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Melissa PeickUW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research VIII (2005)

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Melissa PeickUW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research VIII (2005)

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Non verbal communication of dance among individuals in a social setting

gain understanding of message-related behaviour, to explain how dance is a communicative phenomenon

Messages may be intentional or unintentional in a variety of social contexts

Socialise, flirt, attract others

Dancing instigates affective transformations, changing mental structures and spatial meanings (Brabazon 1998)

Change moods, force of attraction, influence perceptions

60-65% of social meaning derived from nonverbal behaviours (DeVito, Guerrero & Hecht, 1999)

codes of space, touch, facial expressions and eye contact

Proxemics/haptics/kinesics

Haptics = touching and physical context. revealing dance moves can show confidence/lack of it. Touch behaviour is used less frequently by individuals who are anxious/lacking in self esteem (Guerrero & Andersen 1991)

Haptics and proxemics are prominent codes as we interpret social interactions

Kinesics = facial movements and eye contact/gaze. Immediacy cues, signal psychological and/or physical closeness, indicate communication availability and increase sensory stimulation (Andersen 1985)

Nonverbal involvement reflects an individuals level of activity and interest in social interaction (Cegala, 1981)

Relational factors = the type of relationship between people interacting and the stage of the relationship. Differences in nonverbal comms show that relational context affects how people send and interpret messages (DeVito, et al.,1999)

Situational factors = influence performance evaluation of nonverbal messages (DeVito, et al.,1999). They influence how people react, include environment in which a person interacts, the type of situation, timing of the interaction and the temporary states such as moods (DeVito, et al.,1999)

Case study: types of situation in a bar, where nonverbal comm and codes have been looked at in a general context.

Confidence on the dance floor is very evident

Self-conscious dancers dance in the corner, moving very stiffly because they're afraid of what people are going to say or think

Dancers try to make sense of the situation by realising that its normal to have this sort of proximity on the dance floor

<Dance as nonverbal context> When dancing, sometimes personal space can be invaded. Social distances (4-12 feet) but on dance floor all this changes.

Rhythm and dance should be taken seriously as a form of communication, a performance of particular meanings, sensibilities, epistemologies and social relations (Rogers, 1998, p.23)

<Theory of Sense-Making> helps to explain human activity and the way in which people make "sense" of their surroundings. A set of meta-theoretic assumptions about the nature of information, the nature of human use of information and the nature of human comms (Dervin, 1989)

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Darold R. BeckmanElementary English , FEBRUARY, 1963, Vol. 40, No. 2 (FEBRUARY, 1963), pp. 191-193, 218National Council of Teachers of English

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Darold R. BeckmanElementary English , FEBRUARY, 1963, Vol. 40, No. 2 (FEBRUARY, 1963), pp. 191-193, 218National Council of Teachers of English

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Nonverbal comms is the first form of comm in the development of children

It becomes refined, transformed, and blended into the whole pattern of communication

It may also affect personality, growth, sensitivity to the natural and social environment, ability to think critically and depth of creativity

Extensive use of nonverbal comms in primitive societies is mostly magical and inaccurate but words have similar distortions in such cultures

There are nonverbal aspects in each area of verbal comms. It contributes to raising the qualitative level of info communicated

<Examples> Weather maps, propaganda, adverts, neon and flashing lights

Reading = defined as the skill of perceiving meaning by visual process, both verbal and nonverbal. Involves critical judgement which may be blocked by verbalisms

An active process that involves imagery and critical evaluation

Novels more popular than poems maybe due to the loss of sensitivity to the nonverbal sub-stratum of imagery among population

Novels over elaborate in description and exposition,, leaving less active participation on the reader's part

Poetry is selective, heightened emotional comms, requiring mental work

When verbalisation is considered as a complete art in itself, reading is handicapped

Excess drill in phonics and word structure and emphasis on speed kills sensitivity to meaning, making poetry barren, leaving children devoid of imagery

"Reading between the lines" is higher level thinking, some nonverbal and involves rich experiential background

Establish habits of doubting, checking authoritative sources, examining the motives of writers, and studying the emotional connotations of words

Society tends to downgrade nonverbal communication

Children generally not taught not use nonverbal techniques in their writing

Objective should be to teach "we don't write with words alone"

"zoo and thunder" language does not meet with the teacher's complete approval

Eventually learns that nonverbal comms is not so acceptable to an adult public

Listening = oral perception of all the symbols of comms, verbal and nonverbal. It is a complex listening-reading process of perceiving, using every sense organ which is pertinent to the meaning-gathering activity

It is superficial to think that nonverbal comms is part of the four respected areas of language arts (reading, writing, speaking, listening). Comms concerns all senses in sending and receiving info

Nonverbal comms should be sufficiently understood so teachers will accept its unique values and sensitive relations to personality development

Recognised for its close ties to the social and natural experiences of children. respected for the emotional tones it imparts to the whole are of language arts

It is the "sensing" level for speaking and listening, for reading and writing. In that role it helps to unify the language arts

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Joseph Kevin FordThe Choral Journal , AUGUST 2001, Vol. 42, No. 1 (AUGUST 2001), pp. 17-23American Choral Directors Association

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Joseph Kevin FordThe Choral Journal , AUGUST 2001, Vol. 42, No. 1 (AUGUST 2001), pp. 17-23American Choral Directors Association

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All societies use gestures as tools for communication, but gestures do not have universal meaning

Conscious and unconscious gestures

The subtle and complex subject of facial affect displayed alone has a great impact on the communication and the believability of conducting

<Gesture-Specific Nonverbal Comms in Society> descriptions of gesture appear in documents as old as the bible

Institutio Oratoria for orators by Spaniard Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (first recorded public professor of rhetoric in Rome)

Chirologica: or the Natural Language of the Hand, Chironomia: or the Art of Manual Rhetoric by Englishman John Bulwer in 1644

The Expression of the Emotions of Man and Animals by Charles Darwin, 19th century. Suggest some of man's gestural language might have biological basis (reinforce Bulwer's assumption that there's a universal gestural language, Ray L. Birdwhistell American anthropologist who founded kinesics as a field of inquiry and research, defers aying that unconscious gesture are learned behaviors)

Jean-Claude Schmitt divided use of gesture into 3 notions

Expressivity = gestures were considered expressions of the inner movements of the soul, of feelings, moral values of individuals

Efficacy = technical gestures of performing tasks like writing, sweeping, sawing, and symbolic efficacy of political or sacramental rituals

Nonverbal comms = evolved out of the ancient discipline of rhetoric as described by Quintilian, are of use just shifted from stage to the church

<Regional Differences in Gesture> Englishman Desmond Morris observed that many gestures had different meanings in different societies

<The Codification of Gesture>

Kinesics = the study of nonverbal comm behaviours

<American researcher Walburga von Raffler-Engel> "The term Kinesics should be restricted to message-related movements of the eye and parts of the body as they relate to an interactional exchange of a message, either in regulating that exchange or in supplying information about its message."

Generally grouped into Proxemics = the stance and orientation of the position of the bodies of the interactants

Posture = inclination of torso

Head movement = nodding, shaking

Facial Mimicry

Eye gaze = the movement and fixation of the eyes

Hand and arm gestures = motion of the shoulders like shrug

Figurations = with fingers

Haptics = touch behaviour

Movement of the legs

<Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen> codified 5 diff class of behaviours

Emblems = any action that has specific meaning to a specific culture (shaking head yes/no, shrugging shoulders unsure)

Body manipulation = involve 1 part of the body interacting with another body part (wringing hands, scratching head)

Illustrators = movements typically with hands and arms which are connected to content/flow of speech

Emblems differ from illustrators in that they are often used in place of conversation/when conversation is not possible or chosen

<Illustrators>

Batons / Beats = Movements that accent a particular word

Underliners = Movements that emphasise a phrase, clause, sentence or group of sentences

Ideographs = Movements that sketch the path of direction of thought

Kinetographs = Movements that depict a bodily action/nonhuman action

PIctographs = Movements that draw the shape of the referent in the air

Rhythmics = Movements that depict the rhythm or pacing of an event

Spatials = Movements that depict a spatial rs

Deictics = Movements that point to the referent

<David McNeill> Prof of psychology and linguistics refines Ekman's list

Metaphoric gestures = abstract concept, pictorial

Iconics = closely related to the semantic content of speech. Generally exhibit the same movement as that referred to in the verbalisation, pictorial

Batons / Beats = Resemble someone beating time in music, accent/emphasise the word they accompany

Cohesives = gestures used to tie thoughts together or fill in gaps while the person is searching for the correct word

Deictics = pointing gestures

<The Impact of Gesture on Thought and Speech>

Beats / Batons = "Global and synthetic, never hierarchical"-McNeill

Global = whole gesture determines the meaning of the parts of the gesture

Synthetic = gesture can represent multiple meanings

But gestures cannot be combined to form a compound thought. Specific to the context and serve to highlight the relevant and important parts of the comm

Emblems, Pantomimes = Occur in silence and all other gestures that must accompany speech

Gesture and speech are coexpressive, they express the same thing at the same time (synchronous)

<3 Parts of Gestures>

The preparation (preparatory beat)

The stroke (ictus)

The retraction (rebound of conducting gesture)

"Gestures are not the product of a linear-segmented verbal plan. They are closely linked to speech" - McNeill

Believes that gesture and words are both equal products and reflections of the thought they are called upon to express

Believes gestures actually impact thought, combined with language, constitutes a more complete thought.

"Thought is multidimensional, a dialectic of speech and gesture means some dimensions of thought are presented in the gesture and others in linguistic form. Synthesis where language and gestures are combined into one unified presentation of meaning where listener and speaker is affected"

Gestures are an integral part of the thought process and not superfluous embellishments that accompany speech (example studied is mathematician giving speech but say wrong thing but do correct gesture. The gesture did not contain the error)

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<Possible Uses of Nonverbal Gesture in Conducting>

Interference = Mixed-message sending. communicative difficulty that occurs when 2 people do not completely/partially understand the other's system of communication

Iconics gestures = ability to articulate what, from the speaker's POV are only the relevant features in the context of speaking. Lets us observe thoughts as they occur because they are unconstrained by systems of rules and standards.

Not forced to include features solely to meet standards of form.

