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Introduction

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Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth, for your love is better than wine. Your oils have a pleasing fragrance. Your name is like purified oil. Therefore the maidens love you. Draw me after you and let us run together! The king has brought me into his chambers (Songs of Songs 1:2-4).

Right from the start, the Song of Songs, or, as some know it, the Song of Solomon, separates itself from the other books in the Bible. The opening words introduce a poetic work whose subject is romantic love and its physical expression in marriage. This is not what one would expect from a book in the Bible, but it is only the beginning of its mysteries. The Song of Songs is easily the most enigmatic book in the Scriptures.

The Song of Songs is enigmatic because it has no unambiguous reference to God, religion, or spiritual things. The closest that any verse comes to mentioning God is Songs 8:6, which reads:

Put me like a seal over your heart,
Like a seal on your arm.
For love is as strong as death,
Jealousy is as severe as Sheol;
Its flashes are flashes of fire,
The very flame of the Lord.

The Hebrew behind "The very flame of the Lord" is not all that clear, and it is the NASB alternate reading, "a vehement flame," that is probably correct. The New International Version (NIV) and the New English Translation (NET) use, "a mighty flame." Thus, the Song of Songs is likely to be the second book in the Bible, Esther being the first, with no reference to God. The absence of God in the Song of Songs is very problematic, because Esther, at least, communicates God's providential care, and the name YHWH appears acrostically in two places. Not so the Song of Songs: it remains first and foremost a book about love, marriage, and its physical expression. Its place in the Scriptures must be understood in light of its message, as it is, and not as we would hope or expect it to be. The subject matter has obviously proved troublesome for many, and through the centuries, there have been grand attempts to make Solomon's Song to be about something else. Such attempts falter in light of all sound, hermeneutical principles.

The Song of Songs is enigmatic because there is no consensus about many of the book's elements. Questions having diverse answers abound. Are there two main characters or three? How does one divide the speaking parts? Are the characters peasants or royals? What is the structure of the book? Who wrote it? How many people wrote it? Here is an example of the issues that exist discerning the speaker in Songs 8:12:

As Marvin Pope has said, the implications can be quite opposite depending on whether the girl or the groom speaks the opening words of Song 8:12. Here are the main choices: girl to her other lover; girl to Solomon; girl to brothers; Solomon to girl; Solomon literally of vineyard; another lover to girl; another lover to Solomon.

So we come to The Song of Songs. It is enigmatic; it is about a subject that makes many Christians and Jews uncomfortable; it does not seem to be a religious book, and making sense out of it is hard and controversial. So why bother with it? Why don't we just skip over to Isaiah and pretend this little work isn't there? What would we miss?

First, let's start with the obvious and obligatory reason for caring. It is in the Canon of Scripture and "all Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness" (2 Timothy 3:16). Since the Lord intended the Song of Songs to be part of His message, it is our responsibility to profit by it. Let us note, for example, that modern sexuality is primarily about entertainment and marketing. It is in our movies, our books, and our advertisements. It is certainly out of control. The Song's sexuality is chaste, self-giving, and bonding. It should be understood, taught, and emulated. As far as being difficult, the book is not a quick study, but it is a pleasant one.

Second, the Song of Songs has inspired many to seek and to find a deeper experience with God and a clearer understanding of His love. So even though it does not have an overt spiritual message, it seems to have a covert spiritual effect. This should also be understood, taught, and emulated.

Topics

As an overview of the Song of Songs, this message will present:

1. Different approaches to understanding the book.

2. Various opinions regarding its structure, meaning, and story lines.

3. Advice on how to read the book for enjoyment and understanding.

4. The Song's lessons for body, soul, and spirit.

Hopefully, at the end, the Song of Songs will have become less of an enigma and more of a spring garden full of surprises and delights.

Approaches

The Allegorical Approach

For centuries, the common wisdom concerning the Song of Songs was to view it strictly as an allegory. The logic that prompted such a view was simple:

All books in the Bible are about God.

The Song of Songs is in the Bible.

Therefore, the Song of Songs is about God.

Consequently, the early church and Jewish rabbis completely allegorized its characters and imagery. At a basic level, Jewish allegory holds that the bridegroom represents God, and the bride represents Israel. Similarly, Christian allegory holds that the bridegroom represents Christ, and the bride represents the Church. The allegorical approach stipulates that the author intended to write an allegory and that a non-allegorical reading is wrong. The following introduction to a Jewish "translation" of Song of Songs illustrates this.

As the entire gamut of Talmudic and Rabbinic literature relating to Shir HaShirim makes clear, this highly emotional, seemingly sensuous song is an allegory. As such, a literal translation would be misleading - even false - because it would not convey the meaning intended by King Solomon the composer. The ArtScroll translation follows the commentary of Rashi, and a full commentary may be found in the ArtScroll Shir Hashirim by Rabbi Meir Zlotowitz. The following introductory comments are adapted from Rashi's own introduction:

Solomon foresaw through the Holy Spirit, that Israel is destined to suffer a series of exiles and will lament, nostalgically recalling her former status as God's chosen beloved. She will say, 'I will return to my first husband (i.e. to God) for it was better with me then than it is now.' (Hoshea 2:9) The children of Israel will recall His beneficence and the trespasses which they trespassed (Leviticus 26:40). And they will recall the goodness which He promised for the End of Days.

The prophets frequently likened the relationship between God and Israel to that of a loving husband angered by a straying wife who betrayed him. Solomon composed Shir HaShirim in the form of that same allegory. It is a passionate dialogue between the husband [God] who still loves his estranged wife [Israel], and the wife, a veritable widow of a living husband, who longs for her husband and seeks to endear herself to him once more, as she recalls her youthful love for him and admits her guilt.

God, too, is afflicted by her afflictions (Isaiah 63:9), and He recalls the kindness of her youth, her beauty, and her skillful deeds for which He loved her [Israel] so. He proclaimed that He has not afflicted her capriciously (Lamentations 3:33) nor is she cast away permanently, for she is still His "wife" and He her "husband," and He will yet return to her.

And here is the first chapter of that translation. You will find it instructive to compare it verse by verse with your favorite translation.

Israel in exile to God:

2. Communicate your innermost wisdom to me again in loving closeness, for Your friendship is dearer than all earthly delights.

3. Like the scent of goodly oils is the spreading fame of your great deeds; Your very name is flowing oil; therefore have nations loved you.

4. Upon perceiving a mere hint that You wished to draw me, we rushed with perfect faith after You into the wilderness. The King brought me into His cloud-pillared chamber; whatever our travail we shall always be glad and rejoice in Your Torah. We recall Your love more than earthly delights; unrestrainedly do they love you.

Israel to the Nations:

5. Though I am black with sin, I am comely with virtue, O nations who are destined to ascend to Jerusalem; though sullied as the tents of Kedar, I will be immaculate as the draperies of Him to Whom peace belongs.

6. Do not view me with contempt despite my swarthiness, for it is but the sun which has glared upon me. The alien children of my mother were incensed with me and made me a keeper of the vineyards of idols, but the vineyard of my own true God I did not keep.

Israel to God:

God responds to Israel:

8. If you know not where to graze, O fairest of nations, follow the footsteps of the sheep - your forefathers who traced a straight, unswerving path after My Torah. Then you can graze your tender kids even among the dwellings of foreign shepherds.

9. With My mighty steeds who battled Pharaoh's riders I revealed that you are My beloved.

10. Your cheeks are lovely with rows of gems, your neck with necklaces - My gifts to you from the splitting sea, ... .

11. ... by inducing Pharaoh to engage in pursuit, to add circlets of gold to your spangles of silver.

Israel to God:

12. While the King was yet at Sinai my malodorous deed gave forth its scent as my Golden Calf defiled the covenant.

13. But my Beloved responded with a bundle of myrrh - the fragrant atonement of erecting a Tabernacle where His Presence would dwell amid the Holy Ark's staves.

14. Like a cluster of henna in En Gedi vineyards has my Beloved multiplied his forgiveness to me.

15. He said, 'I forgive you, My friend, for you are lovely in deed and lovely in resolve. The righteous among you are loyal as a dove.'

16. It is You Who are lovely, my Beloved, so pleasant that you pardoned my sin enabling our Temple to make me ever fresh,

17. The beams of our House are cedar, our panels are cypress.

As comforting as allegorizing the text might be, there is really no internal or external justification for it. The problem with saying that the Song of Songs is "seemingly sensuous" is that unenlightened readers, not knowing any better, will read it as sensuous, and what passage in the Song of Songs, or the Old Testament, or the New Testament will enlighten such readers to Solomon's real intent? What tools would they have by which to properly decipher Solomon's symbolism? There are none. An allegory's only benefit is to explain, to our sensibilities, why Song of Song's is in the Bible. I submit to you that it is better to admit our discomfort than to seriously consider the allegory. When Solomon wrote, "My beloved is to me a pouch of myrrh which lies all night between my breasts," could he really mean, "But my Beloved responded with a bundle of myrrh - the fragrant atonement of erecting a Tabernacle where His Presence would dwell amid the Holy Ark's staves?" Let me tell you, it takes imagination to blaze a trail between the two.

