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Why are these sports allowed to be played, without proper protective gear, when they are causing life-threatening diseases?

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Why are these sports allowed to be played, without proper protective gear, when they are causing life-threatening diseases?

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What sports deal with most head related injuries? (besides american football)

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What sports deal with most head related injuries? (besides american football)

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Are there any possible medications that can prevent or relieve the severity of CTE?

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Are there any possible medications that can prevent or relieve the severity of CTE?

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Why can CTE only be seen and diagnosed after death?

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Why can CTE only be seen and diagnosed after death?

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How does CTE affect someone's daily routine, how is it altered?

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How does CTE affect someone's daily routine, how is it altered?

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What are the long term effects of concussions?

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What are the long term effects of concussions?

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Finding specific data on why people are diagnosed with CTE

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Finding specific data on why people are diagnosed with CTE

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"Up to 3.9 million sports-related mild traumatic brain injuries, or concussions, occur annually in the United States"

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"Up to 3.9 million sports-related mild traumatic brain injuries, or concussions, occur annually in the United States"

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Simple Sideline Test Shown Effective In Diagnosing Concussion In Student Athletes As Young As 5 Years Old

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NYU Langone researchers have developed a simple vision test for concussion that can be given by parents to athletes as young as five years old. Learn more.

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 "the only way to diagnose the disease is to look at brain tissue after death"

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 "the only way to diagnose the disease is to look at brain tissue after death"

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In the late 2015 movie, Concussion, Will Smith plays real-life doctor Bennet Omalu. In 2005, Omalu found CTE - an Alzheimer's-like brain disease - in former football players. The disease was known to occur in people who had experienced repeated hits to the head, such as boxers. It also has been seen in hockey players, wrestlers and military veterans - usually as they enter their 40s to 70s. But a disturbing new study now reports CTE in a young college football player.

CTE is short for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (En-sef-uh-LAH-puh-thee). It is one of several diseases caused by changes to a brain protein called " tau " (which rhymes with wow). Other tau disorders include Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

In healthy brain cells, tau proteins support the cell. They move nutrients and other materials from one part of a cell to another. But after head trauma, tau proteins can change. They may form thread-like tangles that jam up the transport system.

What symptoms these tangles cause depends on where in the brain they show up. Alzheimer's disease usually starts in the hippocampus. This brain region is involved with memory, so affected people suffer memory loss and confusion. In CTE, tau proteins begin to change in the prefrontal cortex. This area - located right behind the forehead - is involved with decision-making, emotion and behavior. So CTE victims are likely to become moody, aggressive and depressed. Some commit suicide, or attempt to do so.

Ann McKee is a pathologist at Boston University in Massachusetts. (A pathologist studies disease, usually in people who have died.) She and her team have been working to understand how CTE develops. So far, they have identified more than 170 cases of the disease in former athletes and military veterans.

In their latest report, this team describes a young man. The 25-year-old had played football for 16 years, starting at age 6. Over the years, he suffered at least 10 concussions - brain injuries due to severe blows to the head. The first happened when he was playing football as an 8-year old.

Twelve years later, he was still playing football - and getting hurt. A major concussion during his first year of college led to headaches, blurred vision, memory loss and insomnia. Those symptoms persisted into the next season. Eventually the young man quit the game. Formerly a good student, he began failing his classes. At last, he dropped out of college without finishing his degree.

Problems continued. The young man got a job - but then lost it. Afterward, he struggled to find work. And he became abusive. Although he did not attempt suicide, he reported thinking about it. As his symptoms worsened, he underwent psychological testing. He was just 24. Those tests showed he was able to receive and register verbal information. But he struggled with memory, planning and organization.

When the young man died of a heart attack at age 25, his family agreed to let researchers examine his brain. McKee's team looked for tau tangles. They also had a group of medical experts review the young man's behavioral history and the results of his psychological evaluation. McKee's group wanted to know whether CTE might be identified without having to dissect the brain.

Currently, the only way to diagnose the disease is to look at brain tissue after death, explains McKee. Scientists must see a specific pattern of tau tangles under a microscope. But McKee is part of a program looking for early markers of CTE - symptoms that could point to the disease while people are still alive.

In the new case, the medical experts all agreed the young man had suffered from depression. He also had post-concussion syndrome. This is a term used to describe weeks or months of headaches, memory loss or other problems that can follow a concussion. The group was less sure about CTE, primarily because it usually shows up when people are at least 40 years old. But they didn't rule it out.