"They are the closest look at the ideas of another person that the observer can get"

<Example> Person climbing ladder, hand raises up to also show direction

Metaphoric gestures = presents imagery but of an abstract concept. Seems to be more culturally specific.

<Example> Conductor want one note to lead into another, using the hand to grasp the note and transport it to the place in the conducting pattern

Beats / Batons = movements that do not present a discernible meaning, recognised positively in terms of their prototypical movement characteristics.

<Example> Conductor uses larger "beat" to emphasise climax of phrase/word

Cohesives and Deitics

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Mirela Arsith, Daniela Aurelia Popa Tănase

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Mirela Arsith, Daniela Aurelia Popa Tănase

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Through dance, communication blockages are overcome.

Movement and gestures, expressive or symbolic, along with certain postures can "communicate" emotions, feelings, attitudes, giving us access to the inner world of the dancer

Nonverbal comms involves a coding that is done by voluntary/involuntary contraction of muscles, using time and space, artefacts, etc

"Passing information and influencing individuals through physical and behavioural reactions - Miles L. Patterson

Feelings are communicated by non-verbal signals rather than words, revealing even more than what the person living them intends.

Signification of the transmitted sign is determined by the concrete social and cultural context and with a certain degree of possibility

Behavioural indicators = tell us a person's expression/ position. Must communicate the environment of origin/education/ thoughts/mood/intentions of the people

"The man, face to face with his fellow men, through his attitude and attitude, oscillates between distance and proximity. If the man opens, his body is appealing, if closes his body is aversive."

Appealing = sends out acceptance, sympathy, interest, truth

Aversive = communicates rejection, dislike, boredom, disappointment

"The language of the body is the window to a person's mind"- James Borg

The essence of interpreting body language is "reading" the experience, feelings, attitudes of a person

Hands are most expressive and communicative part of the body

Feet can communicate openness/discomfort

Also communicating through the way we use certain space

Posture gives info about the status that a person has or wants to own, related to the fixed position of the body

"Posture play an important role in the expression of emotions, depending on social situations and the characteristics of people, especially the mental states of the moment" - Henri Wallon

Communicate one's own identity/social identity, intensity of emotions, feelings and experiences

Dance is a form of non-verbal comm between the dancer and his own body, between the dancer and other people, rhythm movement, and accompanying music, externalising experiences, emotions, feelings of freedom and freedom from conflicts with self and with others

Dance tells of man and his life, of friendship and enmity, of joy and sadness, of love and hatred, all happening in the specific and essential contexts of human life

Play important role in the individual process of attaining authenticity

Through free dancing, curative effects are obtained on the state of the human individual

<Dance Therapy>

Provide emotional maturity and cognitive skills development

Contribute to acquiring a healthy self-image, with full self-awareness

Provide better control of the body and movements

Release of emotions and negative affections can be achieved, their better management

Promoting a non-judicious physical and emotional environment that respects individual's individuality

Self-esteem = emotional and global self-evaluation of will and personal value

Anxiety = characterised as an emotional state of mental tension, irritability, lack of faith in one's own powers, inability to take risks, autonomous reactions and other psychosomatic symptoms

Stress = an environmental factor that causes an abnormal reaction in the human body and the level of this factor depends on the strategies used by the stressed person the deal with it. A state of tension and discomfort that occurs when we fail to solve a problem that disturbs our lives

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Verbal and Non-Verbal Symbolism -College Composition and Communication , Oct., 1957, Vol. 8, No. 3, General Session, Panel, and Workshop Reports. Conference on College Composition and Communication, 1957 (Oct., 1957), pp. 179-181National Council of Teachers of English

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Verbal and Non-Verbal Symbolism -College Composition and Communication , Oct., 1957, Vol. 8, No. 3, General Session, Panel, and Workshop Reports. Conference on College Composition and Communication, 1957 (Oct., 1957), pp. 179-181National Council of Teachers of English

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<Leonard Barkin> Demonstrated visual representation as either conventional/analogical, all finally stemming from the artist's POV, taken according to his concept of reality and/ until reality

Conventional = No obvious connection with the object

Analogical = In great variety, variations in handling of space

<Gottschalk> Illustrated verbal structuring of symbols through the author's POV, which anticipates an audience (even if only himself), and organises the telling in an "infinite" number of possible symbolic graduations between the practically impossible extremes of "pure" fact and fiction

Process occurs also with the receiver who in turn structures a symbolic telling based on his own experience.

<Example> Mathematical symbolism are partly arbitrary because its not dependent on actual objects but as a rule functionally efficient. "It exposes/ induces structure and reflects facts about mathematical objects" - Bausch

Science and mathematics can demonstrate the value of a continuum

Psychology can show the influence of past experience, rationalisation, association, and the like upon communication

Every communicative situation actually does involve a receptor? The system of notion, the symbolism structures communication?

Various comm POVS such as the informative focused on the object, the persuasive focused on the receptor, the creative focused on the sender creating/making an object

<Tendency to think in terms of cause and effect, movement rather than substance, 2-value systems rather than of many>

Maybe we are bound by the linear structure, although we have used continuum in our logical thinking for hundreds of years, we lapse into bipolar evaluations in our everyday practical thinking

Maybe we are bound not only by language structure but also by our limited powers of observation, we don't see the alternate behaviour patterns in our culture and therefore don't find significance in them

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ARTHUR E. GARNER and LEILA M. ACKLENMiddle School Journal , MAY, 1980, Vol. 11, No. 2 (MAY, 1980), pp. 6-7Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE)

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ARTHUR E. GARNER and LEILA M. ACKLENMiddle School Journal , MAY, 1980, Vol. 11, No. 2 (MAY, 1980), pp. 6-7Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE)

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The transecent is particularly sensitive to the silent language of significant adults in his world

Silent messages, constantly given, provide for growing transescent an environment of trust, care and love where he is repeatedly assured that he is valuable and important, able and capable and that he has the rights of human dignity and worth

Words expressed are represented by 2 components of the complete message transmitted by the speaker

Verbal = Actual words spoken

Vocal = manner in which the words are spoken. Includes tone, pitch, volume, inflections, rate utilised by speaker

Body Language = facial expressions, gestures, movement. The appearance of speaker

Environmental/situational stimuli = constitute part of the total message transmitted. The way speaker utilises space/physical environment

Complexity where both parties are sending and receiving messages at the same time

Vocal = 38%

Facial = 55%

Verbal = 7%

<3 categories in nonverbal comms>

Physical = dress, gestures, touch, body physique and facial expressions

Social = relationship the speaker has with others, the personal space of each individual, any contradictory messages being sent, status of those involved

Environmental = one's territorial relationships, the use of time, and the physical arrangement of the room

Nonverbal comms is defined as all communicative forms other than the spoken or written word.

Idiosyncratic/personalised in nature

No single formula which can be utilised to interpret the particular meaning of any behaviour

Must be interpreted contextually and/or culturally

Body language are clues to possible underlying feelings rather than as conclusive evidence

Often utilised to contradict, replace, or augment verbal expressions

To what extent would body language reflect the real meaning of the nonverbal message?

Unless have proper understanding of nonverbal comm, we'll probably interpret the messages conveyed through this medium in terms of our own culture

Tendency to interpret everyone's behaviour as if it were our own

Often precipitates a misunderstanding of the real message

Messages of real feeling are most often transmitted through nonverbal expressions and motions, more reliable indicators of true, basic human responses than verbal expressions

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A distinct knowledge is gained through participation in movement activities with a group and observing the movement of others, which opens opportunities for trust and interpersonal relationships

Ultimately leads to a sense of community, group feels unified as a result of moving and observing other's movements because of the communicative power of these actions

By observing motion of another person, one can gain vast amounts of info about the character of that person and their particular emotional state in that present moment

Nature of the corporeal knowledge transferred by the mover to the observer is multifaceted and complex as "movement embodies socially constructed cultural knowledge in which corporeality, emotion and abstraction are intertwined"

<2 Elements of physical comms that exemplify the complexity>

Facial expressions

Body language

Culturally specific uses of the muscular, skeletal and neural systems to convey emotion

Cultures have assigned meaning to specific shapes and textures of the face and other body parts

The embodied emotional content is engrained in modes of processing because humans are raised in a specific culture

A diff in emotional expression can alter brain chemistry

<Example> When facial muscles frown/smile (action associated with specific emotion), the individual's emotional state shifts to correspond with what their face is physically representing

Understanding of culturally shared meaning feels instinctual due to how we learn to use our senses to read it

Visual and sensory cues received from others are processed and provide a sense of knowing

Concept that each individual has a body with a unique history

Includes all physical experiences including daily movement, specific physical training, and injury, illness or physical trauma as well as emotional experiences that have influenced a person's physicality

Past bodily experiences shape an individual's physicality in terms of appearance, capacity for movement, habits and comforts

Ultimately have effect on the personality and character of the conscious individual inhabiting the body

Whether an indiv is conscious of the knowledge gained from observing another person's physicality or not, humans instinctively absorb info and acquire corporeal-based knowledge from those around them

In intentional group settings, the constant nonverbal transfer of corporeal knowing builds connections between individuals

Cause people are both moving and actively observing movement of others

Develops relationships and build unified group with an increased sense of overall closeness

Indiv expression of the self by movers and perception of their physical info by observers establishes community

Through sending and receiving physical comms, people gain a sense of belonging within the group and familiarity with other indivs

A group sense of dynamic is established as the collective corporeal knowledge is more clearly understood

<Elements of the Connection between the Mind and the Body>

Unique physical history of an individual is result of the essential and complex connection between the body and brain

Opportunities nites for neuroplasticity continue into adulthood, beyond anatomical change due to aging/disease

The morphology of the brain is continually shaped by our life experiences, which are all perceived with our physical senses

Humans move either in response to logistical environmental info/directed by a neural-based desired outcome referred to as "a model of the desired future" - Nikolai Bernstein (neuroscientist & physiologist)

Central nervous system can form a desired action goal from the current sensory input, memory of past similar experiences and needs of indiv

You can extrapolate from past and current info to encode an image of immediate future action and the motor mechanisms required, and the resulting transformation of the situation

Ability to envision an immediate desire future is why people can imagine the physicality involved and energy required in completing an action

<A model of the desired future action> incorporates conscious and unconscious personal knowledge of one's physical capabilities whether or not based on memory of directly applicable previous experiences

Specific manifestations of this ability based on their understanding and experience of their physicality

<Improvisation>

For trained dancers, this movement vocabulary includes stylised movements from their studied dance forms as well as other movement capabilities that their dance experience has afforded them

The specifics of the participant's movements are sourced exclusively from their bodies and minds, and therefore are a direct communication of themselves

<4 Elements of movement improvisation>

Personal sensation

Relationship to others

Time and speed

Surrounding environment

Simultaneous engagement with all 4 elements comprises the practice of improvisation; spending time attempting and learning to do so constitutes the training involved

Improvisation involves learning ways to let go of judgement, think creatively and move in response to the environment in ways that feel natural

Mentally and physically immersive

Immersion = the cognitive state in which individuals perceive a new [subjective reality] thanks to a shift in their perceptual associations

Cause indivs to become more aware of their perceptual processes and their adaptability because new and unusual settings require active sensory perception that breaks habitual modes of being

A creative improvisational movement experience is a useful tool for personal learning and broadening of one's perceptions of other people and the physical environment

Movers constantly influence each other and trade movement ideas

Partnering and group movement often arise from cooperation and a general overall quality establishes itself and unifies the dancers

Closeness between pairs of indivs and a strong group closeness can arise through practicing improvisational movement in a jam

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In the past few months, you may have felt weird about be-lining across the street when someone was walking your way. You might have felt self-conscious about how you look on video conference, or wished you could hug your friends and family - whether they live down the street or across the globe.