The Typological Approach

Later on, there came those who acknowledged the sensual elements of Songs while still holding to a strong connection to God. They did this by using the concept of types. They proposed that King Solomon typified Christ, and the bride typified the Church. Just like Jesus Christ came to earth for a bride to take to heaven, so King Solomon found a peasant girl working in a vineyard and brought her into his royal courts. Although potentially more true to the text, the sensual elements were acknowledged and then ignored. Therefore, in practice, the typology, not the sexuality, was the principle purpose of the book's place in the Scriptures. How else could it be there? The presumed logic of canonicity still prevailed:

All books in the Bible are about God.

The Song of Songs is in the Bible.

Therefore, the Song of Songs is about God.

We must set aside typology for the same reason we set aside the allegorical approach. There is no internal or external evidence for it, and we must acknowledge that the motivation for drawing the types is the same discomfort that motivated allegory: a book in the Bible must somehow be about God. It is not that typology here is wrong, per se. It is that typology is used to dismiss the primary focus of the Song of Songs, which is the celebration of marriage and its physical relationship. Only after we give the book's message its proper emphasis do we have a chance to catch any hints of a spiritual truth. Also, typology needs to stand on a foundation of generally accepted meaning, which the Song of Songs does not have. It should never be the stimulus for such meaning. The need for a type might well interfere with a correct understanding of the book.

The Natural Approach

The natural approach takes the Song of Songs, at face value, as a poem about marriage and the physical relationship that is part of marriage. This does not immediately answer the question of why the Song of Songs is in the Bible, but maybe the problem has been our preconceptions about what makes a book fit for the Canon. This approach has gained prominence only within the last century, and discoveries of other ancient love poems have shed light on the Song of Songs' imagery.

The challenge is still imagery. For the allegorist and the typologist, the challenge was to relate imagery to spiritual meaning. Now, it is to understand how the imagery relates to healthy romance and enduring love. There is a cultural and historical divide between the author and us. Consider these words of the bridegroom: "Your hair is like a flock of goats that have descended from Mount Gilead." Such words will hardly melt the heart of a young maiden today, but we must assume they were precious words at the time of writing. So, picture a compact herd of goats moving down the switch-backed trails of a mountain. How might this scene look from a distance? Would they seem to move in waves and suggest hair blown by a soft wind? Okay, it might work. Try this one, "Your teeth are like a flock of newly shorn ewes which have come up from their washing, all of which bear twins, and not one among them has lost her young." In the days before modern orthodontics, the young man or young woman would appreciate someone with a complete set ("not one has lost her young") of straight ("all bear twins"), white ("newly shorn and washed") teeth.

Agricultural and botanical imagery abounds. The imagery communicates both beauty and a veiled eroticism. This is the genius of the book's sexual message. The eroticism is as hidden and discrete as is appropriate in marriage. Sexuality is between the husband and the wife and is not for public view. The Song of Songs provides a biblical basis for celebrating this part of life while teaching that discretion preserves its value. The imagery adds dimension to the experience and anchors it to the higher values of chastity, surrender, mutual desire, and committed love. Note these excerpts:

Chastity - On the wedding night's consummation, the bridegroom says, "A garden locked is my sister, my bride, A rock garden locked, a spring sealed up" (Songs 4:2). The bride is a virgin who has kept her garden for this moment. As you read the next verses, you will see how she opens her garden and invites her husband to enjoy its fruits.

Chastity - The bride remembers how her brothers "watched over" her when she was of tender age. The brothers speak:

We have a little sister, and she has no breasts; what shall we do for our sister on the day when she is spoken for? If she is a wall, we will build on her a battlement of silver; but if she is a door, we will barricade her with planks of cedar (Songs 8:8, 9).

The bride then reflects on her choice and the value it had to her husband, "I was a wall, and my breasts were like towers; then I became in his eyes as one who finds peace" (Songs 8:10). Being "a wall" suggests that the young woman is one not open to the advances of men before marriage. Being "a door" suggests otherwise. In the first case, they give her honor and the means to withstand a siege. In the second case, they do whatever it takes to preserve her honor.

Surrender - On the wedding night's consummation, the bride says:

Awake, O north wind, And come, wind of the south; Make my garden breathe out fragrance, Let its spices be wafted abroad. May my beloved come into his garden and eat its choice fruits! (Songs 4:16)

Mutual Desire - The bride says, "His mouth is full of sweetness. And he is wholly desirable. This is my beloved and this is my friend, O daughters of Jerusalem," (Songs 5:16) and again "I am my beloved's, and his desire is for me" (Songs 7:10).

Committed Love - The focal verse of the entire book is Songs 8:6, 7:

Put me like a seal over your heart, like a seal on your arm. For love is as strong as death, jealousy is as severe as Sheol; its flashes are flashes of fire, the very flame of the Lord. Many waters cannot quench love, nor will rivers overflow it; if a man were to give all the riches of his house for love, it would be utterly despised.

In our day, we need to understand, teach, and emulate this aspect of the Song of Songs. As I see it, it is a book intended for our time.

Story Lines

Does the Song of Songs tell a story? If so, who are the characters? How does our understanding of the message and themes change as our perception of the story elements change? These questions are the subject of this section. One of the enigmatic aspects of the Song of Songs is that there are so many viewpoints that have merit.

Song of Songs as an Anthology

The first story line is, in fact, not a story line at all. There are many who read the Song of Songs, then note how disconnected the material seems to be and conclude that the work is a loosely organized collection of love songs. Each of the songs may, therefore, be about different characters and even have different authors.

Whereas, there is much to commend this viewpoint, it is not totally satisfactory. Although it attempts to explain how disconnected the book seems, paradoxically (dare I say, enigmatically), it does not explain how connected the book seems to be. For example, there is the recurring refrain, "I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles or by the hinds of the field, that you do not arouse or awaken my love until she pleases" (Songs 2:7; 3:5; 8:4 and note 8:5b). Of course, this could all be a matter of editorial arrangement, but pretty soon the arrangement almost seems to tell a story. Still the notion that the book is an anthology of love songs is worth considering.

Song of Songs as a Royal Love Story:

King Solomon and the Shulammite Vinedresser

This is the generally accepted story line. The tale of King Solomon and the Shulammite goes like this: King Solomon notices a chaste and attractive young vinedresser in one of his vineyards. He falls in love with her, marries her, and brings her into his court.

There are two interesting variations of this story line, both of which have to do with the dream sequences and other signs of trouble in the relationship.

The first and most popular variation regards the bride as being shy and not fully comfortable with this king who is suddenly showing such attention and affection to her. Evidences of her reticence include her hiding in a rocky cleft (Songs 2:14) and her reluctance to open the door to her husband/lover (Songs 5:2, 3). The imagery also lends itself to the allegorists and typologists, since Jesus would be the faithful seeker of the unsure bride. When she is not fully open to Him, she gets herself into difficult and even dangerous situations.

Either variation of this story line would be strong, were it not that some story elements make difficult the identification of the bridegroom as a king. Why, for example, would the young woman want to know, "where do you pasture your flocks, where do you lie down at noon?" (Songs 1:7). This seems to indicate that the woman's lover is a shepherd and not a king. This leads us to a third story line.

Songs of Songs as a Love Triangle:

King Solomon, the Shulammite Vinedresser, and the Shepherd

To state it simply, King Solomon falls in love with a young, virtuous vinedresser and marries her, but she really loves a shepherd. If Song of Songs doesn't have enough trouble accounting for its place in the Scriptures, this viewpoint compounds it. This story line is only useful for explaining the ambiguous references to the bridegroom as a king, and it suggests some really bad outcomes. Although the book opens in the court, it ends in the country. Does the girl leave Solomon and escape to her shepherd lover? Does she finally get fed up and run away at Songs 6:13, which reads, "Come back, come back O Shulammite."

Song of Songs as a Peasant Love Story:

A Shepherd and a Vinedresser

Perhaps the two lovers in Song of Songs are not royals at all, just peasants. In their mutual admiration and young love, they refer to each other using royal terms. He is as King Solomon in her eyes, and she is as a princess in his. The young newly-weds playfully pretend to be part of the court life. However, they soon see the shortcomings of palace life and settle down in their pastoral setting. This view frames Songs 8:7 in high relief, "if a man were to give all the riches of his house for love, it would be utterly despised." I am reminded of the song with the lines, "Even though we ain't got money, I'm so in love with you, honey." Love is just something money cannot buy.

Making the Song of Songs Your Own

Having made the case for the difficulties of the book, I must now make the case for your making it your own. Difficulties aside, Song of Songs is a refreshing book that grows on you. Discovery builds on discovery, and a distinct beauty emerges from its chapters and verses. Let me start you off with the most important clue to understanding it: The Song of Songs is told from the bride's point of view. It is a feminine book and, like a woman, she only reveals her secrets to those who love her and listen with their heart. Here is a second important clue: The book defies western-style logic; it must be understood holistically - not as a collection of parts.

To make this book your own requires three things:

1. You need to know who is speaking (or thinking).

2. You need to put on historical lenses.

3. You need to discern its structure.

All the diverse story lines come from different conclusions about these three items, but do not let that discourage you. Rather let it give you the freedom to explore your own ideas.

Know Who is Speaking (or Thinking)

The Song of Songs is told from the bride's point of view. Indeed, one could view it as a "stream of consciousness" monologue wherein the young girl's thoughts flit from immediate experience to memories to hopes. Although I have not read anyone else who makes this claim, I actually ascribe much of the book to her private thoughts. When I read, "Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth," I feel as if I have been given access to the thoughts and feelings of a young girl in love. I would not even know to whom she would be speaking.