When the researchers later opened up the man's brain, McKee's team saw the unmistakable evidence of CTE. And it wasn't just in the prefrontal cortex. Tau tangles tied up cells in 10 regions of the brain. The researchers had previously found localized areas of CTE in players as young as 17 years. But they had never before found it to be so widespread in someone as young as this man.

This also marks the first time scientists have verified CTE in someone who had undergone psychological testing, McKee notes. Such testing, she adds, may be useful one day in diagnosing CTE before death.

Her team reported its findings on January 4 in JAMA Neurology.

"Findings like this are essential in CTE research," says Mark Herceg. He's a concussion psychologist at Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y. He was not involved with the study.

"It's important to highlight that this is a case study," he adds. By that he means, this is just one example. Researchers would need many more cases to verify their findings. "If everyone who had multiple repetitive [brain] hits developed CTE, we'd have millions of disabled or deceased people everywhere," he says. But that isn't happening. So researchers need to figure out what other risk factors - such as genetics, trauma or poverty - might also play a role in the disease or making someone vulnerable to it.

Power Words

Alzheimer's disease An incurable brain disease that can cause confusion, mood changes and problems with memory, language, behavior and problem solving. No cause or cure is known.

cell The smallest structural and functional unit of an organism. Typically too small to see with the naked eye, it consists of watery fluid surrounded by a membrane or wall. Animals are made of anywhere from thousands to trillions of cells, depending on their size.

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) A brain disease caused by repeated head injuries. It has been seen, during autopsy, in the brains of former athletes and soldiers. CTE can cause memory loss, moodiness, aggression, depression and anxiety.

concussion Temporary unconsciousness, or headache, dizziness or forgetfulness due to a severe blow to the head.

deceased An adjective that describes someone who has died.

depression A mental illness characterized by persistent sadness and apathy. Although these feelings can be triggered by events, such as the death of a loved one or the move to a new city, that isn't typically considered an "illness" - unless the symptoms are prolonged and harm an individual's ability to perform normal daily tasks (such as working, sleeping or interacting with others). People suffering from depression often feel they lack the energy needed to get anything done. They may have difficulty concentrating on things or showing an interest in normal events. Many times, these feelings seem to be triggered by nothing; they can appear out of nowhere.

genetic Having to do with chromosomes, DNA and the genes contained within DNA. The field of science dealing with these biological instructions is known as genetics. People who work in this field are geneticists.

hippocampus A seahorse-shaped region of the brain. It is thought to be the center of emotion, memory and the involuntary nervous system.

insomnia An inability to get to sleep and stay asleep long enough to become fully rested.

neurology A research field that studies the anatomy and function of the brain and nerves. People who work in this field are known as neurologists (if they are medical doctors) or neuroscientists if they are researchers with a PhD.

nutrient A vitamin, mineral, fat, carbohydrate or protein that a plant, animal or other organism requires as part of its food in order to survive.

Parkinson's disease A disease of the brain and nervous system that causes tremors and affects movement, memory and mood.

pathology The study of diseases and/or conditions that can or did lead to death. People who work in this field are called pathologists. They look at what causes a disease, how symptoms develop and may examine all stages of an illness.

post-concussion syndrome Symptoms that can follow a concussion for weeks or months. These include headaches, dizziness, memory problems and trouble concentrating.

prefrontal cortex A region containing some of the brain's gray matter. Located behind the forehead, it plays a role in making decisions and other complex mental activities, in emotions and in behaviors.

proteins Compounds made from one or more long chains of amino acids. Proteins are an essential part of all living organisms. They form the basis of living cells, muscle and tissues; they also do the work inside of cells. The hemoglobin in blood and the antibodies that attempt to fight infections are among the better-known, stand-alone proteins.Medicines frequently work by latching onto proteins.

psychology (adj. psychological) The study of the human mind, especially in relation to actions and behavior. To do this, some perform research using animals. Scientists and mental-health professionals who work in this field are known as psychologists.

tau protein A protein found in the brain that plays a role in moving materials around a cell. Changes in tau proteins can lead to tangles in this transport system. Any of several brain diseases can result, including Alzheimer's disease and chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE).

tissue Any of the distinct types of material, comprised of cells, which make up animals, plants or fungi. Cells within a tissue work as a unit to perform a particular function in living organisms. Different organs of the human body, for instance, often are made from many different types of tissues. And brain tissue will be very different from bone or heart tissue.

trauma (adj. traumatic) Serious injury or damage to an individual's body or mind.