Valerie Manusov, PhD, is an expert in the study of nonverbal communication, a discipline that encompasses all communication that works alongside language, including facial expressions and body movement. She recently put the strangeness of these new-normal nonverbal behaviors into words as part of the UW Communication Leadership COVID Consultancy's event series, Communication and Connection in the time of COVID.

"The rules of communication are changing," says Dr. Manusov, a professor in UW's Communication department. "A few months ago, it might have been perceived as rude if you moved to the other side of the road when you saw someone coming. Now that is more likely to be interpreted as a sign that you care."

During this event, she shared key insights on nonverbal communication in the time of COVID and some ideas and practices for navigating this complicated moment.

Understanding nonverbal cues in the time of COVID

In the past months, the number of in-person interactions has dwindled, and the ones we do have are very different. Dr. Manusov shared the example of when she was recently on a walk and saw a friend she hadn't seen in months pulling into a driveway. Normally, they would have embraced when they stopped to chat, but they both knew they had to keep their distance.

"I felt my [nonverbal cues] were telling her 'you don't matter as much to me' or 'I'm angry at you," Dr. Manusov says, because that is what keeping your distance often implies. "We both knew that's not what it meant [now], but that's how much behaviors have changed."

She also broke down some of the ways that having work, school and social events online changes the nonverbal communication dynamics.

"We're all wondering if we need to get dressed [up] and put on makeup and what our background should be," she says.

She also talked through the additional challenges video conferencing poses for listeners and speakers: While not muting the audience often leads to poor sound quality and audio feedback, not having cues from the audience makes it difficult for speakers to know if listeners are engaged. Lags in technology can also make it hard to know who is speaking and when or how people are responding to your words.

"We also see ourselves which is different from face-to-face communication and draws our attention away from others," Dr. Manusov says.

Navigating and embracing nonverbal communication during COVID-19

So how do you navigate these strange new dynamics? Dr. Manusov shared the following insights:

Be compassionate with yourself and others

Life is really different now, even if it's starting to feel normal - and that affects everyone differently.

"Try not overreact to other people," she says. "Instead, be compassionate and think about what they might be experiencing. And if you wake up and are not feeling good, be compassionate with yourself. These are difficult times. It's okay to have a bad day."

Enjoy solitude

This may be one of the few times in our lives when we have long stretches at home, with little to do.

"These are scary times, but there's value when we don't interact," she says. "There's time for self-learning and introspection....Think of how you want to use this time and how you can take advantage of it."

Practice mindfulness

Practicing mindfulness, bringing your focus to the present moment and acknowledging your thoughts and feelings, can also help you persevere through the pandemic.

Read more about mindfulness and well-being during the pandemic.

Voice your interpretations and reactions

We lose a lot when we can't communicate in person. To overcome this, Dr. Manusov simply recommends acknowledging it. She used the example of perceiving someone's facial expressions as mad during a conversation - and says it's okay to acknowledge that that's how you're interpreting their expressions. This means saying "I'm interpreting your reaction as mad or confused. Are you?" instead of saying "Why are you angry at me?" or just reacting as if they are.

"They may actually be mad at you, but more likely they're distracted or something else is bothering them," she says. "It's okay to be vulnerable and acknowledge those issues."

Think about what you value and what you miss

Dr. Manusov also recommends reflecting on all of the changes that have come during this time and thinking about what you miss and what you don't miss. You may love not having to commute to work, but miss going to restaurants with your friends. Taking stock of that can help you appreciate things you took for granted and seek opportunities for change in the future.

"There's a lot of change right now, both things we like and things we don't want to come back," she says. "It's important to take time to think about that."
This event was part of the UW Communication and Connection During COVID Speaker series, put on by UW Communication Leadership's COVID Consultancy, which is offering pro-bono communications consulting to small businesses, nonprofits and UW departments during COVID-19. Learn Written by Megan Herndon
Megan leads content creation, editing and strategy for UW Communication Leadership's COVID Communication Consultancy. She also consults with clients about storytelling and content marketing. She's a part-time student in the Master of Communication in Digital Media program and works as an editor for Message Lab, a healthcare communication and content marketing agency. She is passionate about storytelling and all things outdoors.

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Nonverbal Communication in the Time of COVID-19: Key Takeaways from Valerie Manusov, PhD

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In the past few months, you may have felt weird about be-lining across the street when someone was walking your way. You might have felt self-conscious about how you look on video conference, or wished you could hug your friends and family - whether they live down the street or across the globe.

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The rules of communication are changing

Understanding nonverbal cues in the time of COVID

Challenges like not muting the audience leads to poor sound quality

Not having cues from audience makes it different for speakers to know if listeners are engaged

Lags in tech can make it hard to know who is speaking and when or how people are responding to your words

We also see ourselves which is different from face-to-face communication and draws our attention away from others

Voicing your interpretations and reactions

Acknowledging how you're interpreting someone's facial expressions

It's okay to be vulnerable and acknowledge these issues

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Direct Look

Shows undivided attention to, genuine interest in and sincere respect of the other. Can also be an act of power and domination

Looking Up

Thinking, visualising something. Making pictures in his head indicating a visual thinker. Indicate recalling a memory. For a speaker, "looking up" in his mind for words he has prepared. Can also be a signal of boredom as person look for something more interesting.

Looking Down

May be a sign of submission. Or indicate person is feeling guilty. Or attending to internal emotions. Or a sign of respect in certain cultures.

Head lowered eye looking up

Coy and suggestive action. Can be judgemental especially when combined with a frown

Vertical Scan

Body language cue when someone finds someone attractive

Horizontal Scan

Usually occurs after one has been talking to someone intimately, reading into them an invitation to greater intimacy

Lateral Movement

Either looking away from what's in front of the person or looking towards something that has taken his interest

Quick glance sideways can be checking source of distraction to assess for threat or interest/ show irritation

Left (truth)

Recalling something

Right (false)

Imagining something

Side-to-side

Indicate shiftiness and lying (looking for an escape route), happen when person is conspiratorial (checking that nobody else is listening), visualising a big picture (literally looking it over)

Sidelong Glance

Observer looks furtively sideways and keeps looking as long as the subject of his gaze is unaware of being observed. The moment both eyes meet, he immediately lets his glance slide away. Also indicate person is suspicious/doubtful/distrusting

Stare

To treat someone with contempt, humiliate.

Fast (1970) makes a case for staring- people stare at art, sculptures, scenery, animals in the zoo for as long as they want to even at close quarters but to stare at people in this way is a sign of disrespect.

Black stare

Indicator of boredom. Added cue to disinterestedness is the lack of blinking

"Sparkling eyes"

Commonly found in interactions between lovers or when questioned about their r/s. Eyes sparkle when one is in a pleasant/joyous state.

Though there are detailed examination of the pupils, cornea and white sclera of eyes there's no scientific data to show how the sparkle originates

Eye Dart

When a person is under pressure. Person is nervous and tension is transferred to the listener who begins to feel uncomfortable

Eye Shuttle

Flicking eyes from side to side without moving their head. Designed to try and take in everything that is happening around them and also instinctively to search for possible escape routes

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Often result due to certain factors which lie outside the communication thread- in the surroundings where communication takes place

Noisy/non conducive

Rigid hierarchy in an organisation

Physical/time-related issue pertaining to a particular society/culture

Ethical/social concern

Technological glitch

Beyond control:

Stuffy room

Poor seating arrangement

Huge and unmanageable audience

Screeching microphone/interruptive phone

Incompatible computer software/slow connection

Physical Barrier

Environmental and natural conditions that interfere with the communication process

Non-conducive surrounding: insufficiently ventilated rooms, poor infrastructure, incompetency with new tech, sounds from physical disturbances and distractions

Interfere with smooth flow of info.

Sender will be distracted from messaging and whatever he communicates is unlikely to be received in the same way

https://ifioque.com/communication-barrier/physical_barriers

Non-conductive surrounding

Incompetency in dealing with new tech, all factors affecting sender's and receiver's concentration, interfering with the free flow of communication

Time

Concept of time separation. Coordination can breakdown over as little as differences in lunch times and work hours

Technological Barrier

A technical breakdown or small technical glitch may ruin the entire process of communication

https://ifioque.com/communication-barrier/technological_barriers

Reduced the possibility of natural face-to-face interaction that is at the helm of any human communication.

Chronomatic Barrier

Problems related with time, such as delay cause in receiving the message due to physical distance, different time zones

Organisational/Hierarchical Barrier

inefficient info systems, lack of supervision or training, deficiencies in organisational design which make it unclear and confusing to know who to communicate with and lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities

Gender-related Barrier

Miscommunication when both sides believe they're communicating clearly based on their own comms patterns

Cultural Barrier

Impact of inner values and beliefs generally held by a group of people on their outward behaviours and environment. Need to adopt the behaviour patterns of the group

Ethical Barrier

Situations built into the system of competition that causes ethical dilemmas (sales person meeting quote)

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Outward reflection of the emotions we feel.

