bossuyt, B., Honnay, O. (2008). Can the seed bank be used for ecological restoration? An overview of seed bank characteristics in European communities. Journal of Vegetation Science. 19. 875 - 884. 10.3170/2008-8-18462

Csontos, P. (2007). Seed banks: ecological definitions and sampling considerations. Community Ecology, 8(1), 75–85. doi:10.1556/comec.8.2007.1.10

Esmon, C. A., Liscum, E., & Pedmale, U. V. (2005). Plant tropisms: Providing the power of movement to a sessile organism. The International Journal of Developmental Biology, 49, 665-674.

Felle, H. H., Kogel, K. H., & Herrmann, A., & Hückelhoven, R. (2005). Root-to-shoot signalling: Apoplastic alkalinization, a general stress response and defence factor in barley (Hordeum vulgare). Protoplasma, 227, 17-24.

Geneve, R. L. (1998). Seed dormancy in commercial vegetable and flower species. Special Publication - A Symposium: Vegetable and Flower Seed Quality, 20(2), 236-250.

Jürgens, G. (2001). Apical-basal pattern formation in Arabidopsis embryogenesis. The EMBO Journal, 20, 3609-3616.

Moody-Weis, J., & Alexander, H. M. (2007). The mechanisms and consequences of seed bank formation in wild sunflowers (Helianthus annuus). Journal of Ecology, 95(4), 851–864. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01254.x

Obeña, R.D., Buot Jr., I. (2019). Enumeration of Hoya species in Mindanao Island, Philippines: Conservation concerns. Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity. 20. 10.13057/biodiv/d200628.

Peres, S. (2019). Seed Banking as Cryopower: A Cryopolitical Account of the Work of the International Board of Plant Genetic Resources, 1973–1984. Culture, Agriculture, Food And Environment, 41(2), 76-86. doi: 10.1111/cuag.12236

Pritchard, S. L., Graham, I. A., Charlton, W. L., & Baker, A. (2002). Germination and storage reserve mobilization are regulated independently in Arabidopsis. The Plant Journal, 31(5), 639-647.

Roxas, C. A. (2012). Handbook on Erect Bamboo Species Found in the Philippines. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna

Vernooy, R., Hunduma, T., Gupta, M.A., Jony, J.A., Koffi, K.E., et al., (2020) The role of community seed banks in achieving farmers’ rights, Development in Practice, 30:5, 561-574, DOI: 10.1080/09614524.2020.1727415

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Seed banks are storage areas for seeds belonging to different species that may be found within or beyond the locality. These seed banks exist as gene repositories and is a way of preserving plant genetic diversity (Csontos, 2007).

Being that seeds are deposited in seed banks for the sake of preservation, it is important to keep the area safe and well-guarded from possible threats. Seed banks are establishments that are flood, fire, and bombproof to ensure the survival of the seeds!

Seed survival relies on the indoor environment of the seed bank. Specific temperature, light, and humidity conditions are required to ensure preservation of seeds, which is why seed banks are kept at a temperature of -20°C.

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Aside from the fact that seed banks help prevent the possible extinction of numerous plant species, they also contribute to the safekeeping and record of plant genetic diversity. With different varieties of plants in their storage, seed banks allow researchers to see, in large scale, how plants adapt to their environments from all around the world. Who knew that a single seed could hold so much information?

The true magic behind seed banks is that they let us appreciate our current plant biodiversity, and they continuously remind us to keep our environmental treasure safe!

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Establishment of the Apical-Basal and Radial Axis

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Establishment of the Apical-Basal and Radial Axis

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The apical-basal and radial axis is established during the early embryogenesis via cell-to-cell communication in the proembryo. At the octant stage of the proembryo, the upper cells generate the apical region (shoot meristem and cotyledons) while the lower cells comprises the central region (upper root meristem stem cells, cotyledons, hypocotyl, and root). The plant zygote’s uppermost basal daughter cell derivatives combine with the proembryo and form the hypophysis. On the other hand, lower basal daughter cell derivatives form the quiescent centre. From there, the apical-basal axis is separated into three parts which are the apical, basal, and central (Jürgens, 2001).

In the apical region, the WUSCHEL (WUS) homeobox gene stimulates the shoot meristem formation. The basal region development is mediated by the cell divisions of hypophysis. A radial pattern and apical-basal cell polarity are demonstrated in the central region due to tangential cell divisions and putative auxin efflux carrier PIN1 accumulation, respectively. Mechanisms of the axis are still not discovered but are found to be somewhat associated to the GNOM (GN) gene (Jürgens, 2001).