Most translations provide help with speaking assignments. In some cases, the translation identifies the speaker in the marginal notes. Others identify the speaker in a heading above the text. My own taste is to have the speaker identification close by in order to get a better feel for the exchange. To this end, I have actually copied the book into a word processor and color coded the text and made other changes to the fonts. In this, my private version, I made the bride's words pink, the bridegroom's words blue, and all others black. When I guessed that the bride was thinking rather than speaking, I used pink italics. The effect was quite dramatic. One advantage of having the text in a word processor and using colors to identify the speakers is immediacy. There is no looking back to the heading or over to the margins to reconnect with the speaker.

Some places where the NASB, NET, and NIV differ in speaker assignments demonstrate how the meaning of the book subtly changes. Let's take the recurring refrain again, "I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem, by the gazelles or by the hinds of the field, that you do not arouse or awaken my love until she pleases" (Songs 2:7; 3:5; 8:4). The NET and NASB ascribe all three to the bride, but the NIV ascribes the first two to the lover and the last to the beloved. I prefer the NET and NASB rendering and believe that it foreshadows and adds dimension to the bride's words, "Beneath the apple tree I awakened you;" (Songs 8:5b). The drama of 8:5b does not exist in the NIV.

Put on Historical Lenses

I have already covered this a little, but it is worth repeating: the language and imagery within the Song of Songs comes from another place and time. Some of the imagery carries well, such as, "Your lips are like a scarlet thread, and your mouth is lovely" (Songs 4:3a). Other imagery is not so clear, "Your temples are like a slice of pomegranate behind your veil" (Songs 4:3b). To appreciate this book, we must stretch our imaginations and relate the images to love and romance. In others words, we need to visualize the imagery from different angles until something romantic, or even erotic, emerges. One of the delights of this book is the "a-ha" experience when a sudden insight reveals the meaning of a puzzling phrase.

Discern Its Structure

The Song of Songs is not western literature, which has a strong sense of sequential flow, time, and logic. Hebrew literature is not so fascinated with time ordered sequences and prefers more exotic arrangements. Time, in the Song of Songs, is all over the clock and calendar.

Before I go further with the structure of the Song of Songs, I want to show the structure of a section in Daniel. This will set the stage for a similar arrangement in Songs. Daniel 2:4-7:28 is written in Aramaic and has this structure:

A. Nebuchadnezzar's Dream

B. Condemnation and Rescue (The Fiery Furnace)

C. A King is Humbled (Belshazzar loses the kingdom)

C'. A King is Humbled (Nebuchadnezzar goes insane)

B'. Condemnation and Rescue (The Lion's Den)

A'. Daniel's Dream

Daniel's material is not ordered by time. The two center sections, C and C', are in reverse chronological sequence, and so are A' and B'. Instead of time providing the structural underpinning, Daniel uses an inverted parallelism, known as a "chiasm." The structure exists to invite comparison among the parallel parts: A to A', B to B', and C to C'.

Besides having an unfamiliar structure, the Song of Songs consists of Hebrew poetry, whose elements are the relationship of themes and ideas instead of rhythm and rhyme. Some of the poetic elements that you will notice as you read are:

Parallelism

Simile

Stair case progressions

Chiasmus

Thematic connections that are chapters apart

Many of these elements are illustrated in the following passages:

Parallelism

I am the rose of Sharon,
The lily of the valleys (Songs 2:1).

Like a lily among the thorns,
So is my darling among the maidens (Songs 2:2).

Stair Case Progression

I am the rose of Sharon,
The lily of the valleys.
Like a lily among the thorns,
So is my darling among the maidens.
Like an apple tree among the trees of the forest,
So is my beloved among the young men.
In his shade I took great delight and sat down (Songs 2:1-3).

Notice how the imagery flows from "rose" to "lily" to "like a lily" to "like a tree" to "in his shade." The literary intent seems to be to have an associative link that ties one phrase to the next while seeing how far from the original you can get.

Thematic Connection

Like an apple tree among the trees of the forest,
So is my beloved among the young men.
In his shade I took great delight and sat down (Songs 2:3).
Beneath the apple tree I awakened you;
There your mother was in labor with you,
There she was in labor
And gave you birth (Songs 8:5b).

Like Daniel, the Song of Songs has a chiastic structure, but one that is freer and looser. By this I mean that it is hard to draw an unambiguous line separating the parts. You can step back and see it, but when you get close, it almost disappears. What you see from a distance is this:

A. Home in the king's court

B. Developing love

C. Dream Sequence

D. Consummation

C'. Dream Sequence

B'. Developing love

A'. Home in the country

As with Daniel, the nested segments invite comparisons. There are several themes in the first and last chapters that are clearly parallel, and the chiasm gives us good reason to compare them. Consider these phrases: "My mothers sons were angry with me" (Songs 1:6), and "We have a little sister ... " (Songs 8:8). Note the references to "vineyard" in the two sections. We can surmise, therefore, that the two sections tell the same childhood events from different points of view. The first is from the bride's viewpoint, and the second is from her brothers' viewpoint. In the first, the girl "suffered" under brothers who made her work in the fields. In the second, the brothers look after the same girl's future interests.

So, as you read the Song of Songs:

Don't worry about a time sequence; let each section be what it is, and do not worry about when.

Look for repeating themes and phrases. When you find them, compare them for sameness and differences. It does not matter if they are near or far from each other.

Seek to understand the poetic allusions.

After awhile, you will find a story emerging.

Lessons for Body, Soul, and Spirit

Lessons for the Body

So why is the Song of Songs in the Bible? What is it that makes it "profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness?"

There are two errors people have had regarding sexuality, and the Song of Songs corrects both. The first says that sex is for making children and any other use is carnal and at best tolerated. The second says that sex is a recreational activity that should have limited restraints.

The view that sexual intercourse in marriage is solely to conceive children was put forth by Saint Augustine in his work, "On Marriage and Concupiscence" in which he writes:

The union, then, of male and female for the purpose of procreation is the natural good of marriage. But he makes a bad use of this good who uses it bestially, so that his intention is on the gratification of lust, instead of the desire of offspring.

The Song of Songs clearly teaches that Saint Augustine was wrong. On their wedding night, the lovers are told, "Eat, friends; Drink and imbibe deeply, O lovers." The Song of Songs has explicit passages wherein the lovers delight in the features of the other. There is no hint anywhere that the delight of the young married couple is in the seeking of children. Rather, we see the bonding effect that the physical union creates between them.

But in our day, we have no worries about Saint Augustine's error taking root. Sex is entertainment, and sex education seems to consider abstinence among young people to be impossible. But the lovers in the Song of Songs rejoice in their chastity. After her brothers talk about their "little sister" and whether she is a virtuous wall or a loose door, the young woman tells us, "I was a wall, and my breasts were like towers; Then I became in his eyes as one who finds peace" (Songs 8:10). She tells us that she was both virtuous and sexually attractive. Both pleased her husband, who could trust her to be faithful to him.

Songs 8:6,7 proclaims love's desire to be the only one in the eyes of the other:

Put me like a seal over your heart,
Like a seal on your arm.
For love is as strong as death,
Jealousy is as severe as Sheol;
Its flashes are flashes of fire,
The very flame of the Lord.
Many waters cannot quench love,
Nor will rivers overflow it;
If a man were to give all the riches of his house for love,
It would be utterly despised.

What is the seal in this refrain? According to some, it is a cylinder seal worn around the neck or a stamp seal worn on the wrist. Since the seal uniquely belongs to and identifies its owner, the seal imagery is a request to uniquely belong to and identify the beloved. Alternatively, the seal could be an imprint on the heart made as one would make by rolling a cylinder on wet clay. This speaks of the desire to be a permanent impression on the heart. Either way, Songs 8:6 is about permanent love in a relationship, the reality of jealousy, and the fact that love cannot be bought. Such a picture is gone from today's cultural message. Perhaps the frankness of the Song of Songs could bring it back.

As I stated previously, the language of the Song of Songs is discrete. As we read, we know what is going on, but the privacy of the young couple is preserved. We share in their joy and their feelings, but we are not assaulted with graphic images. The discretion is achieved by the artistic use of images and double entendre.

So the lessons for the body are to honor chastity and virtue, to enjoy the physical union in marriage, to be devoted exclusively to one another, and to be discrete. As such, the Song of Songs could be very useful in pre-marriage counseling and maybe college and young singles classes.

Lessons for the Soul

The Song of Songs is good for the soul because the poetry it contains is beautiful, and beauty is good for the soul. Much of evangelical Christianity has promoted left-brained rationalism over right-brained artistry. Daniel Wallace writes in his excellent paper, "The Uneasy Conscience of a Non-Charismatic Evangelical":

The Holy Spirit does not work just on the left brain. He also works on the right brain: he sparks our imagination, causes us to rejoice, laugh, sing, and create. Few Christians are engaged and fully committed to the arts today. Where are the hymn writers? Where are the novelists? Painters? Playwrights? A very high-powered editor of a Christian magazine told me two weeks ago that he knows of only one exceptional Christian fiction writer. What are our seminaries doing to encourage these right brainers? What is the Church doing to encourage them?

The Song of Songs is a completely right-brained book and is, therefore, good for the development of the right brain. It will be the right brain that will comprehend the book's poetic images. It will be the right brain that will delight in the language. Take the following picture of spring:

My beloved responded and said to me:
"Arise, my darling, my beautiful one, and come along.
For behold, the winter is past,

The rain is over and gone.