"Decoding"

One's ability to read others bodily gestures or messages.

Like

We exhibit more open postures and more direct body orientation. Stand closely. Relatively relaxed body, gestures uninhibited and natural

Inviting bodily cues that simulate interaction

Dislike

We exhibit incongruent and indirect body orientations. Avoid sustained eye contact and display high degree of bodily tension and rigidity.

Assertive

Nonverbal behaviour is more relaxed and expansive. Exhibits comfortable eye contact, employs illustrators.

Non Assertive

Adopts a rigid posture, exhibit array of nervous gestures, avoids sustained eye contact, hunches shoulders in a protective or closed stance. Confidence-deflating adaptors that announce vulnerability

Body language

Consists of gesture clusters, one must recognise their r/s and draw meaning from a cluster

Complex

Combination of cultural, social and individual elements

No body position in and of itself has precise meaning (Birdwhistell, 1952)

Each indiv is unique, his attitude and behaviour has impact on his nonverbal comm

Nonverbal Behaviour

Takes place in a particular context

Contexts vary

Adapt our interpretation accordingly

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Key Takeaways

When COVID-19 became a pandemic, the way we communicate changed seemingly overnight. To help minimize the spread, many of us have altered the majority of our interactions with other people.

This includes shifting from in-person conversations to online modes of communication such as video conferencing, phone calls, texts, or email, and wearing masks while indoors or when social distancing is not possible.

And while this "new normal" is something that we will continue to adapt to, it comes at a highly emotional time with a certain level of confusion, frustration, and a loss of in-person connection we are used to.

Adapting to a New Normal

"Communication is hard enough when things are relatively quiet in our lives, but in the midst of a crisis or stress, emotions make communication challenging and require a great deal of effort to ensure that misunderstandings are minimized," explains licensed clinical psychologist Kevin Gilliland, PsyD, executive director of Innovation 360.

Now is the time to be flexible and adaptable when it comes to how we express ourselves to others. It's crucial we show compassion and kindness to each other as we maneuver through these changes. And most importantly, be willing to advocate for individual needs, whether they are for yourself or someone else.

Kevin Gilliland, Psy.D.

- Kevin Gilliland, Psy.D.

Limitations of Masks, Video Chats, and Social Distancing

Cheryl Dixon, a communications strategist and an adjunct professor at Columbia University and New York University, reminds us that more than 90% of communication is nonverbal,﻿﻿ and that it's been proven that we tend to trust nonverbal communication cues over verbal language.﻿﻿

Moreover, Dixon says we use nonverbal communication to convey meaning, to modify or complement our verbal messages, and to regulate the flow of our interaction. "We are losing a lot of nonverbal cues, including proxemics (our spatial environment; how closely we position ourselves to others, the amount of space we take up) and kinesics (our body movements and gestures)," explains Dixon.

How to Adapt

To make up for these limitations, Dixon says it is helpful to use language and tone to express emotions. For example, say, "That makes me so happy to hear" with a smile (or instead of a smile if you're wearing a mask). She also recommends that you perform a check-in for understanding by asking questions so that the communication is balanced and flows between participants.

During a video chat, Dixon says it's common for people to be distracted by their surroundings, which is easily perceived as boredom or disinterest. "Being mindful to be present and focused, avoid multitasking, and minimizing possible distractions will increase engagement and strengthen interaction," she says.

Challenges for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Community

Those who are Deaf or hard of hearing, in particular, are facing significant struggles with communication during COVID-19. Laurene E. Simms, Ph.D., interim chief bilingual officer at Gallaudet University, says that for the millions of Americans who have some degree of hearing loss, the fundamental issue is access to their personal relationships, as well as accurate and timely information about COVID-19 and access to the public health system.

"COVID-19 has disrupted the lives of Deaf-signing Americans, who number more than an estimated 2 million-plus. Within the Deaf American population, there are Deaf people of color who are even more vulnerable during this time as they too often are not provided access to accurate information and public health care due to blatant discrimination, socioeconomic status, and lack of resources such as educational opportunities and transportation," Simms explains.

Laurene E. Simms, Ph.D.

- Laurene E. Simms, Ph.D.

Simms also points out that being isolated at home, especially when the other members of the household do not sign, is adding to the stress. This is especially true for the majority of children who are Deaf or hard of hearing, Simms says, since more than 90% of Deaf children are born to hearing parents.

The Problem of Limited Information

Not having access to accurate and timely information is another significant issue within the Deaf community.

Although many briefings about COVID-19 have closed captioning, Simms says this form of communication has many inherent limitations. "In many cases, you have to have a high reading level to read them and English is not the first language for many Deaf people. Plus, it is typically acquired through print rather than speech," she says.

Moreover, captions often omit information and are inaccurate and hard to read. The emotional tone of the speaker is lost in written captions. Consequently, Simms says Deaf-signing Americans are often left out of important information such as public health mandates related to social distancing, stay-at-home orders, hygiene, and mask-wearing.

Face Masks Hide Facial Cues

When it comes to the loss of facial cues due to masks, Simms says for Deaf Americans, facial cues expressions play a very important part in the meaning of a sign, and also signal grammatical elements.﻿﻿ "For hearing-speaking persons, facial expressions are nonverbal cues that support the spoken language, but ASL, in comparison, relies on facial cues and expressions along with eye gaze, head tilts, cheek puffs, and mouthing. As such, wearing a face mask disrupts the grammar of ASL," she explains.

To manage this situation, Simms says Deaf signing people are resorting to writing notes, texting, and gestures. But this puts many Deaf Americans at risk, she says, because some may have less reading proficiency and less exposure to medical terminology. "As such, they may all not be able to write about medical issues with a high degree of precision," adds Simms.

When it comes to managing telehealth during COVID-19, the Deaf and hard of hearing community is relying on guidelines published by the National Association of the Deaf. There is also a section for healthcare providers on telehealth for people who are deaf or hard of hearing.

Tips for Adjusting and Coping With These Changes

First of all, says Gilliland, we need to stop comparing how we communicate now to how we used to communicate; it's not going to help us move forward because this is not an event that only requires us to make a few tweaks in our lives. "This is a new way of living, and the more creative and open we can be about doing new things, the better we're going to do," he explains.

We also need to slow down when we communicate. "Our normal lines of communication are down, it's a highly emotional time, and trying to do too much too fast is going to end poorly," Gilliland says. "We can't afford to be in a hurry when it comes to communicating right now, so allow some extra time for a longer conversation about an issue," he says.

Another strategy, says Emily Hu, PhD, a licensed clinical psychologist with Thrive Psychology Group in Southern California, is to step up the communication in general. "There are gaps going on right now that we ordinarily wouldn't have, so you'll need to work extra hard to make sure your point is getting across correctly, whether that's asking the other person to repeat back what you said, communicating your emotions in addition to your words, or otherwise making sure they're getting the whole message," she explains.

Emily Hu, P.h.D.

- Emily Hu, P.h.D.

When interacting with the same people, Hu recommends figuring out what method of communication works best with each individual person. "Some people will do better with videoconferencing than others, while some will prefer texts. Try out different methods and find the match that works not just for the other people in your social network but for you yourself, and then stick with it the best you can," she says.

But if you are using email or text, make sure to ask for clarification if you're concerned that you're not reading the tone correctly or you're having trouble figuring out what the other person is feeling. Hu says, don't be afraid to ask them directly since this will save a lot of heartaches later.

And most importantly, Hu says, be compassionate. "You're going to misread other people sometimes or be misread yourself. Rather than jumping immediately to guilt or anger, remember that we're all struggling to learn a whole new way of communicating during this pandemic. Give yourself room to make mistakes."

What This Means for You

The information in this article is current as of the date listed, which means newer information may be available when you read this. For the most recent updates on COVID-19, visit our coronavirus news page.

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COVID-19 Is Changing the Way we Communicate-Here's How

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When COVID-19 became a pandemic, the way we communicate changed seemingly overnight. To help minimize the spread, many of us have altered the majority of our interactions with other people. This includes shifting from in-person conversations to online modes of communication such as video conferencing, phone calls, texts, or email, and wearing masks while indoors or when social distancing is not possible.

# data[].attributes.body
Audio communication and some aspects of video eliminate crucial elements of non-verbal expression, and in person, masks prevent us from picking up on important facial cues

Deaf and hard of hearing community is especially affected due to the way masks muffle voices and inhibit lip-reading

Communication is hard enough when things are relatively quiet in our lives, but in the midst of a crisis or stress, emotions make communication challenging and require a great deal of effort to ensure that misunderstandings are minimised

Limitations of masks, video chats, and social distancing

more than 90% of communication is nonverbal

Proven that we tend to trust nonverbal communication cues over verbal language

we use nonverbal communication to convey meaning, to modify or complement our verbal messages, and to regulate the flow of our interaction

we are losing a lot of nonverbal cues, including proxemics (spatial environment, how we closely position ourselves to others and the amount of space we take up) and kinesics (body movements and gestures)

communicating via video: we lose the benefit of seeing certain aspects of body language. when we wear masks we lose the ability to interpret critical facial expressions and our own ability to convey emotion thru facial expression is limited

How to adapt

Can be helpful to use language and tone to express emotions

"that makes me so happy to hear" with a smile instead of just smiling if you're wearing a mask

Slow down when we communicate, our normal lines of communication are down

Figuring out what method of communication works best with each individual person

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The rules of communication are changing

Understanding nonverbal cues in the time of COVID

Challenges like not muting the audience leads to poor sound quality

Not having cues from audience makes it different for speakers to know if listeners are engaged

Lags in tech can make it hard to know who is speaking and when or how people are responding to your words

We also see ourselves which is different from face-to-face communication and draws our attention away from others

Voicing your interpretations and reactions

Acknowledging how you're interpreting someone's facial expressions

It's okay to be vulnerable and acknowledge these issues

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Every year since 1927, the month of May has been designated "Better Hearing & Speech Month" to promote awareness about communication disorders and the wide array of effective available treatment opportunities.

Though the month has long passed, the need this year is greater than ever - all year long.

Changes to Our Way of Life

The pandemic has turned our lives upside-down. In early 2020, we had to transition from brick-and-mortar to virtual systems overnight. We jumped from our business offices to working from home and from in-person medical visits to telehealth. We embraced streaming services, takeout from restaurants and virtual holiday celebrations.