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Too many football hits can change the brain

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In the late 2015 movie, Concussion , Will Smith plays real-life doctor Bennet Omalu. In 2005, Omalu found CTE - an Alzheimer's-like brain disease - in former football players. The disease was known to occur in people who had experienced repeated hits to the head, such as boxers.

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"there are many factors that play important roles in why some people develop this disease [CTE] and why some do not"

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"there are many factors that play important roles in why some people develop this disease [CTE] and why some do not"

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Ann McKee has about 300 brains in her "brain bank" at Boston University. "Football is by far the largest source of our donors," she says.

Photo: Asia Kepka/BU Today

Ann McKee has made national headlines with her research linking football and other sports to a condition called Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, or CTE.

McKee, a professor of neurology and pathology at the Boston University School of Medicine, earned her undergraduate degree in zoology at UW-Madison in 1975.

She recently visited campus to talk to UW Health sports medicine staff and to give a well-attended Grand Rounds in Neurology titled, "Football, boxing and the brain." Here are some highlights of the conversation.
What did you think of former Badger football player Chris Borland's decision to quit the NFL after one year?
I think he made the right decision. The research shows that it's the cumulative effect of the hits, and you have to come down on the side of saving your brain. I know Chris and I've talked with him. He spoke to several of my colleagues while he was making his decision.
Do you think the emphasis on concussions in sports will prevent CTE?
No. Despite our emphasis on concussion and managing concussion, it's probably not concussions that are giving rise to this disease. In fact, all our studies indicate that the number of concussions does not correlate with the severity of the CTE. It's the amount of exposure, the number of years playing sports. We know football players get 1,000 to 1,500 sub-concussive hits per season, even in high school - that's tens of thousands of hits if they play 10 years. The sub-concussive injury, the asymptomatic injury, is probably very important in developing this disease. CTE has only been found in individuals who sustained repetitive, cumulative traumas.
Former Badger Mike Webster was the first NFL player diagnosed with CTE, yet it seems that the disease is still controversial.
I can't believe that one of the major issues I deal with are the people who say CTE is not a disease. There are still people out there who believe that I'm misinterpreting the pathology and that these are age-related changes or Alzheimer's. Unfortunately, CTE is a reality and we need to get over arguing about its existence and get on with figuring out ways to prevent it, identify it during life, and treat it.
What's the latest on proving that CTE is a real diagnosis?
Last year we had an NIH-sponsored consensus conference on the diagnosis of CTE. To evaluate the pathological criteria for the disease, we sent images of brain pathology from 25 cases of CTE and other brain diseases with tau protein, including Alzheimer's, progressive supranuclear palsy, primary age-related tauopathy and other diseases to seven expert neuropathologists. The evaluating pathologists were given the pathology images but absolutely no information on the age of the subjects, gender, clinical symptoms, whether or not they were athletes, or even what the gross neuropathological findings were.

It was a very difficult assignment. It took each pathologist about 100 hours to evaluate the 671 slide images, or about four hours per case. In the end, the results showed very good agreement on the diagnoses. About 91 percent of the answers correctly identified the cases with CTE, and that rose to 96 percent when we provided the clinical information. The panel also identified a lesion unique to CTE that only occurs in cases of repetitive head trauma. These results confirm that CTE is a distinct disease - but I had no doubts that I'll continue to be asked this question.
How many brains are in your brain bank?
We're now up to about 300 brains. Football is by far the largest source of our donors. We base our criteria on exposure to trauma, either through sports or military service. The reality is that a brain donor population is a very biased population - families don't think about donating their loved ones' brains unless they're concerned about something. In the future, we hope to have more examples of former players who are doing well, because that will help us understand how people resist the disease - what factors, genetic and otherwise, protect them from developing the disorder.