Moreover, the hormone auxin also plays a role in this polarity, as it was found to facilitate the apical-basal axis partitioning or the formation of the various plant parts (Harada et al., 2010).

The figure below shows the apical-basal pattern development of an Arabidopsis embryo adapted from Jürgens (2001).

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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Are there efforts being made in the Philippines to establish a seed bank?

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While the Philippines currently does not have a central establishment dedicated to seed storage, institutions such as the municipality of Arakan in North Cotabato, Bohol Island State University in Bohol, and San Gabriel Elementary School in Cavite, among others, have started community seed banks as a way to enhance local seed conservation.

These community seed banks contain seeds that are stored by the collective effort of people within the community. Albeit their simplicity in design, these community seed banks ensure seed security, conserve agricultural biodiversity, and provide options for climate-change adaptations. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2019). Similarly, the opportunity to learn about seed banks also give farmers an insight on the big role they play in the diversification of local crops.

One example of a project related to community seed banks is Seed School, which aims to establish an organic seed bank in the Philippines. It is organized and led by a non-profit group named Global Seed Savers (GlobalGiving.org, 2015). They first initiated the project in Tublay, Benguet in 2015.

Even if the Philippines lacks a building or a space dedicated to seed preservation and storage, it is very heartwarming to know that somehow, other people are taking the lead and are educating the people about the importance of seed banks. In this assessment, we realize that protecting our biodiversity is important and we should support the causes that help protect our seeds. (:

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If we were to give seeds of 10 native species (endemic/indigenous) that are found in our plant area, what would these be and why did we choose them?

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If we were to give seeds of 10 native species (endemic/indigenous) that are found in our plant area, what would these be and why did we choose them?

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The seeds we would want to give are the following:
1. Shorea contorta (White lauan)
2. Shorea squamata (Mayapis)
3. Hopea acuminata (Manggachapui)
4. Argyreia boholensis
5. Blumea stenophylla
6. Bambusa merrilliana (Bayog)
7. Hoya sp.
8. Dipterocarpus grandifloras (Apitong)
9. Musa textilis (Abaca or Manila Hemp)
10. Ficus balete (Balete tree)

These plant species are all found within Bohol and in other parts of the Philippines. We included S. contorta, S. squamata, H. acuminata, and D. grandifloras as they are all threatened and critically endangered species (Aureo et al., 2020). While they were found to be somewhat common in the Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape (RSPL) in Bohol, these critically endangered species are not equally distributed throughout the entire locality of Bohol. Thus, conservation and management efforts must be done to preserve the said species. By providing their seeds to a seed bank, we help prevent their extinction.

Species such as A. boholensis, B. stenophylla, and Hoya sp. are endemic to Bohol. It is important to preserve these species because they are found only within our plant area, contributing to the rich biodiversity of the locality. The loss of endemic species would lead to a decline in species richness and biodiversity.

On the other hand, B. merrilliana (Bayog bamboo) is found in, but not endemic to Bohol. It serves an important economical purpose as it is used as a construction material or utilized in furniture making.

Certain species such as the balete (F. balete) and abaca (M. textilis) are common plants that are somehow significant to the Philippine culture. The balete is famous for its role in Philippine folklore while the abaca is known for its use in the textile industry.

Given the chance, we would send the seeds of these species over to a seed bank so they can be preserved and protected. All seeds deserve a spot in seed banks, and we would like to start with these ten. (:

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Graeber, K., Nakabayashi, K., & Leubner-Metzger, G. (2017). Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences. Elsevier Science.

Harada, J. J., Kwong, R. W., & Belmonte, M. F. (2010). Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Lambers, H. (2019). Seed. Enclyclopedia Brittanica. https://www.britannica.com/science/seed-plant-reproductive-part.

Tuan, P. A., Sun, M., Nguyen, T.-N., Park, S., & Ayele, B. T. (2019). Sprouted Grains. Elsevier Science.

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Argyreia boholensis (Merr.) Ooststr. in GBIF Secretariat (2021). GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Checklist dataset https://doi.org/10.15468/39omei accessed via GBIF.org on 2021-05-16.