The timing of the pandemic was uncanny. Americans actually had the infrastructure to support it; we had become accustomed to online banking, Amazon deliveries and FaceTime chats with our out-of-town friends and relatives.

What a different scenario from 2014, when I came up with my business plan to create a virtual speech therapy company, called Great Speech Inc. Before the pandemic, our ability to conceive life virtually was not on the public's radar and was indeed groundbreaking. Today, telehealth and telemedicine are not only mainstream, but expected.

What we were not prepared for was the infectious nature and deadly capacity of this virus and how it affected face-to-face communication and in-person socialization. We sheltered in place, worked from home and Zoom-schooled our children. We found new ways to connect, share ideas around virtual conference tables and enjoy after-work activities. Our children were jolted from their daily school routines of sitting face-to-face in classrooms, participating in after-school activities and enjoying sleepovers, parties and play dates. With parks closed and field trips canceled, socialization and language development opportunities were unnaturally limited.

Face Coverings Complicate Connection

Beyond the day-to-day disruption, mandatory mask-wearing complicates our ability to communicate even further. Masks can make it hard to breathe, project our voices and use facial expressions to share our emotions.

As social creatures, we naturally crave connections and facial expressions are an essential part of non-verbal communication. It gives us the cues we need to promote conversation and establish and maintain social relationships.

We have all struggled to communicate with a mask. I personally have experienced the stress of making myself understood, particularly in a store with a lot of background noise. For the hearing-impaired, the combination of wearing a mask has been extraordinarily challenging. Unable to lip read, and without the visual cues of nonverbal communication, this segment of the population has been at an extreme disadvantage.

Communication Struggles Are a Universal Crisis

Most of us will bounce back from these challenges. The concern is for those who culturally, financially or geographically have limited access to health care services even during non-pandemic times.

Promoting better speech and hearing awareness is key in addressing these social determinants of health. Resources that enhance quality of life can have a significant influence on population health outcomes.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are 34.2 million Americans diagnosed with diabetes. The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders approximates Americans experience some form of communication disorder and 37.5 million Americans report having some form of hearing disorder. And these were the numbers before COVID. Yet, "diabetes is associated with substantial clinical and economic burdens" on patients and on the U.S. health care system, while communication disorders are not.

As a country, we spend billions of dollars treating diabetes which is the seventh leading cause of death in the U.S. Perhaps it's the mortality factor which naturally garners more awareness. Though communication disorders may cost the U.S. up to 186 billion dollars per year and may impact an individual's physical, social, educational and vocational health, the awareness is surprisingly limited.

We need to create awareness for those who are not in grave danger yet are medically impaired and give a voice to those who cannot effectively speak for themselves.

I strongly suspect we will see the number rise for post-pandemic communication disorders. I have personally seen a dramatic increase in the inquiries in my virtual speech therapy practice; other therapists are reporting a similar increase. Think of the havoc COVID-19 wreaked on the larynx and vocal cords of those who were intubated, the front-line workers who had to work with masks and overuse their voices. Let us not forget those students who were not diagnosed during this school year with a speech or language delay.

The needs for communication remediation are not just limited to COVID-related issues. With the medical advances and increased survival rates of stroke patients, victims of car accidents and others who have sustained traumatic brain injuries, the State of Texas alone has guesstimated a 32% increase in speech therapy demand by 2028.

Awareness and Advocacy Are Key

While promoting awareness is key in remediating the problem of lack of access and the lack of education about the efficacy of virtual speech therapy, advocacy is also needed. Health care professionals should be encouraged to ask questions about communication issues and patients need to be empowered to express their need for services. The addition of communication concerns to the health care provider-patient conversation may be the powerful advocacy tool needed to propel the awareness to the level needed for action.

We are making strides with insurance companies who have been reluctant in the past to cover telehealth services but rose to the occasion during COVID for two reasons:

One reason was that traditional delivery of services was impossible.

The other reason is that consumers did not accept denial as the final act, but used it as an opportunity to continue the conversation and broaden the coverage for services.

Demand is one of the driving forces for change. Awareness and advocacy are equal partners.

By raising awareness, increasing demand and promoting advocacy, we can address communication disorders - both those related and unrelated to the pandemic - and promote the promising opportunities available for remediation by the speech and language therapy community.

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How the Pandemic Has Impacted Our Communication Skills

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Every year since 1927, the month of May has been designated "Better Hearing & Speech Month" to promote awareness about communication disorders and the wide array of effective available treatment opportunities. Though the month has long passed, the need this year is greater than ever - all year long.

# data[].attributes.body
Face coverings complicate connection

Struggles communicating with a mask

Hearing impaired unable to lip read

Segment of the population at an extreme disadvantage

Communication Struggles are a universal crisis

46 million Americans experience some form off communication disorders

37.5 million Americans have some form of hearing disorder

Limited awareness surrounding this

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When I began teaching others about body language, I would spend at least eight hours of classroom time on different types of gestures found in body language and their possible interpretations. After the instruction, we would watch videos of interviews, interrogations, and people communicating.

The goal was to put to use the information about body language we'd been discussing. The problem we encountered was there was too much information to remember and put into practice so soon after the instruction. Seeing the difficulty the students were having watching the videos while searching through the material to make an interpretation of the kinesics, I needed to come up with something that would help them get organized.

I drew a reference chart on the board to help the students quickly read and identify behavior (a representation of the chart is at the bottom of this article for your use). It worked.

Related articles

Related feature

Interview and interrogation: Breaking the alibi

One of the tools we use to help eliminate possible suspects is to ascertain their alibi. True alibis are usually easy to verify with a witness, a video, or other concrete information. The harder alibi to prove or disprove is where the subject was alone or at a function where no one would remember them.

I broke the types of body language into two categories, "Truth and Deception." Later, I added Positive or Negative Behavior and "Indicator Behavior."

Indicator Behavior is what we observe to determine which stage a subject is in, so we can respond effectively with the correct "Coordinated Behavior Response (CBR). CBR is not discussed in this article, but it is discussed in great depth and detail in my column about the art of the " Gentle Interrogation."

Truth/Deception versus Positive/Negative
The two categories of Truth and Deception, when observed, generally indicate the person is being truthful or deceptive. That sounds obvious, but a note here: The deceptive behavior would be responses to questions by the investigator on issues that are sensitive to the subject and generate stress.

If the person doesn't care, this doesn't work.

Positive or Negative Behavior indicates whether the subject likes or dislikes the idea being discussed.

For example, imagine that you're questioning a subject about a theft of money. You ask the person if the missing money could be an accounting error and "will turn up later."

The person turns into you, opening up, and displays behavior that indicates he likes the idea, that the missing money is due to an accounting error. This behavior is often considered truthful behavior. However, the person is responding to the idea that there was no theft. This is then interpreted as deceptive.

Here, truthful behavior to a negative idea is considered deceptive. It can be kind of hard to get your mind around that, so I just call it positive or negative behavior.

How to Tell a Liar
We came up with five categories of general behavior to look for:

* Behavior: The physical behavior that is observed during responses
* Eye contact: Breaks in eye contact during responses
* Answer: The answer itself
* Timing: The timing of the response
* Voice: The characteristics of the voice: tone, speed, volume, etc.

Now, we divide these behaviors into two groups, "Truthful or Positive" and "Deceptive or Negative." As you look at the behavior, compare it to the chart. This makes it easier to quickly categorize and interpret the behavior.

Behavior: Evaluate only the behavior that is in response to and resulted from the asking of the question. Do not consider movement that occurs between questions and could be considered movement that is the norm for that person during the questioning.

Eye Contact: Look for breaks in eye contact when the subject is answering the question. A truthful subject will maintain good eye contact. When the deceptive person answers the question, they may break eye contact, however briefly. They may resume eye contact after the question, sometimes as if they are looking to see whether you are accepting the answer.

Answer: Evaluate the actual answer itself. Look for the following characteristics: Does the person use harsh or soft terms? Does the answer spread or focus suspicion? Does the person Include or omit themselves from suspicion? Does the person give you a direct answer or is the answer evasive or non-relevant to the question?

Timing: Check the answer for timing and consistency. Is the answer on time, or are they thinking before answering? The bottom line is to evaluate the timing of the answer with the type of question. As Paul Ekman states, "Is the person thinking when they shouldn't have to?"

Voice Characteristics: Does the person's voice tone go up, down or remain in the middle? Is the speech clear or mumbled? Does the voice volume increase in anger when accused or remain neutral?

One word of caution - this model is just a tool to observe and quickly analyze behavior. It is not ironclad, and there is a significant amount of learning required to become proficient at reading and interpreting behavior.

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Quickly read, analyze, and interpret body language

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When I began teaching others about body language, I would spend at least eight hours of classroom time on different types of gestures found in body language and their possible interpretations. After the instruction, we would watch videos of interviews, interrogations, and people communicating.

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Indicator Behaviour

What we observe to determine which stage a subject is in

To respond effective with correct CBR

Coordinated Behaviour Response (CBR)
The Critical Factor/Critical Faculty

The subconscious part of the brain that evaluates info flowing into the brain from the outside world

Compares incoming information with the beliefs, values, views and principals already established by the subconscious of the mind

Decides whether info is true/false

Challenges information that does not meet the established beliefs of the critical factor

Not always correct

Protects you from outside influences

Protects you from doing something different because it wants to maintain the status quo

Fun fact: the critical factor does not develop until puberty

Mindless Learning

Critical factor rejects making a confession to protect the subject

More stress, harder subject defends their position not to confess

Deceptive

Deceptive behaviour responds to questions by the investigator on issues that are sensitive to the subject and generate stress

Doesn't work if person don't care

General Behaviour

Behaviour (only response that's resulted from the asking of the question

Eye Contact (breaks in eye contact during response)

Answer

Timing of response

Voice (tone, speed, volume)

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Kuhlman, M S. "Nonverbal Communications in Interrogations." Fbi Law Enforcement Bulletin. 49.11 (1980): pp 6-9.

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Kuhlman, M S. "Nonverbal Communications in Interrogations." Fbi Law Enforcement Bulletin. 49.11 (1980): pp 6-9.