The flowers have already appeared in the land;
The time has arrived for pruning the vines,
And the voice of the turtledove has been heard in our land.
The fig tree has ripened its figs,
And the vines in blossom have given forth their fragrance.
Arise, my darling, my beautiful one, and come along!" (Songs 2:10-13).

This is food for the soul as one feels no longer the cold wet of the winter rains, sees the fields colored with the flowers, hears the sound of the turtledove, tastes a ripe fig, and smells the fragrance as one walks with a loved one. All five senses plus the emotions of young love are alive here. What I am saying is simply this: the Song of Songs is to be enjoyed.

Food for the Spirit

Must we conclude that the Song of Songs has nothing to say about God and spiritual matters? Not necessarily, but we will not find it in the simple meaning of the text. Nevertheless, I have noticed that as people read the book, they seem to experience the love of God in a special way. I think the difference is that they come into contact with the phileo love of God for them. We do not often hear about such a thing. We talk of the agape love of God, how He loves us unconditionally and how it is a higher love. We talk about loving our spouses with unconditional agape love. But phileo love between friends, that which finds value in the other, is also important. Agape love may be all that is needed for a marriage to survive, but it is when it is combined with phileo love that it is its most satisfying. Many read the Song of Songs and note how the bridegroom and bride rejoice over each other, and they begin to think about their heavenly Bridegroom. They see Him rejoicing over His bride and, by extension, to them personally. Think of the purity, joy, excitement, discovery, intimacy, promise, and beauty shared between the lovers in the Song of Songs. It is preposterous, in this light, to imagine a stoic Bridegroom on the day of our salvation and the day of our wedding banquet. There is a hint here of something truly marvelous and precious. Consider what Isaiah says:

You will also be a crown of beauty in the hand of the Lord,
And a royal diadem in the hand of your God.
It will no longer be said to you, "Forsaken,"
Nor to your land will it any longer be said, "Desolate";
But you will be called, "My delight is in her,"
And your land, "Married";
For the Lord delights in you,
And to Him your land will be married.
For as a young man marries a virgin,
So your sons will marry you;
And as the bridegroom rejoices over the bride,
So your God will rejoice over you (Isaiah 62:3-5).

Whereas there is not sufficient presence in the Song of Songs to develop a formal typology, there is a hint of the love that Jesus Christ has for His bride. Isaiah tells us that He will rejoice, and the Song of Songs gives us the language of that rejoicing.

For this reason, composers have felt free to "borrow" verses to communicate God's love to us. A favorite seems to be Songs 2:4. One well-known song goes like this:

He's brought me to his banqueting table; His banner over me is love (3x).
His banner - Over me - Is love.

And, I have a friend who has written an oratorio based on the Song of Songs. His use of Songs 2:4 goes like this:

There's a table laid before you,
There's a banquet hall in laud.
Here the calling of His able,
Hear the calling of their God.
There's a banquet hall in heaven
Go there slowly close your eyes.
You're the only one attending,
Will you come?

Both songs take the verse out of context, because it is not plausible that Solomon wrote about the wedding feast of the Lamb (Revelation 19:9). On the other hand, someone who knows about the wedding feast can read Songs 2:4 and, by association, think about that wedding feast. It is exactly the kind of thought we would have on that day. Why not sing about it now? What I submit for your consideration is that the Song of Songs provides us with the love language that we need to express our relationship with our heavenly Bridegroom. J. Sidlow Baxter writes:

To some it may seem that the language of Solomon's Song is too intimate or extravagant to express the communion of the saints with the heavenly Bridegroom; yet it is a fact that the most ardent lovers of the Lord have here found a relief of expression such as could be found nowhere else. There is a rapture of communion with Christ which no ordinary phraseology can utter.

The Song of Songs vividly and brightly tells us how the bridegroom and the bride rejoice over each other and delight in each other. On the day of our salvation, our Lord and Savior and now Bridegroom will rejoice and delight over us and we in Him. This is what resonates in our spirit as we read the Song of Songs. What makes this different from typology is that we are not actually making identification between the Song of Song's bridegroom and Jesus. The Song of Songs just helps us to know His heart.

Conclusion

So, start on your adventure with this book. Perhaps I should pass on the admonishment of the Jewish rabbis that no one under thirty should be so engaged, but it's probably too late for that. Study this book over a period of time, and you will discover this: Although it has no mention of God, it is, nevertheless, a Holy Book.

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Introduction214 Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth, for your love is better than wine. Your oils have a pleasing fragrance. Your name is like purified oil. Therefore the maidens love you. Draw me after you and let us run together! The king has brought me into his chambers215 (Songs of Songs 1:2-4).

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Asbury Bible Commentary

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SONG OF SONGS - Asbury Bible Commentary - Bible Gateway

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Matthew Henry

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Song of Solomon - Matthew Henry's Commentary - Bible Gateway

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Introduction to Song of Songs - Theology of Work Bible Commentary - Bible Gateway

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The Song of Songs, also known as the Song of Solomon, is love poetry. Yet it is also a profound depiction of the meaning, value and beauty of work. The Song sings of lovers who court, then marry, and then work together in an ideal picture of life, family and work.

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The Israelites were monotheists. They worshiped only one God. (Or they were supposed to! They often started worshiping the gods and goddesses of the surrounding peoples). When they traveled out of Egypt to Canaan (modern day Israel) the Israelites worshiped God in a giant tent called the tabernacle. In the tent was a box made of acacia wood covered in gold. It was called the Ark of the Covenant. Later King Solomon built a great temple at Jerusalem to house the Ark of the Covenant. The Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians but it was later rebuilt.

One of the 12 tribes of Israel, the Levites, were set aside to act as priests. Since they did not own land the other tribes gave the Levites one tenth of their crops and domestic animals. Furthermore 48 towns in Israel were set-aside for the Levites. In return they sacrificed animals to God. They were also supposed to teach the people about God.

The peoples around the Israelites were polytheists (they worshiped many gods). The chief god of the Philistines was Dagon. The chief god of the Moabites was Chemosh. The Canaanites worshiped Baal, god of rain and storms. They worshiped Baal on high places such as hilltops. They also worshiped his wife, Asherah, a fertility goddess. They worshiped wooden poles dedicated to her. The Canaanites also worshiped a god called Moloch or Molech and they sacrificed children to him.

In Israel most people lived by farming and most of them lived in small villages. Only a small minority lived in towns. Furthermore most of the towns were much smaller than modern day towns. Walls surrounded towns in Israel and inside houses were tightly cramped together. Important meetings were held in the gateways of the town walls. Markets were also held in gateways.

Like other ancient peoples the Israelites kept slaves. Prisoners of war were often made slaves. Furthermore some Israelites were so poor they were forced to sell themselves or their children into slavery. However if you owned an Israeli slave you could only do so for 6 years. At the end of that period you were supposed to set him free.

People in Israel got married very young. Legally a boy could marry when he was 13. A girl could marry when she was 12. In Israel children did not go to school but their parents had a duty to teach them God's laws. Girls learned skills like spinning, weaving and baking from their mothers. Boys learned their father's trade.

In Ancient Israel women could own property. The Book of Proverbs describes an ideal woman. It says 'she considers a field and buys it'. (Proverbs 31:16). As well as making clothes for her family the ideal woman sells clothes to merchants.

When a father died his sons inherited his property. The oldest son was given a double share. Daughters could only inherit property if there were no sons. However sons who inherited property were expected to support the women in the family.

The Israelites were commanded to be generous to the poor. There were also some laws to protect the very poor from starvation. The law said that when you harvested your grain you should not reap to the very edges of the fields or gather up any stalks of grain left behind by the harvesters. Instead the poor were allowed to collect them.

Furthermore when you beat the olives from your trees you were not to go over the trees a second time. Instead you were to leave any leftover olives for the poor. When you harvested your grapes you were not to go back over the vines but leave any grapes still there for the poor.

Furthermore the law said you could eat grapes from your neighbor's vineyard provided you did not collect any and put them in a basket. You were also allowed to pick ears of grain from a field provided you only used your hands and not a tool to pick them.

In Patriarchal times people lived in tents made of goats hair. Later people lived in houses made of stone or mud bricks. The poorest people lived in houses with just one room. The room was divided into two parts. The half nearest the door had a floor of beaten earth. In winter domestic animals lived there. The family lived on a raised platform in the other half of the room.

People who were slightly better off sometimes had an upper story. The roof was also important. The family dried fruit and grains on the roof of their house and if the weather was very hot they slept there.

Wealthy people's houses were very different. They consisted of several rooms arranged around a courtyard. However even rich people did not have panes of glass in their windows and there were no chimneys to carry away smoke.

Poor people had very little furniture. Beds were usually just mattresses full of wool or straw, which were laid out on the raised platform at night. The whole family slept on the mattress under goats hair blankets.

Poor people sat on stools. (Chairs were a luxury). Even tables were expensive and poor families often made do with a straw mat laid out on the floor. However rich people had comfortable furniture including proper beds made of wood with fine wool blankets and pillows. In Israel houses were lit by oil lamps. People burned dried grass or thorn bushes or dry animal dung on their fires.

Men wore loincloths. On top they wore tunics. Women wore long tunics (often embroidered), which stretched to their ankles. In cold weather people wore thick wool cloaks. Both sexes wore leather sandals. Clothes were made of linen or wool or sometimes camel hair. Women wore jewelry (if they could afford it!) such as bracelets, anklets, necklaces, pendants and rings.