Kelly, L., & Zumajo, C. (2021). What is a seed?. Retrieved 23 May 2021, from https://www.nybg.org/planttalk/what-is-a-seed/

Natria. (n.d.). How to grow plants from seeds step by step. Retrieved 23 May 2021, from https://www.natria.com/learn/rose-flower/10-steps-growing-plants-seed

Penn State University. (2012). Seed and seedling biology. Retrieved 23 May 2021, from https://extension.psu.edu/seed-and-seedling-biology

Seed Collection | Kew. (2021). Retrieved 17 May 2021, from https://www.kew.org/science/collections-and-resources/collections/seed-collection

Seed Conservation | Botanic Gardens Conservation International. (2021). Retrieved 13 May 2021, from https://www.bgci.org/our-work/plant-conservation/seed-conservation/

What are seed banks and why should seeds be preserved? - SourceTrace Systems. (2017). Retrieved 17 May 2021, from https://www.sourcetrace.com/blog/seed-banks-seeds-preserved/

Why is it important to have seed banks and seed access?. (2018). Retrieved 17 May 2021, from https://sustainable-secure-food-blog.com/2018/08/07/why-is-it-important-to-have-seed-banks-and-seed-access/

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A seed is the embryonic phase of both angiosperm and gymnosperm plants’ life cycle. They are usually found and protected inside the fruits, which are ripened ovaries of flowers. It has three main parts namely, the seed coat, embryo, and endosperm.

The seed coat or testa is the cover of the seeds and maintains its viability to grow depending on the plant species. Meanwhile, the embryo consists of an embryonic root (radicle), leaf (cotyledon), stem (epicotyl or plumule), and hypocotyl (connects the radicle & cotyledon). Lastly, the endosperm is the nutrition source of the embryonic plant made up of protein, oil, and starch. Another part is called the micropyle, a small pore or integument where the pollen tube can go towards the ovule (Lambers, 2019; Kelly & Zumajo, 2021).

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These seeds have highly adapted on their respective environments for dispersal, multiplication, dormancy, and perennation. Seeds vary in shapes and sizes, and there are even some seeds which are edible such as almonds, peanuts, walnuts, cashews, macadamias, and many more! :)

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It is important to take note of proper ways in germinating seeds as they require specific light, temperature, air, and moisture conditions in order to grow. Various species of plants have different preferred temperature ranges for seed germination. Similarly, seed species have optimal light requirements. Phacelia sp. and Allium sp. grow better in dark areas or those without any light source present. On the other hand, plants such as Coleus sp., Begonia sp., and Primula sp. need light for seed growth (Penn State University, 2012). Quality of soil, planting depth, container, and usage of fertilizers should be also taken in to consideration when growing seeds (Natria, n.d.).

As part of the new generation, we need to learn how to grow plants as global warming and climate change keep worsening. By planting seeds, we can at least help the environment in small ways! :) <3

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Seed dormancy is the inability of seeds to germinate due to various reasons. There are two types of seed dormancy such as the primary and secondary seed dormancy (Tuan et al., 2019).

Primary seed dormancy is stimulated by the mother plant during seed development. The mother plant dictates an innate dormant stage and properties to their seeds. The abscisic acid (ABA) together with other pathways, facilitate primary seed dormancy resulting to inhibition of seed germination. This type of seed dormancy is further divided into three classifications, the exogenous, endogenous, and combinational dormancies. Contrarily, secondary seed dormancy depends more on the environment where the seed is placed. The seed remains dormant if the environmental conditions aren’t suitable to what it needs to grow (Graeber et al., 2017).

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First, exogenous dormancy are germination inhibitors found outside the embryo (seed coat maternal tissue and radicle resistance). This is exhibited by hard seeds from the plant Family Malvaceae, Cannaceae, Geraniaceae, Convolvulaceae, and Fabaceae. Dormancy of hard seeds can be broken down using mechanical abrasion and alternate freezing (Geneve, 1998).

Second, endogenous dormancy are germination inhibitors found inside the embryo caused by rudimentary embryos, undeveloped embryos, and physiological factors. Plants with rudimentary embryos found fixed in a large endosperm are members of the Family Araliaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Papaveraceae. Dormancy of these embryos can be prevented using chemical scarification and exposure to cold/alternating temperatures. Plants with undeveloped embryos are from the Family Gentianaceae, Umbellifereae, and Primulaceae. Dormancy in these plants can be stopped through exposure to warm temperatures and using gibberelic acid (Geneve, 1998).

Third, combinational dormancy is a mixture of the exogenous and endogenous types of seed dormancy. These can be found the Genera Anemone, Asarum, Lilium, Paeonia, Cimicifuga, Convallaria, and Trillium (Geneve, 1998).

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Natural Color 3 Photo Collage Your Story

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For secondary seed dormancy, it varies depending on the requirement of the involved plant. For instance, Lactuca sp. needs light if placed in a 25oC environment but if grown in the dark, seed germination occurs faster. Genus Nemophilla only germinates in the dark, while Apium sp. and Viola sp. requires environment with high temperatures (Geneve, 1998). Dormancy here can be broken only if the required variable is present.