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Facial expressions may convey an attitude of sincerity, shock, surprise, humour, sorrow or concern

Tone of voice, inflictions in delivery, emphasis on words, guttural sounds can mean difference between a meaningful and interesting communication or a monotonous one

Body space or distance have bearing on effectiveness of a communication

Body movement and gestures (automatic/ involuntary/ intentional), are key determinants in the actual meaning of any spoken communication

Eye contact indicate degree of sincerity on the part of the speaker

Proper use of time, control of profanity and slag, appropriate physical appearance also impt nonverbal comm

Manifestations of the Lie

Solicitation of a confession creates the most dynamic display of nonverbal communication

Left to the interrogator to employ and interpret this "language" correctly

"We have to be careful we don't misinterpret nonverbal signals in our eagerness to understand what a person means"

To lie : to willingly and knowingly relate other than the truth, immediately causes a myriad of biological and physiological processes to take place within the mind and body

Lies usually manifest themselves involuntarily in the form o nonverbal reactions or counter-reactions

<Physical signs of deception>

Perspiration flow

Flushing or paleness of skin

Increased pulse rate

Dry mouth, tongue

Excessive swallowing

Respiratory changes

Muscle spasms

Licking of lips

Thickened and blurred speech

Stuttering and darting eye movements

Degree of rigidity in the body

Hands start to "play"

Facial tics

Interrogator must be continually alert for any nonverbals exhibited by the interviewee

"Facial expressions can change instantly, sometimes even at a rate imperceptible to the human eye"

Final solicitation of the confession - allowing the "telling of the truth" to be the suspect's channel for release of tension

Mentally Disturbed

The conscience does not act as any sort of brake and hence may be extremely difficult for the individual to distinguish between right and wrong

The interviewee is as alert to nonverbals as the interrogator

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Strömwall, Leif A. et al. "To Act Truthfully: Nonverbal Behaviour And Strategies During A Police Interrogation". Psychology, Crime & Law, vol 12, no. 2, 2006, pp. 207-219. Informa UK Limited

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Strömwall, Leif A. et al. "To Act Truthfully: Nonverbal Behaviour And Strategies During A Police Interrogation". Psychology, Crime & Law, vol 12, no. 2, 2006, pp. 207-219. Informa UK Limited

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No cue to deception always works

Nonverbal behaviours moderated by a number of factors (content and type of lie, whether liars and truth tellers are motivated or not, high or low stakes, context is interactive or not, if liars and truth tellers are given time to prepare their message or not, length of the interview/message)

Most studies don't reflect real-life police interrogations

Conclusions about how liars and truth tellers differ in nonverbal behaviour in that kind of high-stake situation cannot be drawn from most previous studies

When being put in a longer interrogation situation, the suppressing of deception cues should be a more difficult task

<Experiment>

Results showed no differences at all

Results are in contradiction to the widespread belief that liars and truth tellers are possible to distinguish in more realistic settings than in standard lab settings

The r/s between deception and nervous behaviour might not be as strong as people may expect

High-stake interrogation, people tend to control their behaviour to not appear like the stereotypical fidgeting and gaze-aversive liar

Highly motivated liars tend to show rigid, rehearsed and planned behaviour, the so-called motivational impairment effect

The study showed that people do not know which behaviours they actually display when lying

Why were there no differences between the truth tellers and liars in their nonverbal behaviours although there were diffs between them in their self-rated nervousness?

Most suspects decided on trying not to make excess movements as the principal strategy in order to present a credible impression

Plan of attempted control

Managed to follow that plan to the same extend

These strategies override any differences in nonverbal behaviours between the groups

Bond and Fahey (1987) showed how nervous truth tellers might how the same nervous behaviours as liars

Fear of not being believed and the fear of getting caught will produce the same behaviours, namely signs of nervousness

Interrogators also most likely displayed diffs in their behaviours

Automatic effects of perception on action includes the so-called chameleon effect (people tending to imitate each other's behaviour during social interactions)

Interviewees mimicked the behaviour of interviewers

1. In high-stake situation the pressure increases for both liars and truth tellers

2. Increased pressure causes liars and truth tellers to both try reasonably harder, hence can assume that their awareness of self-presentation strategies and effort of following it through will increase

3. Principal strategies used by liars and truth tellers are similar, hence guilty and innocent will be very difficult to distinguish in terms of nonverbal behaviour

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Reason, Matthew, and Dee Reynolds. "Kinesthesia, Empathy, And Related Pleasures: An Inquiry Into Audience Experiences Of Watching Dance". Dance Research Journal, vol 42, no. 2, 2010, pp. 49-75.

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Reason, Matthew, and Dee Reynolds. "Kinesthesia, Empathy, And Related Pleasures: An Inquiry Into Audience Experiences Of Watching Dance". Dance Research Journal, vol 42, no. 2, 2010, pp. 49-75.

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What does it mean to watch, respond to, appreciate movement?

How does historical and theoretical concept of kinesthetic empathy relate to contemporary audiences' articulations of the experience of watching dance?

Pleasure is important to audience studies because it relates to motivation

Kinesthetic empathy as a mode of engaging with dance that can give pleasure to spectators and can be a strong motivating factor in why people choose to watch dance

Ideas of kinesthetic empathy are relevant to viewers who have different experiences of dance and different motivations

"Mirror neuron" system as a methodology for understanding responses to dance

We need to think of kinesthetic responses as plural - involve empathetic experiences and include kinesthetic responses that are linked with broader aspects of emotion, admiration, escapism and sensuality.

"Being an audience for anything is never a simple or singular process. It is a process that begins in advance of the actual encounter, as people gather knowledge and build expectations. [...] In other words, audiences bring their social and personal histories with them" (Barker 2006)

Watching dance - Methodologies

1. Uses audience research and neuroscience to explore how dance spectators respond and empathise with dance

2. Qualitative approach: Interviews, focus groups, creative techniques

But! We cannot assume that the utterances of a participant correspond with the speaker's actual opinion.

"We cannot and no not always say what we mean - or know what we mean - and also conscious that the deconstruction of an easy relationship between language, intention, and meaning was a key critical development of the 20th century".

<Empathy, Kinesthesia and the Idealised Dance Audience>

Kinesthesia: sensations of movement. Sensing body position and muscle tension can be considered integral to kinesthesia (awareness of the position and movement of the part of the body by means of sensory organs (proprioceptors) in the muscles and joints) both types of stimuli (below). Integral to perception (not purely visual but active and multisensory)

Proprioception: stimuli from inside the organism

Exteroception: stimuli received from outside the organism
Emotional Contagion: "catching" and being overpowered by emotions from others (crying in response to someone else who is crying)

Empathy: (latest concept) form of fellow-feeling, embodied and predicated on muscular and psychic experience.

Imagining "stepping into an actor/character's shoes"

Sympathy involves projecting their own beliefs and feelings onto the stage figure

Sympathy involves evaluation of one's position relative to the other

Empathetic process is "mostly automatic"

The kind of awareness it produces lodges in memory and is easily brought into consciousness

Automatic responses can be the culmination of conscious learning processes and acquisition of cultural norms

Contagion: (By Martin) the inherent contagion of bodily movement, makes the onlooker feel sympathetically in his own musculature the exertions he sees in someone else's musculature.

There's a strong link between emotion and movement because "the sense organ which report movement and postural change are closely connected with that part of the nervous system which belongs primarily to the inner man were emotions are generated"

The ideal spectator would respond kinesthetically, experiencing the dance through his or her own sense of movement and postural change.

Martin claims:

The irreducible minimum of equipment demanded of a spectator.. is kinesthetic sense in working condition

The kinesthetic response would trigger a corresponding emotional impact.

"Inner mimicry" would give spectators the sense that they were actively participating in the dance and directly experiencing both its movements and their associated emotions

Suggest that spectators could and should become by-proxy participants

"We shall nonetheless be dancing synthetically with all our musculature. These motor responses are naturally registered by our movement-sense receptors, and awaken appropriate emotional associations akin to those which have animated the dancer in the first place. It's the dancer's whole function that lead us into imitating his actions with our faculty for inner mimicry in order that we may experience his feelings."

But this depends on the unproblematic transition from visual to muscular and muscular to emotional on the basis that spectator's emotional associations with movement would be the same as dancer's.

"When we see a human body moving, we see movement which is potentially produced by any human body and therefore by our own.. through kinesthetic sympathy we actually reproduce it vicariously in our present muscular experience and awaken such associational connotation as might have been ours if the original movement had been of our own making"

<Cultural Capital and Kinesthetic Responses>

Spectator's responses were very personal, sometimes idiosyncratic and influences by prior experience, expectations and tastes

Pieere Bourdieu's discourse of taste and concepts of "cultural capital" and "habitus"

Habitus: describe the process by which social and economic conditions produce predispositions in taste. Our general disposition to consume and seek exposure to certain kinds of things is not random or even necessarily wholly self aware but instead deeply ingrained into embodied cultural practices

Findings:

there were people with preformed tastes, previously identified and become committed to what they liked and rejected what they did not

Express engaged, emotional and often kinesthetic responses to the forms of dance they like

"kinesthetic sense in working condition" (Martin's concept)

But that alone not enough to determine whether a spectator engages kinesthetically in a performance

Responses were often significantly determined not just by movement itself but also by judgement made according to taste

Eg Ballet, some participants had already reached conclusions about liking/disliking

<1>

Dance is dismissed as boring immediately on recognition

Dictates that the spectator is unable to see anything more of the performance

(Pierre Bourdieu) "The capacity to see is a function of knowledge"

"A work of art has meaning and interest only for someone who possess the cultural competence, that is, the code, into which it is encoded.. A beholder who lacks the specific code feels lost in a chaos of sounds and rhythms, colours and lines, without rhyme or reason"

<2>

Spectators reporting lack of familiarity with the dance style/music/movements, making it extremely difficult for them to remember details about the performance

Lack of familiarity caused distance and inability to connect with or even see the movements being performed

Ultimately not emotionally connecting

Some led directly to a lack of enjoyment

<3>

Openness to new kinds of dance

this "openness" was awareness of a lack of competency

Use of funny terms ("smoother") suggests that lack of knowledge made the experience somewhat disjointed/distanced

<Admiration of Virtuosity>

Present for both experienced and inexperienced spectators

"Wow" factor clearly never entirely goes away

But there's a degree to which the virtuosity has to be apparent to be admired

Virtuosic Performance: elicits a wow factor, often linked to a very embodied engagement, thrill that forms a very strong drive and reward in watching dance