In Old testament times bread was the main food of ordinary people. Meat was a luxury and only the rich could afford to eat it often. Fine bread made from wheat was expensive. The poor often ate coarse bread made from barley. Grain was ground to flour by women using millstones.

The Israelites were forbidden to eat pork but they did eat beef, goat and mutton. For vegetables they grew beans, cucumbers, garlic, leeks, onions and lentils. They also ate fruit such as figs, pomegranates and grapes as well as nuts like almonds and pistachio nuts. The Israelites also ate cheese and eggs. Fish were also an important part of their diet. Herbs were used to season food and honey was used to sweeten it.

Olives were also an important. They were eaten fresh or pickled. They were also crushed to make olive oil. Everybody drank wine.

People obtained water from wells. They also stored water in cisterns. A cistern was a small underground reservoir shaped like a light bulb with a stone or wooden cover.

Most people in Israel lived by farming. Every year their lives were governed by the same cycle. In autumn they picked olives. In October and November 'early rain' fell after the long dry summer. From November of January the land was plowed and crops of flax (for linen), wheat and barley were sown. From January to March people planted vegetables.

The later rains came in March and April. At that time the people harvested flax. In May and June they harvested barley and wheat. During June, July and August they pruned vines. Grapes were harvested in August and September. So were pomegranates and figs.

Meanwhile shepherds looked after sheep and goats (the two were kept together). Both sheep and goats provided milk. Sheep provided wool and goats hair was used to make coarse cloth. Goat skins were used to make containers for milk, water and wine.

Farmers also kept oxen and asses. Both were used for pulling plows. Oxen also threshed grain by walking on it. Farming was back breaking work in Old Testament times and farmers faced the danger of drought and locusts, which devoured crops.

Although there were no factories in Israel there were industries. Most craftsmen worked in their own homes. Craftsmen included potters, blacksmiths, bronze smiths, goldsmiths and silversmiths. There were also many stonemasons and carpenters.

In Old Testament times most people traveled by foot. Otherwise, if they could afford it the most common means of transport was the donkey. Horses were expensive to keep so they were usually reserved for war although rich people sometimes traveled in horse drawn chariots. Merchants used camels to carry goods and farmers often used carts pulled by donkeys or oxen. There were no proper roads in Old Testament times. They were just dirt tracks and after rain they turned to mud.

The Israelites were not a seafaring people. However King Solomon did build a fleet. At that time ships had only a single mast and a single sail. They were steered by very large oars.

Most Israelite soldiers fought on foot. Kings had chariots and horses but the Israelites usually fought in the hills where chariots were not very practical. (They were far more useful on plains).

The Israelites used bows and arrows and also slings. (The sling is a surprisingly accurate and effective weapon). For hand-to-hand fighting soldiers used axes and clubs. They also threw spears and javelins. At least some soldiers wore armor. They also carried shields made of a wooden frame covered in leather. Towns were protected by walls and kings also built fortresses in key positions.

Lions once lived in Israel in the Jordan Valley. There were also wolves that preyed on sheep. Furthermore there were leopards in Israel and Syrian brown bears, which were sometimes dangerous to human beings. Foxes also lived in Israel. They liked eating fruit and sometimes damaged vines. There were also jackals in Israel as well as deer, gazelles and wild goats.

Many fruit trees grew in Israel, almond, pomegranate and fig trees. There were also date palms.

Oak trees were common in Israel. So were poplars and pine and fir trees grew in the mountains. Acacia trees grew in the desert. Nevertheless Israel was not densely wooded. There were many wild flowers in Israel. Unfortunately there were also thorns and thistles.
A history of Christianity in England A history of Ancient Israel

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The Israelites were monotheists. They worshiped only one God. (Or they were supposed to! They often started worshiping the gods and goddesses of the surrounding peoples). When they traveled out of Egypt to Canaan (modern day Israel) the Israelites worshiped God in a giant tent called the tabernacle.

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The Bible does not say when God created the world. However his greatest creation is man. Human beings are made in the image of God. Unlike animals they can reason and think - and they can also choose to obey or disobey God.

Human beings disobeyed God and as result their relationship with God was broken.

People became evil and God decided to destroy them. However God warned Noah and his family he intended to send a great flood. Noah faithfully built an ark and he and his family and samples of each kind of animal survived.

(?)The Tower of Babel

People attempted to build a huge tower. Their pride offended God and he caused them to speak different languages bringing the work to a halt and making them scatter.
The Bible does not say exactly when Job lived but it was probably at the time of the Patriarchs. He lived in Uz east of the River Jordan
2,166 BC Abraham was born

Abraham was born in the great city of Ur in what is now southern Iraq. Ur was a city-state and it was part of an ancient culture called the Sumerian. Hundreds of years before Abraham was born the Sumerians had become highly civilized.

However Abraham and his father Terah and his wife Sarai (Sarah) moved to the city of Haran in northern Iraq. Haran was a center of trade and it was a rich and flourishing city.

After Terah's death God told Abraham to leave his homeland (modern day Iraq) and go to Canaan (modern day Israel). Abraham faithfully obeyed.

Going to live in Canaan was a big sacrifice for Abraham. Life in Sumerian cities was comfortable for the well off. They lived in large houses of several rooms arranged around a courtyard. They even had bathrooms.

Abraham gave up his life in a sophisticated city and became a nomad living in a tent made of goats hair (It must have been like the difference between staying in a hotel and camping!). Compared to the Sumerians the Canaanites were primitive and their lives were hard and rough. In Canaan Abraham and his descendants raised herds of animals.

2066 BC Abraham and Sarah had a son called Isaac

Both Abraham and Sarah were very old and having a son was a great blessing. His name Isaac means 'he laughs'. When he grew up Isaac married Rebekah.

2006 BC Jacob and his brother Esau were born to Isaac and Rebekah

When they grew up Jacob, with help from his mother, disguised himself as Esau and tricked his father Isaac into blessing him. At that time people believed that if a father blessed his son that son would become the leader of the family after his father's death. Furthermore he would inherit a double portion of his father's property. They also believed that once a blessing was given it could not be withdrawn. A blessing was legally binding.

Fearing his brother would take revenge Jacob fled to his mother's brother Laban. He worked for Laban for 21 years. Finally Jacob returned to Canaan with his two wives and his livestock and was reconciled with his brother.

1915 BC Joseph was born

1898 BC Joseph was sold into slavery

Jacob had 12 sons but Joseph was his favorite. Their father's favoritism made the other brothers jealous. One day they sold Joseph as a slave and told their father Jacob that Joseph was dead. Joseph was taken to and sold to a man named Potiphar.

After being falsely accused by Potiphar's wife Joseph was sent to prison. However God enabled Joseph to interpret dreams. He interpreted those of a butler and a baker. The butler was later released.

Later still Pharaoh had a dream, which no one could interpret. The butler remembered Joseph and suggested he might be able to help. Joseph was summoned and God enabled him to interpret the dream. It foretold seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine.

At that time Egypt was one of the richest and most advanced societies on earth. However farming in Egypt depended on the Nile. Each spring the Nile flooded and deposited a layer of silt over the farmland. If the flood was large the harvest would be good. However if the Nile failed to flood famine would occur. Joseph suggested stockpiling food during the good years and rationing it during the famine years. Pharaoh then made him Vizier, or second in command.

1876 BC Joseph's father and brothers settled in Egypt

Joseph was eventually reconciled with his brothers and the Pharaoh welcomed his family to come and live in Egypt

C. 1600 BC The Israelites were enslaved by the Egyptians

In time the Israelites grew in number and Egyptians were afraid of so many foreigners living among them. They felt that the Israelites were a threat to their internal security so they enslaved them. Pharaoh also ordered the midwives to kill all male children but they disobeyed.

1526 BC Moses was born

An Israelite woman named Jochebed gave birth to a boy and she hid him in a basket on the Nile, among the reeds. Pharaohs daughter found the child and adopted him. However when he grew up Moses killed an Egyptian and was forced to flee from Egypt.

C. 2,000 BC The inhabitants of France and Britain learned to use bronze tools and weapons (rather than stone)

C. 2,000 BC The Minoan civilization arose on the island of Crete.

C. 1600 BC Civilization spread to mainland Greece

C. 1,500 BC The Chinese invented a form of writing using thousands of characters

1446 BC The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt

God appeared to Moses in a burning bush. He told Moses to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt.

Moses and his brother Aaron told Pharaoh God commanded him to let the Israelites go but Pharaoh repeatedly refused so God sent plagues on Egypt.

Pharaoh eventually agreed to let the Israelites go but he soon changed his mind and chased them with his army. However God caused the Red Sea to part, letting the Israelites through. Yet when the Egyptians attempted to follow the waters flowed back into place and they were drowned.

The Israelites then marched through Sinai. When they did so God gave them laws to live by including the 10 commandments.

1444 BC Spies were sent into Canaan

God told Moses to send spies to explore Canaan. Two of them, Joshua and Caleb were convinced they could capture the land. However 10 spies reported that the Canaanites were much too strong to be conquered. The people did not believe that with God on their side they could do it. Instead they rebelled and refused to invade Canaan.

Angry at their lack of faith God declared that nobody over the age of 20 would enter the promised land (except Joshua and Caleb). As a result of their disobedience the Israelites spent 40 years wandering in the desert before they entered Canaan.