The brain donors in the bank can no longer speak for themselves, and I like to think that I'm telling their story, speaking for individuals who can no longer speak for themselves.
What's next?
One criticism is that that all our studies to date have been retrospective, after death. We now have funding to do a longitudinal study, evaluating people at high risk for CTE. In the new study we hope to follow 75 NFL players: 25 who are cognitively normal, 25 who are mildly impaired, 25 who are demented.
Do people know they have CTE?
In general, individuals are aware that they can't think clearly, they can't get thoughts out of their heads; their thoughts are foggy; they know they're different. There seem to be two modes of symptom onset: Younger individuals who develop symptoms usually have mood and behavior changes; if a person develops symptoms in their older years, the 50s and 60s, there is generally cognitive decline and memory loss that looks clinically very much like Alzheimer's disease.
Can anything be done to help them?
My BU colleagues are working on ways to make the diagnosis during life. Once we can clearly identify and monitor the disease during life, we will have a chance to monitor different therapies for efficacy. Clearly, there are many factors that play important roles in why some people develop this disease and why some do not. We think that most likely there are genetic factors that play a role in susceptibility. And importantly, we need to figure out ways to treat individuals, rehabilitate them, so they don't lead these tragic lives. If we could understand how this disease develops in its very early stages, we would have the best chance for treatment and a cure, so one of the critical groups to study is the individuals in their teens and twenties who have developed CTE.
Related: "Head-On Collision" from On Wisconsin

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Brain injury expert shares insights, research on sports and concussions

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Ann McKee has about 300 brains in her "brain bank" at Boston University. "Football is by far the largest source of our donors," she says. Photo: Asia Kepka/BU Today Ann McKee has made national headlines with her research linking football and other sports to a condition called Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, or CTE.

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Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) | Symptoms & Diagnosis

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CTE is a brain condition associated with repeated traumatic brain injuries (concussions) like those received by professional athletes. Learn about risk factors, symptoms and prevention.

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Posted under . Updated 11 December 2015.

A soccer player bumps into his teammate and falls hard, hitting his head on the ground. He complains of feeling dizzy and having a bad headache. Could this athlete have a concussion? Yes, but the symptoms are not always so obvious right away. Sometimes it's hard to know if you (or someone you see get hurt) might have a concussion because the symptoms vary and sometimes they don't develop immediately. Also, the length of time someone has symptoms can also differ a lot from one person to the next. One thing is certain though - head injuries are serious and anyone who suffers an injury to their head needs plenty of time for their brain to heal.

What is a concussion?

A concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury that results from a blow or jolt to the head, neck, face, or body. Although your brain is protected by your skull and something called cerebrospinal fluid, the sudden force of an impact can affect normal brain function. The most common symptoms include physical (e.g., headache), cognitive (e.g., feeling distracted or forgetful), emotional (e.g., feeling sad or anxious), or sleep related difficulties. Typically, the brain has to work harder to do things (like thinking) that are usually routine or automatic, and working too hard immediately after an injury can make symptoms worse.

How do people get concussions?

Concussions are very common, especially among sports players. You can also get a concussion from a fall, a car accident, a physical fight, a bike crash - basically any impact to the head, neck, face, or body that causes a sudden jolt or force to your brain.

If your head or another part of your body is hit hard enough, it can cause your head to move suddenly. Although your brain is protected by the skull and also cushioned by something called cerebrospinal fluid, it can still shift around and hit the walls of your skull which are made of hard bone. The nerves and fibers in the brain can be stretched or torn. This affects their ability to function properly and can result in concussion symptoms.

Does a person with a concussion always lose consciousness?

No. Most of the time people who have concussions do not lose consciousness ("black out"). Many people believe that if they didn't black out they are fine, but that's not true. Even if you don't lose consciousness, you can still have a concussion.

If you're concerned about concussions, here's a tip on how to bring it up with your health care provider: "I hit my head really hard. How can I tell if I got a concussion?"

Additional Information:
Warner: Playing through concussion 'part of the game', Stephanie Smith, CNN Medical News
Symptoms and Early Medical Attention

Most concussions do not involve a loss of consciousness (knocked out), but all (concussions) cause changes in brain functioning (or mental status) that are often seen in headaches, fatigue (extreme tiredness), or nausea (feeling like you need to throw up), and problems with balance and thinking.

Although the type of concussion symptoms and how long they last can be different from one person to the next, anyone who has a concussion needs time for their brain to heal. It's not unusual to experience trouble with somatic/physical (headaches, fatigue), cognitive (attention, concentration, memory), regulatory abilities (behavioral control, angry outbursts), and/or mood functioning (sadness, depression, anxiety). Sleep can also be disrupted. These symptoms often go away over time. However, if a person returns to pre-injury activity levels too quickly, they risk suffering another injury and it can take much longer to recover. Getting more rest than usual, modifying daily routines, and managing expectations can all help facilitate recovery and minimize symptom severity.

What are symptoms of a concussion?