Recognition of skill/craft: requires greater learned appreciation of the sometimes invisible work that goes into a performance

Dance equated to a series of perfectly executed movements and sheer athleticism, reduced to a high-wire act

Part of audience's interest becomes that of spectacle, thrill of the live performance being that of witnessing in person whether the movements can be pulled off without mistakes

Calvo Merino et al: explored dance audiences aesthetic likes/dislikes through use of brain scanning concluded there was greatest preferences for movements that involved "significant displacement of the body in space"

<Imagining Moving and Inner Mimicry>

Deriving enjoyment from bridging the gap between themselves and the dancer by imagining themselves dancing

<1>

Sense of being unable to execute dance movements can be pleasurable and exciting for spectators. "Wow" factor also frequently provoked unfavourable physical comparisons between the spectator and the dancer

<2>

Response to this challenge of imagining doing movement that they knew would be impossible. Fantasised identification with an ideal other sometimes constitutes a significant source of pleasure for spectators of dance

Also tied up with the observer's motor familiarity with the movement (mirror neuron)

Both dancers and non-dancers experienced varying levels and kinds of inner mimicry, kinesthetic projection and empathy/sympathy (encompasses a more conscious, reflective response, such as comparison of the dancer's virtuosity or physique with one's own skill/figure)

<Kinesthetic Responses and Music>

Positive to the music appeared to facilitate a kinesthetically and/or emotionally empathetic response to the dance, negative/indifferent reaction to the music associated with less empathetic responses.

<1>

For some, the appeal of music was closely connected to the mood

Some kinesthetic responses were primarily in terms of the music rather than the movement, both can become very closely entangled

<2>

Some attracted to the technical rather than the emotional aspect

Many aspects of these responses (although felt spontaneous to the viewers) were predicated to large degree on cultural knowledge or "habitus"

<Empathy as Embodied Anticipation>

Reported embodied responses linked with sensations and feelings of anticipation and suspense produced by choreographically progression and development

"with it", "with you", underlines ones experience of connecting viewer's body rhythms (breathing, heartbeat) and emotions with the dynamics of the dance

Viewer embodied the suspense in altered breathing patterns and muscular tension

Effects of embodied anticipation can be heightened by music

Can involve changes in postural conditions of the muscles without actual movement taking place

(By Martin) A feature of "inner mimicry"

"Embodied anticipation similar to that idea but also different in that the sensations and feelings it involves arise out of connections between the dance and spectator and are not limited to being an "imitation" of the dancer that purportedly gives access to their feelings

<Sensual and Escapist Motivations in Watching Dance>

Concept of interpretative strategies suggests that when engaging with dance, individuals are motivate by the hopes, rewards and pleasure they want to find within a work

Eg, some derived pleasure from a sense of closeness and awareness of the dancer's physicality and effort

Eg, some found more pleasure from seeking an escape and suspension from reality

Motivations and expectations that some participants attached to a particular form of dance movement (the instinctive and largely automatic processes that individuals employ when responding to the movement)

Problematic to claim that these feelings and emotions are a priori present in the movement itself.

Instead might suggest that emotional responses are projected onto movement by spectators

Theodor Lipps's theory of Einfuhlung

Connection of empathy and kinesthesia in aesthetic experience

Both Lipps and Martin discussed empathetic response even to inanimate objects

Object could be experienced in kinesthetic terms, as a kind of replica of the spectator's body and its movements

The receiver's embodied experience became bound up with and objectified in his/her perception of the work

We experience the music as an extension of our own bodies and we attribute to it the sensations and associations it arouses in us

(Martin) "Psychologists have discovered changes in the postural condition of the muscles in response even to shapes, though there's no outward movement of any kind visible"

Eg, we can see how the restful, calming, gladdening responses to ballet are effects produced by the body and projected back onto the movement

Audience's emotional responses to dance movement, therefore are produced by the process of engaging with the work rather than elements found within the work alone

Responses produced by movement AND

the interpretative strategies with which individual spectators engage with that movement

<1>

Engagement and empathy are produced by intimacy and intensity, eg, were enhanced in breathing section

Seeks out rawness and sensuality in its dance encounters

<2>

Degree of distance, facilitated by the music, is necessary for a kind of empathetic engagement which involves a suspension of reality

Seek out a kind of release or relaxing escapism in dance

Wide spectrum of possibilities, motivations are in large part shaped by the cultural contexts and dance traditions with which spectators are familiar

Some respond to dance through the lens of their own particular interpretative strategy, others are happy to adopt different viewing positions according to what they're watching

While some consciously/unconsciously adjust their interpretative strategies to different performances, others found this more challenging

Exhibiting strong attachments to particular desires and pleasures and demonstrating greater disappointment when these were not fulfilled

These then influence not only what individuals find and response to in the performances they see but also naturally what kind of dance they attend

Eg, distance and escapism as significant motivation among ballet spectators

Eg, desire for a visceral response to intimacy and intensity for contemp

1. Enjoyment of the wow factor that virtuosic dance affords

2. Pleasure of imaging dancing oneself

3. Problem of investing the self into the body of the other

4. Sensual responses that engage with the effort, strength, sweat of dance

5. Escapist responses that relish the gladdening and up-lifting feeling of graceful movements

6. Multi-sensory responses that seek concord/discord across stimuli

7. Embodied responses where spectator's breathing, posture, energy are altered by the process of watching

Variety of attitudes suggest that kinesthetic responses are key source of pleasure and motivation for many dance spectators

<Kinesthetic "Empathy">

Experiences of embodied and imaginative connection between self and other, particularly in moments of inner mimicry/ imagined substitution can be considered in terms of kinesthetic "empathy"

<Kinesthetic "Sympathy">

Cognitive and reflective responses

admiration for virtuosity of others

appreciation of effort/projection of emotional intention onto movement

<Kinesthetic "Contagion">

connected to both

between spectator and audience

describe instances where spectators passionately describe the feeling of joyful pleasure in uplifting and graceful movement

spectator respond to dance in an immediate emotional manner

describe process where audiences find their heartbeats and breathing moving into synchrony with their perception of the movement

possibly involving auditory perception (music or dancer's breathing)

Conclusion

Many people have distinct preferences

Explored links with cultural competence, experience, motivation and pleasure strategies

Witness spectators articulating the effects on their own body, imagination, feelings that result from watching the movement of others

Kinesthetic experience can be described as an affect

Consider the impact upon audience, reflect on what they do with it, how they respond to it within their lived experience of dance

What spectators feel and why is highly individual and linked with wider social, cultural and lived experienced

Consideration of pleasure similarly allows us to recognise different desired self/other relations between spectator and dancer

Ranging from pleasure in intimacy and closeness to discomfort and displeasure in intimacy and closeness to discomfort and displeasure in proximity and desire for aesthetic distance from one's own (imperfect) self

# data[].attributes.headline
Harmsel, Jan. "Nonverbal Communication As A Referee - Dutch Referee Blog". Dutch Referee Blog, 2021, https://www.dutchreferee.com/nonverbal-communication-referee/.

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Harmsel, Jan. "Nonverbal Communication As A Referee - Dutch Referee Blog". Dutch Referee Blog, 2021, https://www.dutchreferee.com/nonverbal-communication-referee/.

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Hand Gestures

Required to use by the Laws of the Game

Plus general hand gestures to communicate in general life

To "sell" the decision by making sure that the hand gestures compliment what is said

Eg, telling a player to calm down by using open palms (complements being calm and non confrontational)

Can tell players to leave

Can tell players to come over to you

Seen as non confrontational and that you're the one in control

Postural Echo

Used to built rapport with players

Copying other person's posture

Eg, walking or standing a bit more like they do

Subconsciously tells players that you're more like them, enable you to build a rapport with them

A peacock (lifting chest up more) shows a sense of superiority and dominance if one of games gets flared up and need to assert authority

But don't overuse else may be seen as over officious

Touch

Touch can have unconscious and positive effect on attitudes (Fisher.et.al)

Used to build key rapport with players

Eg, respect handshake at start of game

Personal Space

Emotionally charged bubble surrounding each individual

If invaded, we can feel exploited and very uncomfortable

Eg, when cautioning/dismissing player, Laws of the Game says we should isolate player but also... (not said)

Player should be 1.5-2m away (social space)

Your space 0.5-1.5m (personal space) should not be invaded

If player enters that space in a hostile manner you can rebuke the player and caution them for adopting an aggressive attitude/dissent

4m of space (public space) is where all players should be whilst you have isolated the player to talk to them

# data[].attributes.headline
Vieira, Kim. "Communication On Cue Is Key - Referee.Com". Referee.Com, 2021, https://www.referee.com/communication-on-cue-is-key/

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Vieira, Kim. "Communication On Cue Is Key - Referee.Com". Referee.Com, 2021, https://www.referee.com/communication-on-cue-is-key/

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Head Nod: indicates comment has been heard and may resolve the situation

Stern Look: at player who committed a foul can go a long way in letting player know that the behaviour is unacceptable

Smile: indicate referee heard the remark

Raising hand in "stop" motion: clearly tells player that referee is not going to condone anymore of the particular style of play

Voice Inflection (how referee says something): must be composed when speaking and ensure player/coach focuses on the words and not referee's emotions

Must maintain composure, professionalism and be aware of body language

Physical approach, attitude, body language and stance and eye contact will determine the environment and will bring about a positive result

Eve contact:

Looking down when speaking to player/coach provides appearance of weakness

Looking over creates feeling that you're speaking down to them

Eye contact is a sign of strength

Body stance:

Relaxed, indicates that referee is not threatening in any manner but is approachable and ready to listen and provide professional response

Rigid (military type march, head up, shoulders back, straight and stiff body, short and quick gestures, harsh voice, stare-type eye contact), creates appearance of confrontation

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Football, baseball, soccer and basketball

Coaches, Referess, Fans, Players

Coaches use wide range of elaborate hand signals to their players in order to direct next play in the game

May use less obvious head an hand/ facial gestures when calling plays or directing teams

Fans typically use victory signs/ "number one" hand gestures to indicate a win

PLAYERS

Baseball

Slap helmet/butt: Good job

Lining up after game to slap hands: showing good sportsmanship (usually accompanied with verbal "good game"