1406 BC Moses died and Joshua took over

Finally the Israelites invaded Canaan. At that time Canaan was divided into city-states. Each little country had a fortified city as its center.

The Israelites invaded Canaan from the east across the River Jordan. God caused the River Jordan to dry up to allow the Israelites to pass. They then destroyed the city of Ai.

However the people of Gibeon tricked the Israelites into making a treaty with them. The kings of five cities then attacked the Gibeonites, angry that they had made peace with the invaders. The Gibeonites appealed to Joshua for help so the Israelites fought and defeated the five kings near Gibeon. Afterwards they conquered most of the southern cities of Canaan.

The Israelites then turned north and defeated the northern cities. Joshua then divided up the conquered land between the 12 tribes of Israel.

However not all of Canaan was conquered. The Canaanites still held some areas, including Jerusalem. The remaining Canaanites were a subtle snare to the Israelites. They often led them astray, influencing them to worship idols instead of the true God.

During the period of the judges Israel went in a cycle. Again and again the people drifted away from God and worshiped idols. So God allowed their enemies to defeat them. However when they cried out to God he raised up a judge to lead them and defeat their enemies. Yet each time a judge died they went back to their old ways.
The Bible states that Ruth lived during the time of the Judges but it doesn't say exactly when. Ruth means something worth seeing.
1367-1327 Othniel rules as judge

After Joshua's death the Israelites started worshiping idols. So God allowed the Aramites (a people from southern Syria) to oppress them. However when the Israelites cried out to God he raised up Othniel to lead them. The Israelites overpowered the Aramites and Othniel ruled for 40 years. His name Othniel means lion of God.

1316-1236 Ehud saved the Israelites from the Moabites, the Ammonites and the Amalekites. Afterwards Israel had peace for 80 years.

1209 Deborah defeated the Canaanites

The Israelites went back to worshiping idols and doing evil so God allowed Jabin the king of Hazor (a Canaanite city in the north of what is now Israel) to oppress them. However a judge named Deborah led the Israelites and they crushed the Canaanites in battle.

1162 Gideon defeated the Midianites

Once again the Israelites returned to their sinful way so God allowed the Midianites to oppress them. (The Midianites came from Arabia and they rode camels). Once again the Israelites cried out to God and he raised up Gideon.

Gideon raised an army but God said there were too many of them. God wanted to make it clear it was him who defeated the Midianites. It was not due to the skill or courage of the Israelites. So God cut down Gideon's army until there were only 300 men left.

They carried trumpets and jars with torches inside. At night they crept up to the Midianite camp. They blew their trumpets and smashed their jars and showed their torches. Panic-stricken the Midianites began fighting each other. They then fled and an army of Israelites pursued them.

C. 1105 The prophet Samuel was born

During his lifetimes the Israelites fought the Philistines. They were originally from Crete and they invaded Canaan from the sea. The Philistines lived in Southwest Canaan and they fought the Israelites as both peoples tried to dominate the region.

The Philistines won a great battle and they captured the Ark of the Covenant. However God sent an epidemic to punish them so the Philistines sent the ark back.

Some years later the Israelites returned to God and put away their idols. As a result they crushed the Philistines at the battle of Mezpah.

C. 1078-1072 Jephhah the judge defeated the Ammonites

C. 1250 BC In England Stonehenge was built in stages over a thousand years. It was completed at this time.

C. 1200 BC The Greeks fought the Trojans

C. 1200 BC A people called the Olmecs created a civilization in Mexico. It was the first civilization in the Western Hemisphere.

1050 Saul became king

Until then the Israelites were divided into twelve tribes. However the people demanded a king to rule over them. So Samuel anointed Saul as the first king of Israel. Saul first defeated the Ammonites (a people who lived Northeast of the Dead Sea). He also fought a series of wars against the Philistines.

However Saul disobeyed God. Through Samuel God told him to destroy the Amalekites. God told him to kill them all and to kill all their cattle, sheep, camels and donkeys. Yet Saul spared the life of Agag, king of the Amalekites and he kept the best of the animals alive.

So Samuel told Saul that God had rejected him. Samuel then anointed a shepherd boy called David king of Israel. (Nevertheless Saul continued to reign as king for the rest of his life).

David killed Goliath the Philistine champion and he became a hero. Saul grew very jealous of David and tried to kill him so David was forced to flee.

1010 Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in a battle with the Philistines

1010-1003 David was king of Judah

After Saul's death David was accepted as king by the tribe of Judah but at first he was not accepted by the rest of Israel

1003 David became king of all Israel

Eventually all the tribes accepted David as king. Furthermore David captured Jerusalem from a people called the Jebusites.

In a series of wars David also defeated the Philistines and the Moabites (people who lived east of the Dead Sea). He also defeated the Aramites from southern Syria and the Ammonites from Northeast of the Dead Sea. David also conquered the Edomites, who lived South of the Dead Sea. By the time David died in 970 Israel was a strong and secure kingdom.

970-930 Solomon was king of Israel

During Solomon's reign Israel became a rich country. Solomon built a great palace for himself. He also built a magnificent temple in Jerusalem. However Solomon also alienated the people by imposing heavy taxes and using forced labour.

930 Solomon died and Rehoboam became king

The Israelites appealed to Rehoboam to reduce the burdens his father laid on them but he refused. As a result the kingdom split. Judah and Benjamin formed the kingdom of Judah in the south with Jerusalem as its capital. Rehoboam continued to rule in Judah.

However in the north 10 tribes broke away and formed a kingdom they called Israel. Its capital was, at first, at Shechem and later at Samaria. Jeroboam was its first king.

After the split both kingdoms drifted away from God and turned to worshiping idols.

874-853 Ahab ruled the kingdom of Israel

Ahab was a wicked man. He married an evil woman from Sidon (in modern day Lebanon) called Jezebel. Ahab also worshiped Baal the weather god and built a temple for him. Furthermore Jezebel killed many of God's prophets.

However the prophet Elijah asked the people to put Baal and God to the test to see which one was real. God proved he was real by sending fire from Heaven and the people killed the prophets of Baal. However they soon slipped back into idolatry. Eventually Ahab was killed in a battle with the Syrians.

Elijah was later taken up to Heaven in a chariot of fire and the prophet Elisha took his place.

841-814 Jehu ruled Israel

He killed all of Ahab's family. He also killed the priests of Baal and the destroyed the priests of Baal. However Jehu was not a truly good man and he served God half-heartedly.

C 800 BC The Assyrians became a threat to Israel

The Assyrians came from northern Iraq. After 900 BC they began building a great empire. The Assyrians were formidable soldiers but they were also infamous for their cruelty.

C. 785-775 The prophet Jonah lived around this time. Jonah means dove.

C. 760-750 BC The prophet Amos lived around this time. Amos means one with a burden.

During Amos's lifetime Israel was a rich kingdom. However the wealth was very unevenly distributed. Amos was appalled by the oppression of the poor by the rich and he demanded social justice.

740-686 The prophet Micah lived in Judah Micah strongly criticized the rich for oppressing the poor

c. 750-715 The prophet Hosea appealed to the people of Israel to stop worshiping idols and return to God

740-681 The great prophet Isaiah lived in Judah

738 The Assyrians captured Galilee (the northern part of Israel) and deported many of the inhabitants to other parts of their empire

725 Shalmaneser, ruler of the Assyrians captured Hoshea the last king of Israel

722 After a 3 year siege the Assyrians captured Samaria, the capital of Israel

The Assyrians deported many of the Israelites from Samaria to other parts of their empire. Only the poorest Israelites were left behind.

The Assyrians also brought people from other parts of their empire to live in Samaria (the central part of what is now Israel south of Galilee and north of Judah). However these people did not know what the God of Israel required so he sent lions to kill some of them. When this was reported to the Assyrian king he sent one of the priests from Samaria to teach them to worship God.

These newcomers intermarried with the Israelites who had been left behind and their descendants became the Samaritans.

(At the time of Jesus Jews despised the Samaritans because they were 'impure'. Although they worshiped God they were not true Jews).

715-686 Hezekiah was king of Judah Hezekiah was a good man who trusted God and removed idols

701 Sennacherib the ruler of the Assyrians besieged Jerusalem

The Assyrians boasted that no god had ever been able to save his people from their army. However during the night God killed many thousands of the Assyrian soldiers camped outside Jerusalem, saving the city.

686-642 Manasseh was king of Judah. Manasseh was an evil king who worshiped idols

C. 640-609 At this time Zephaniah prophesied that God would judge the surrounding nations

The prophet Zephaniah prophesied that the Assyrians, the Philistines, Moabites and Ammonites would all be judged. (Later they were destroyed by the Babylonians)

C. 630 The prophet Nahum prophesied that Assyria would be destroyed

625 Babylon, one of the cities ruled by the Assyrians rebelled

612 The Assyrians were destroyed

The Babylonians and a people called the Medes from what is now Iran destroyed Nineveh the capital of the Assyrian Empire. So the Assyrian Empire came to an end.

However the Babylonians then began to conquer the peoples previously ruled by the Assyrians. The Babylonians created their own empire to replace the Assyrian one and in time they turned their eyes on Judah.

640-609 Josiah was king of Israel

Josiah was a good man who ordered men to repair God's temple in Jerusalem. By accident they found part of the Old Testament there and Josiah tried to enforce all of its requirements. Josiah tried to rid his kingdom of idols. Unfortunately after his death the people went back to worshiping idols.