You may have had a concussion if you have any of following symptoms after an impact to the head, neck, or body:

Blurry vision

Memory loss - you're unable to remember what happened before or after your head was injured

Headache

Feeling of pressure in the head

Dizziness or off-balance

Nausea with or without vomiting

Trouble concentrating or making decisions even about simple things

Feeling "foggy" or "out of it"

Clumsiness - trouble with coordination and/or balance

Feeling grouchy or anxious for no reason

Feeling more tired or sleepy than usual

Mood or behavior changes

Sensitivity to light and/or noise

Ringing in the ears

What should you do if you think you have a concussion?

If you think you might have a concussion, stop what you're doing even if you feel fine. If you're playing a sport, tell your coach right away. Always let your parent(s) or guardian(s) know what happened. Also, make sure to talk with your health care provider to find out if you should be checked or if you should go to the closest emergency room. Your health care provider will figure out if you'll need a CT scan or other imaging and when you can return to normal activities. Basically, "when in doubt, sit it out."

What if you see someone else get hurt, and you think they may have a concussion?

If you watch someone fall, hit their head, or take a direct blow to the body that jolts their head, ask them if they are okay and find out if they remember what happened. If the person is alert, you could say that "the impact may have caused a concussion"; that they "may need medical attention" and offer to call their parent or guardian. If the person is unconscious and appears to be alone, you should tell an adult, call an ambulance, and make sure that they get medical attention right away.

Exam and Treatment

What is the exam like?

Depending on how severe your injury is, your health care provider (HCP) will usually perform a physical exam and ask a lot of questions about how you are feeling. He/she may ask you a few simple questions such as "When is your birthday?", "What is your middle name?", or "What day is it?" These questions may seem silly, but asking if you can remember simple things is a way of finding out if your brain has been affected. Your health care provider will look at your eyes and your ears, and check your reflexes, your blood pressure, and balance. If necessary, your HCP will do further testing such as a CT scan or an MRI to make sure you don't have any bleeding inside of your head. You might also be referred to a neuropsychologist to evaluate your thinking abilities in greater detail.

What is the treatment for a concussion?

Treatment for a concussion is based on a number of things, including your age, overall health, and if you've ever had a concussion in the past. This is why an evaluation by a health care provider is needed.
General treatment for a concussion is about:

Stopping the activity that caused the injury

Stopping any other physical activity that could possibly cause more trauma to your head

Physical rest

Resting your brain - including modifying school work, texting, and computer time

Recovery and Prevention

When can I return to playing sports or other physical activities?

The general rule is that you won't be able to return to any rough physical activity until your concussion symptoms are completely gone, including your ability to think clearly. Your health care provider (HCP) or a specialist will let you know. When you do get the okay to go back to playing sports or other physical activities, you should do it slowly. Remember, you haven't been at the top of your game since your injury.

Many states have recently passed new laws that are meant to increase awareness of concussions, prevent multiple injuries, and provide parents, teachers, and schools with guidelines for managing concussions. For example: In the state of Massachusetts all adults (coaches, parents) and athletes involved in high school sports or marching band must receive special training each year on how to tell if someone has a concussion and how to get help for a student who might have one. Most importantly, anyone who has symptoms of a concussion must stop playing whatever activity they were doing right away. Injured students will need to see their doctor or go to urgent care before returning to the activity and a written plan must be in place so that the student will return to physical activities and schoolwork slowly in order to promote a full recovery. Check the rules in your state that aim to lower the risk of long term brain damage caused by concussion.

What if the concussion symptoms come back?

Tell your HCP right away if your concussion symptoms come back. He/she will tell you what to do if you experience more symptoms. For example, you may be given a prescription for medicine if you have headaches. Never take anyone else's prescription medicine.
Get medical attention if you have any of these changes/symptoms and they don't go away:

A seizure

Headaches, dizziness, vomiting, or sleep problems (can't/won't wake up)

Changes in vision

Slurred speech

Others notice that there's a change in your personality

Or if you have a very long loss of consciousness (>1 minute)

How long will it take to heal completely after a concussion?

Most people recover from a concussion in 7-10 days, but others, particularly young children, may take longer. Everyone heals at different rates. People who have suffered a concussion in the past or have a learning disability, attention deficit disorder, anxiety, or depression can also take longer to recover from a concussion. If several months have passed and you're still not better, some doctors call it post-concussion syndrome ("after" the concussion). This does not mean that your symptoms will never go away, only that it is taking you longer than usual to get back to your normal self.
Going back to school after a concussion: Helpful Advice
It's a good idea to talk to tell your teachers/professors and school nurse that you've had a concussion. They can keep an eye on you and help with adjustments in your schedule (for a couple of weeks) until you recover.
You might ask your teacher to:

Adjust your school schedule or have a shorter school day

Allow rest periods or a break during classes

Photocopy notes from the board or class lectures

Lessen the amount of class work and homework

Give you more time to finish assignments

Take tests at a later time when you're feeling better

How can you lessen the chance of a concussion?