C. 605 God warned the prophet Habakkuk that he was going to use the Babylonians to punish Judah

C. 605-586 The prophet Obadiah prophesied the destruction of the Edomites. (They were destroyed by the Babylonians).

626-586 The prophet Jeremiah lived at this time

Jeremiah prophesied the destruction of Judah as a judgement for her sins.

597 The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem

This time they took the king of Judah, Jehoiachin, prisoner and they placed Zedekiah on the throne as a puppet king. However Zedekiah rebelled and appealed to the Egyptians for help.

C. 900 BC The first civilization in South America arose, in Peru

C. 750 BC Rome was founded

C 650 BC A people called the Celts arrived in Britain. They introduced iron tools and weapons.

587 The Babylonians captured Jerusalem again

Zedekiah was blinded and led away in chains. However this time the Babylonians deported all but the poorest people in Judah to other parts of the Babylonian Empire. They also plundered the temple in Jerusalem.

C. 571 While the Jews were in exile in Babylon Ezekiel had a series of visions

C. 571 The prophet Daniel served the king of Babylon

In the Babylonian Empire the Jews lived in their own settlements. They were allowed to keep their own religion and customs. Some Jews rose to high positions in Babylon. One such was Daniel.

During his time king Nebuchadnezzar had a dream. God revealed to Daniel what the dream was and what it meant. It was a prophetic dream about a series of empires.

Later Daniel himself had a dream about four animals, each representing empires. The message of the dreams was that God is in control of the rise and fall of all empires.

539 The captured Babylon bringing the Babylonian Empire to an end.

However the Persians conquered the people previously ruled by the Babylonians and they created their own empire to replace the Babylonian Empire. The Persians were a tolerant people and they allowed each part of their empire a certain amount of independence.

538 Cyrus, king of Persia allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the temple in Jerusalem

536 Rebuilding the temple began

However the Samaritans offered to help. Zerubbabel the leader of the Israelites refused. However work soon stopped because of opposition from the Samaritans who were angry at being excluded from the work.

C. 520 The prophets Zechariah and Haggai encouraged people to rebuild the temple

Work on the temple then began again

516 The Temple was completed

C. 475 A woman named Esther bravely risked her life to save her people. Esther means star.

458 Ezra led another group of Jews to Jerusalem.

Ezra found out that some Jews had married non-Jews. He commanded the people to separate from their non-Jewish wives.

445 Nehemiah led more Jews to Jerusalem

Led by Nehemiah the Jews rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem

C. 430 BC Malachi, the last Old Testament prophet lived at this time. Malachai means messenger.

334 BC Alexander the Great invaded the Persian Empire

Alexander quickly conquered what is now Israel. Later he completely destroyed the Persian Empire.

However Alexander died in 323 without an heir. His empire was then divided among his generals. A Greek general called Ptolemy took Egypt and Israel.

198 BC The Seleucids captured Israel

After Alexander's death a general called Seleucus took Syria and Iraq. His descendants, the Seleucids later took Israel.

168 BC A Seleucid named Antiochus Epiphanes (175-163) defiled the temple

He sacrificed to Zeus in the temple and tried to ban the Jewish religion. As a result the Jews rose in rebellion.

162 BC After Antiochus the next Seleucid ruler granted the Jews religious freedom. However some Jews continued to fight for independence.

142 BC The Jews won their independence. However it did not last long as Rome was growing increasingly powerful.

63 BC The Roman general Ptolemy captured Jerusalem. From this time Israel was ruled by the Romans. It was divided into three parts, Galilee in the north, Samaria in the middle and Judea in the south.

551 BC - 479 BC Confucius lived in China

221 BC Work began on the Great Wall of China

384-322 BC The Greek philosopher Aristotle lived

202 BC The Romans defeated the Carthaginians (from North Africa) at the battle of Zama. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general later committed suicide. The Romans became the dominant power in the Mediterranean.

44 BC Julius Caesar was assassinated

30 BC Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire

31 BC - 14 BC Octavian was ruler of the Roman Empire (From 27 BC he called himself Augustus Caesar)

37 BC-4 BC The Romans allowed Herod the Great to reign as a puppet king in Judea.

Herod was a cruel man but he tried to please the Jews by beginning to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. After his death one of Herod's sons, called Herod Archelaus ruled Judea. However he was so bad that in 6 AD the Romans removed him and replaced him with a Roman governor or procurator.

4 BC-39 AD Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great ruled Galilee (the northern part of what is now Israel). Jesus called him 'that fox'. Herod Antipas had John the Baptist beheaded.

C. 4 BC Jesus was born in Bethlehem

His family fled to Egypt to escape Herod but soon returned to Israel. Jesus grew up in Nazareth in Galilee.

26-36 AD Pontius Pilate was governor or procurator of Judea

c. 27-30 AD Jesus preached, healed the sick and cast out demons

C. 30 AD Jesus was crucified but after 3 days he rose from the dead. Later he ascended to Heaven.

C 35 AD Saul was converted and changed his name to Paul

37 - 41 AD Caligula was Roman Emperor

C 46-48 AD Paul and Barnabas sailed to Cyprus and what is now Turkey

C. 48-51 AD Paul and Silas traveled to Turkey and Greece

53-57 AD Paul made a third journey to Turkey and Greece

54-68 AD Nero was Roman Emperor He cruelly persecuted Christians

C. 58-60 AD Paul was arrested and spent two years in prison

Paul appealed to Caesar and was sent to Rome by ship (on the way he was shipwrecked at Malta)

66 AD The Jews rebelled against the Romans

C. 67 AD Paul was martyred

70 AD Jerusalem was destroyed

81-96 AD Domitian was Roman Emperor. He unleashed a wave of persecution against Christians.

90-95 AD John was exiled on the island of Patmos

C 95 Revelation, the last book of the Bible was written

43 AD The Romans invaded Britain

c. 50 AD The Romans founded London

61 AD A woman named Bouddica led a rebellion against the Romans in England but she was defeated
A History of Angels A History of Christianity in England Famous Christian Women A Timeline of Christianity

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The Bible does not say when God created the world. However his greatest creation is man. Human beings are made in the image of God. Unlike animals they can reason and think - and they can also choose to obey or disobey God. Human beings disobeyed God and as result their relationship with God was broken.

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I. TITLE:

A. Hebrew: In MT the book is called <yr!yV!h^ ryv! from the first words of the book ("The song of Songs which is by Solomon" or "The Best of Songs ...").

B. Greek: In The LXX the book is called ASMA (the Song) from the first words of the book ("The Song of songs, which is Solomon's").

C. In the Latin Vulgate the Book is Titled Canticum Canticorum which is "Song of Songs." It is from the Latin that the title Canticles is derived.

II. AUTHOR: Solomon

A. Internal Evidence:

1. The book is ascribed to Solomon with the hm=)Ov=l! (as with the Davidic psalms) 1:1

2. Six other verses in the book refer to Solomon by name (1;5; 3:7, 9, 11; 8:11-12)

3. The writer is referred to as the "king" in 1:4, 12; 3:9, 11; 7:5

4. There is considerable similarity between vocabulary and syntax between Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes which was also by Solomon (see introductory notes on Ecclesiastes

5. The author's correspondence with natural history corresponds to the report about him in 1 Kings 4:33 (cf. Song of Solomon 1:14; 2:1; twenty-one varieties of plant life, fifteen species of animals, his interest in cavalry [1:9; cf. 1 Ki 10:28])

6. The book speaks of royal luxury and abundance which Solomon would have enjoyed (1:12, 13; 3:6, 9; and imported goods such as cosmetic powders, silver, gold, purple, ivory, and beryl, his expensive carriage [3:7-10], his royal chariots [6:12])

7. The geographical references favor a date prior to 930 B.C.
Archer writes, "The author mentions quite indiscriminately localities to be found in both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms: Engedi, Hermon, Carmel, Lebanon, Heshbon, and Jerusalem. These are spoken of as if they all belonged to the same political realm. Note that Tirzah is mentioned as a city of particular glory and beauty, and that too in the same breath with Jerusalem itself (6:4). If this had been written after the time when Tirzah was chosen as the earliest capital of the Northern Kingdom in rejection of the authority of the dynasty of David, it is scarcely conceivable that it would have been referred to in such favorable terms. On the other hand, it is highly significant that Samaria, the city founded by Omri sometime between 885 and 874, is never mentioned in the Song of Solomon"
Judging from internal evidence, then, the author was totally unaware of any division of the Hebrew monarchy into North and South. This can only be reconciled with a date of composition in the tenth century, prior to 931 B.C. Even after the return from exile, no Jew of the province of Judea would have referred so indiscriminately to prominent localities in the non-Jewish areas of Palestine which were by this time under Gentile or Samaritan overlordship. It is true that this whole area was reunited under the rule of the Hasmonean kings, John Hyrcanus and Alexander Jamnaeus, but the evidence of the Qumran fragments from Cave IV indicates that Canticles was already in written form at least as early as the outbreak of the Maccabean revolt in 168 B.C.

B. External Evidence:

1. Solomonic authorship has been the unified tradition of the Christian church until modern times

2. Recently Delitzsch, Raven, Steimmueller, and Young have all held to Solomonic authorship

III. DATE: Tenth Century B.C. (971-931 B.C.)

A. Because many scholars deny Solomonic authorship of the book, they date it considerably later than the tenth century B.C.

B. Some date it as preexilic--before 600 B.C. with King Hezekiah as the king of Judah (cf. Prov 25:1; cf. 2 Chron 32:27-29)

1. R. Smith

2. R. Driver

3. Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament, 300.

C. Some date it as postexilic or even Hellenistic

1. Kuenen, Cornill, Cheyne, Budde, Kautzsch, Eissfeldt

2. Baumgartner dates the book as late third century B.C.

D. Late dates are primarily supported for linguistic reasons:

1. The use of se- instead of as a relative pronoun. But this was also used in Ecclesiastes, the song of Deborah (Judges 5), elsewhere in Judges, Job 19:29; 2 Kings 6:11, once in Jonah, in Lamentations, and in various psalms.
It may have been an acceptable substitute for in poetic writings

2. The presence of Aramaisms is taken to support a postexilic authorship. But they may have been brought to the Hebrew language early (see Esther) or they may represent a Northern Israelite coloring

3. Although some words are said to have been derived from Greek, they could have come from Solomon's trade contacts with India

E. In view of the above arguments on authorship, and plausible answers to objections, it seems reasonable to affirm that Song of Songs was written in the tenth century B.C. during Solomon's reign (between 971 and 931 B.C.)
Deer writes, "Some wonder how Solomon could be the author of a book that extols faithfulness in marriage when he was so unfaithful, having 700 wives and 300 concubines (1 Kings 11:3). Perhaps the answer is that the 'beloved' in the Song whom he married was his first wife. If so, then the book may have been written soon after his marriage, before he fell into the sin of polygamy"

IV. CANON:

A. History of Development

1. The Hebrew Scriptures were probably originally canonized into a two-fold division: the Law and the Prophets

2. By around the second century B.C. a three-fold division of the Hebrew Scriptures arose: The Law, The Prophets, and The Writings

a. The three-fold division included the same books as the two-fold division

b. There are several possible reasons for a three-fold division:

1) A distinction was made between books which were written by men who held the prophetic office, and men who only had the prophetic gift>

2) Some at a later date may have felt that those books which were not written by "prophets" were not fully canonical>

3) A more practical purpose was served by the topical and festal significance rather than by the two-fold categories>

3. Within the category of the Sacred Writings, the books of Psalms, Proverbs and Job were regarded by the Jews as specifically poetical in nature, and were described by the mnemonic title "The Book of Truth"

4. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (The Septuagint or LXX c. 280-150 B.C.) divided the Old Testament according to subject matter which is the basis of the modern four-fold classification of the: five books of Law, twelve books of History, five books of Poetry, and seventeen books of Prophecy

B. Some think that Song of Songs was listed in the Hebrew Canon with the five Antilegomena (Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, Ecclesiastes) because it was considered to lack religious value, but this was not the case (see above).

C. Song of Songs is not mentioned by the Alexandrian Jew Philo nor in the New Testament

D. Song of Songs was first identified in 4 Esdras 5:24-26; 7:26 (70-130 A.D.)

E. In the Mishnah Ta'anith 4:8 affirms that certain portions of Song of Songs were used in festival that were celebrated in the temple before A.D. 70.

F. In A.D. 90 the scholars of Jamnia debated the place of Song of Songs in the Hebrew canon, but Rabbi Akiba upheld its divine inspiration using allegorical interpretation as a means to justify its spiritual value

G. It is placed among the books of wisdom and poetry in the Septuagint and most English versions (see above)

V. UNITY OF THE BOOK: Jack Deere argues that the book is not an anthology of love songs without connection or lessons, but is a unified whole in the following ways:

A. "The same characters are seen throughout the book (the beloved maiden, the lover, and the daughters of Jerusalem).

B. Similar expressions and figures of speech are used throughout the book. Examples are love more delightful than wine (1:2; 4:10), fragrant perfumes (1:3, 12; 3:6; 4:10), the beloved's cheeks (1:10; 5:13), her eyes like doves (1:15; 4:1), her teeth like sheep (4:2; 6:6), her charge to the daughters of Jerusalem (2:7; 3:5; 8:4), the lover like a gazelle (2:9, 17; 8:14), Lebanon (3:9; 4:8, 11, 15; 7:4), and numerous reference to nature.

C. Hebrew grammatical peculiarities found only in this book suggest a single author.

D. The progression in the subject matter points to a single work, not an anthology. As stated earlier, the book moves logically from the courtship (1:2--3:5) to the wedding night (3:6--5:1) to the maturation in marriage (5:2--8:4)."

VI. THEORIES OF INTERPRETATION:

A. Allegory

1. The details of the book convey hidden meaning which has little or no connection with the normal meaning of the words; the interpretation is not connected with the author's intended meaning (as found in the words of the text)

2. While Jewish scholars have interpreted the book as God's love for Israel, Christian scholars have interpreted the book as God's love for the church

3. The allegorical interpretation requires a spiritual counterpart for every physical detail; it is objectionable to equate Solomon and his herem to Christ

4. Child's writes, "Again, recognition of Song of Songs as wisdom runs counter to allegorical interpretation (cf. especially Audet). This traditional method seeks to transfer the Song into a different genre of biblical literature. By interpreting the Song's imagery primarily within the framework of prophetic literature, the book is made to symbolize the prophetic themes of God's love for his people, of the new exodus, etc. But these are precisely the themes which are missing in the wisdom corpus."

B. An Extended Type (where Solomon typifies Christ and the beloved typifies the church)

1. Here Solomon is understood to be a historical person

2. Here one does not seek to discover a mystical meaning for every detail that does not coincide with the normal meaning of the words

3. However, there is no Scriptural reason for understanding Solomon to typify a relationship which God will have with his people

C. A Drama (involving two or three characters)

1. This view has been part of church tradition since the third century A.D.

2. This view is based largely on the Greek tragic drama which developed in the sixth century B.C.

3. The play is usually outlined in six acts with two scenes each

4. The literary genre of a fully developed "drama" was not yet known among the Hebrews or the Ancient Near East

5. The book cannot be analyzed into acts and scenes as a drama can

6. The three character view is often a part of this interpretive theory (see below for further discussion)

D. A Collection of Syrian Weddings Songs (where the groom played the role of the King and the bride played the role of the Queen)

E. A Collection of Pagan Fertility Cult Liturgies

1. This is a Hebrew adaptation of the Mesopotamian fertility cult liturgy

2. The word for "beloved" is thought to be a reference to the god Dod (in 5:9 at least), they Syro-Palestinian expression of Tammuz in the Sumero-Akkadian Tammuz-Ishtar cult

3. Hill and Walton write, "The annual ritual was a reenactment of the ancient myth recounting the goddess Ishtar's search for her dead lover in the netherworld, finally restoring him to life through sexual union and thus ensuring the continued fertility of the creation. It is assumed that the cultic associations of the Song were forgotten or consciously changed to make the book acceptable to the Israelite faith"

4. But the motif of a dying and rising god is missing in the Song of Songs

5. It would be unlikely that such a piece would have been allowed to enter the canon

6. "The subtle use of erotic imagery in the biblical poem is far removed from the crass 'explanations' of the books' alleged original meaning"

7. Child's writes, "to seek to understand the Song of Songs as cultic moves the book from its place within wisdom into the context of ancient Near Eastern mythology and disregards the function which the canon has assigned it"

F. An Anthology of Disconnected Songs (promoting human love)

1. These were a series of nuptial poems much like the Arabic wasf for wedding ceremonies

2. The songs were formalized into a single cycle that were incorporated into the Hebrew wedding ceremony

3. Child's writes, "By ordering the Song within wisdom literature certain other alternative contexts for interpreting it are ruled out. Thus, for example, the Song is not to be understood simply as secular songs which have only superficially been offered as sacred meaning. Rowley's naturalistic interpretation badly misses the point. The polarity of 'secular versus sacred' is alien from the start to the categories of Hebrew wisdom. Rather, reflection on human experience without resort to the religious language of Israel's traditional institutions of law, cult, and prophecy is characteristic of wisdom, and is by no means a sign of secular origin"

G. A Poetic Song of Wisdom (which provides skill for resolving conflict in the ultimate relationship of marriage)

1. The book's superscription as "The most excellent song of Solomon" places it in the category of wisdom literature

2. Within this view there are two other views: a three-character love story (Woman, Shepherd-Lover, King) and a two-character love story (Woman and King).

a. The three-character view is possible but it is questionable because to do so requires an artificial parceling out of the verses between the King and the Shepherd

b. There is no problem in viewing Solomon as a shepherd since he owned many flocks (Eccl 2:7)

VII. PURPOSES:

A. To extol sexual love between a man and a woman united in marriage

B. Hill and Walton affirm that "The book is likely a northern kingdom satire on the reign of Solomon and his exploitation of women (ironically to his own demise) and a memorializing of the exemplary character of the Shulammite maiden who rejected the wooing of the king out of faithfulness to her common-lover"

C. To affirm God's design for sexuality between a man and a woman

D. To unfold the maturing of a relationship between a man and a woman before, at, and after marriage

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A. Hebrew: In MT the book is called <yr!yV!h^ ryv! from the first words of the book ("The song of Songs which is by Solomon" or "The Best of Songs ..."). B. Greek: In The LXX the book is called ASMA (the Song) from the first words of the book ("The Song of songs, which is Solomon's").