Your risk of suffering a concussion partly depends on the type of activities you enjoy, but even if you don't play contact sports or skateboard there are some things you just control. The following can help prevent any type of injury, including concussion.

Wear a helmet (that fits well) when doing activities such as: biking, skateboarding, rollerblading, skiing, snowboarding, or playing contact sports.

Buckle up and wear a seatbelt any time you are in a vehicle (and avoid all drugs and alcohol because they can affect your judgement.)

Think before you participate in any activity that comes with big risks, especially to your head!

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Posted under . Updated 11 December 2015. A soccer player bumps into his teammate and falls hard, hitting his head on the ground. He complains of feeling dizzy and having a bad headache. Could this athlete have a concussion? Yes, but the symptoms are not always so obvious right away.

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Overview

Post-concussion syndrome is a complex disorder in which various symptoms - such as headaches and dizziness - last for weeks and sometimes months after the injury that caused the concussion.

Concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury that usually happens after a blow to the head. It can also occur with violent shaking and movement of the head or body. You don't have to lose consciousness to get a concussion or post-concussion syndrome. In fact, the risk of post-concussion syndrome doesn't appear to be associated with the severity of the initial injury.

In most people, symptoms occur within the first seven to 10 days and go away within three months. Sometimes, they can persist for a year or more.

The goal of treatment after concussion is to effectively manage your symptoms.

Symptoms

Post-concussion symptoms include:

Headaches

Dizziness

Fatigue

Irritability

Anxiety

Insomnia

Loss of concentration and memory

Ringing in the ears

Blurry vision

Noise and light sensitivity

Rarely, decreases in taste and smell

Post-concussion headaches can vary and may feel like tension-type headaches or migraines. Most often, they are tension-type headaches. These may be associated with a neck injury that happened at the same time as the head injury.

When to see a doctor

See a doctor if you experience a head injury severe enough to cause confusion or amnesia - even if you never lost consciousness.

If a concussion occurs while you're playing a sport, don't go back in the game. Seek medical attention so that you don't risk worsening your injury.

Causes

Some experts believe post-concussion symptoms are caused by structural damage to the brain or disruption of the messaging system within the nerves, caused by the impact that caused the concussion.

Others believe post-concussion symptoms are related to psychological factors, especially since the most common symptoms - headache, dizziness and sleep problems - are similar to those often experienced by people diagnosed with depression, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder.

In many cases, both physiological effects of brain trauma and emotional reactions to these effects play a role in the development of symptoms.

Researchers haven't determined why some people who've had concussions develop persistent post-concussion symptoms while others do not. There's no proven connection between the severity of the injury and the likelihood of developing persistent post-concussion symptoms.

However, some research shows that certain factors are more common in people who develop post-concussion syndrome compared with those who don't develop the syndrome. These factors include a history of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, significant life stressors, a poor social support system and lack of coping skills.

More research is still needed to better understand how and why post-concussion syndrome happens after some injuries and not others.

Risk factors

Risk factors for developing post-concussion syndrome include:

Age. Studies have found increasing age to be a risk factor for post-concussion syndrome.

Sex. Women are more likely to be diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome, but this may be because women are generally more likely to seek medical care.

Prevention

The only known way to prevent post-concussion syndrome is to avoid the head injury in the first place.

Avoiding head injuries

Although you can't prepare for every potential situation, here are some tips for avoiding common causes of head injuries:

Fasten your seat belt whenever you're traveling in a car, and be sure children are in age-appropriate safety seats. Children under 13 are safest riding in the back seat, especially if your car has air bags.

Use helmets whenever you or your children are bicycling, roller-skating, in-line skating, ice-skating, skiing, snowboarding, playing football, batting or running the bases in softball or baseball, skateboarding, or horseback riding. Wear a helmet when riding a motorcycle.

Take action at home to prevent falls, such as removing small area rugs, improving lighting and installing handrails.

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Post-concussion syndrome - Symptoms and causes

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Post-concussion syndrome is a complex disorder in which various symptoms - such as headaches and dizziness - last for weeks and sometimes months after the injury that caused the concussion. Concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury that usually happens after a blow to the head.