Pitchers and catcher have gestures that mean different throw, without letting on what they're planning

Second baseman and short-stop need to effectively identify pitchers and catcher's signs, while communicating to each other who's going to cover the bag and who's hanging back to make the play

http://probaseballinsider.com/baseball-instruction/secret-infield-communication/

http://www.baseball-catcher.com/guide/signals.htm

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Catcher communicating with pitcher through gestures to determine which pitch to throw

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handshake important form of nonverbal comm for basketball teams

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Basketball

Michael W. Kraus, Cassy Huang, and Dacher Keltner of the University of California conducted an ethological study during the NBA 2008-2009 regular season

Coded touching behaviours between players in hopes of finding direct link between touching and success of team

Teams with large amounts of touching performed better than teams that didn't

"One of the major functions of touch is its promotion of trust and cooperation, touch is a powerful enabler of trust between group members"

Soccer

When receiver sees dribbler get his head up/raise eyebrow: signals to receiver to make the run because dribbler can pass anytime after his head comes up

Open hand to side: directs side in which the ball is to be played/ using extended arm by deep player (goal keeper) to give teammates needed directional info prior to a drop

More helpful than confusing language (left/right) and eliminate problems faced when crowd noise drowns out verbal comms

Raise hands overhead/ out to the side with palms up, head held high in triumph: Universal sign of winning/scoring

High 5: signal "great job" after scoring goal or winning game

Cover face or eyes with hands/arms: signal loss/humiliation, common reaction of shame/defeat

COACHES

Head nods, smiles, frowns, bodily contact, eye movements, laughter, body posture, language etc

Facial expression of athletes: provide feedback to coach

Posture of group: provide means by which their attitude to the coach may be judged and act as pointer to their mood

Soccer

Thumbs up sign: indicate player has done a great job

High 5: well done

Run down sidelines when goal missed, clapping towards player: indicate players gave a good effort and will do better next time

Frown + crossed arms + back turned: indicate disappointment, say to players they really messed up on the play

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Referees/Officials

Extending both arms above head: Score

Wrapping hands around wrists below his clenched fist: Holding

NFL's officiating hand signals more than 35

Mascots

Interact with audience in an animated way without saying a word

Job of raising morale and providing offside entertainment to the fans

Communicate nonverbally in such a way that's easy for fans to understand and interpret

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Kaul, Pallvi et al. “Deciphering the Optimum Doctor-Patient Communication Strategy During COVID-19 Pandemic.” Indian journal of surgical oncology, 1-2. 5 Mar. 2021, doi:10.1007/s13193-021-01301-z

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Kaul, Pallvi et al. “Deciphering the Optimum Doctor-Patient Communication Strategy During COVID-19 Pandemic.” Indian journal of surgical oncology, 1-2. 5 Mar. 2021, doi:10.1007/s13193-021-01301-z

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A doctor's facial expressions are usually the first thing a patient notices

Randomised controlled trial- highlighted that wearing facemasks by docs can result in a significant negative effect on the patient's perception of the doc's empathy

Touch (haptics)

Gentle pat on shoulder of patient/ touching hands extends support and empathy

Covid

Assessing state of mind of patient hindered by use of facemasks

Facemasks hides expressions of patients (useful cues to gauge patient's emotional status and perspectives)

Eye contact

Steady eye gaze: from doctor. may help build a relationship of trust with patient

Shifting gaze/inability to maintain eye contact: lead to anxiety and mistrust despite constant verbal reassurances provided by doc

Raising/lowering eyebrows

Furrowing frowning forehead, flinching of eyes: indicator of the degree of pain

Paralinguistics

Pitch (highness/lowness of voice)

Volume (loudly/softly)

Rate (speed)

Voice quality (how pleasant/unpleasant)

Body gestures and movements

Constant back-leaning: generate mistrust and feeling of indifference

Forward lean: exhibits benevolence and compassion to the patients

Frequent head nodding/hand movements: conveys to patient that doc is attentive and actively engaged in the convo

Indian style of greeting (Namaste): time-tested gesture of goodwill and compassion

Patient Listener

"Kubler-Ross model": stages of grief

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The way we see, hear, taste, touch and smell may never be the same again

Undergoing a sensory revolution

All senses affected by pandemic

Not cause senses changed but cause the context and environment in which we sense has been profoundly altered

Sensory shifts and perceptions tend to happen slowly (measured in decades and centuries), not in mere weeks and months

New sights Louder sounds

Seeing is no longer believing (those appear perfectly healthy may be unknowingly disease transmitters)

Desolated city streets new sights

Absence of airplane

Masks render once-familiar faces unrecognisable

Urban dwellers hear less traffic

Seismic sensors are picking up activity that used to be drowned out by the activities of cities

Pandemic have reconfigured habits of listening and thresholds of hearing

No guide

Long-term effects of the pandemic will likely be in words and culture

# data[].attributes.headline
Cherry, Kendra. "What Are The 9 Types Of Nonverbal Communication You Might Be Missing?". Verywell Mind, 2021, https://www.verywellmind.com/types-of-nonverbal-communication-2795397.

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Cherry, Kendra. "What Are The 9 Types Of Nonverbal Communication You Might Be Missing?". Verywell Mind, 2021, https://www.verywellmind.com/types-of-nonverbal-communication-2795397.

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- Everyday we respond to thousands of nonverbal cues and behaviours including postures, facial expressions, eye gaze, gestures and tone of voice
- Nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people

Facial Expressions
- The look on a person's face is often the first thing we see, even before we hear what they have to say

Gestures
- Some gestures are arbitrary and related to culture
<Courtroom setting>
- Lawyers known to utilise different nonverbal signals to attempt to sway juror opinions

Paralinguistics
- Vocal communication separate from actual language
- Tone of voice, loudness, inflection, pitch

Body Language and Posture
- Can indicate feelings and attitudes
- Research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive than previously believed

Proxemics
- "Personal space"
- The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors (social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, level of familiarity)

Eye Gaze
- Looking
- Staring
- Blinking
- Rate of blinking
- Dilated pupils
- Steady eye contact
- Shifty eyes

Haptics (Touch)
- Can be used to communicate affection, familiarity, sympathy and other emotions

Appearance
- Research on color psychology has demonstrated that different colors can evoke different moods
- Can alter physiological reactions, judgements, and interpretations
- Culture is an important influence on how appearances are judges

Artefacts
- Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally
- People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects designed to convey information about the things that are important to them
<Uniforms>
- Can be used to transmit tremendous amount of information about a person
- These outfits tell people what a person does for a living

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Nonverbal communication is a process of generating meaning using behaviour other than words

More accurate to view them as operating side by side as part of the same system

They still have important differences, including how the brain processes them

Principles of nonverbal communication
- While some nonverbal comm abilities (sense of smell, verbal capacities) increased, other abilities like paralanguage and movement have grown alongside verbal complexity
- The fact that nonverbal comm is processed by an older part of our brain makes it more instinctual and involuntary that verbal comm

Nonverbal comms conveys important interpersonal and emotional messages
- We may rely more on nonverbal signals in situations where verbal and nonverbal messages conflict and where emotional/relational comms is taking place
- More weight placed on nonverbal comms when determining a person's credibility

Nonverbal comms is more involuntary than verbal
- Some instances where we communicate involuntarily (exclamations)
- Although most verbal comms isn't completely involuntary, its more below our consciousness than verbal comm and hence more difficult to control

Nonverbal comms is more ambiguous
- Unlike words, many nonverbal signals do not have any one specific meaning
- Nonverbal comms doesn't have explicit rules of grammar that bring structure, order and agreed-on patterns of usage
- In general, we exhibit more idiosyncrasies in our usage of nonverbal comm than we do with verbal comm, which also increases the ambiguity of nonverbal comm

.....

Public Space
Social Space
Personal Space
Intimate Space
Territoriality

Chronemics
- The study of how time affects communication
Biological time: Rhythms of living things. Humans follow a circadian rhythm, we are on a daily cycle that influences when we eat, sleep and wake. Natural rhythms disturbed by all-nighters, jet lag or other scheduling abnormalities
Personal time: The way in which individuals experience time. It varies based on our mood, interest levels and other factors. (Time passes fast when we are engaged in something we like)
Physical time: Fixed cycles of days, years and seasons. Can affect our mood and psychological states.
Cultural time: How a large group of people view time. Polychronic people do not view time as a linear progression that needs to be divided into small units and scheduled in advance. Have more flexible schedules and may engage in several activities as once. Monochronic people tend to schedule their time more rigidly and do one thing at a time. Polychronic/monochronic orientation to time influences our social realities and how we interact with others

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Kwan utilises her own bodily experience of walking, bicycling, driving, or otherwise moving through a city as the entry point into how she discusses the way diasporic identity is produced

Multiple layers of meaning inherent in our experience of urban spaces.

How community identity is forged within this varied urban spaces.

Experiences embodied by persons engaging the streets and buildings.

Racial identities fluctuate in the differences between how one's body is read by others and one's own self-awareness.

"Urban motion"

Dynamic configurations of architecture, space, state power, communal ties, modern dance, and personal experience

Kinesthetic sensibility makes for an entangled communal identity

Production of urban spatial meaning is both a dynamic and personal process: the very act of moving one's body in space is what gives both body and space a physical and social meaning, while the mutually reactive motions of multiple bodies in a particular place produce the social and political space of the city.

Urban histories of the cities' physical space (What's Singapore's?)

How these physical structures of a city are themselves being reshaped over time as individuals, groups and systems of power work in mutual motion to produce space- and how this in turn affects the everyday experience of the city, and even the experience of a transient visitor.

Bodies choreograph places to create meaning as well as the ways in which space choreograph these bodies- each urging the other in performances of community identity.

Richard Schechner's writing on ritual

"The city itself becomes imaged as narrative as sites are transformed by the sequence of movements of its traveler-dwellers"

Positioning dance and the body's meaning-making capacity as a crucial lens and source material from which to attend to the formation of culture and cultural identity

"Conscious designing of the bodily movement through space and time", suggestive of the body as participating in the production of space

Discourses around space and theories around collective identities, which the build environment is complicit in shaping

Scrutiny to a city's "movements", overlapping with her analysis of movements and choreographies of a diverse set of bodies inhabiting the pedestrian and artistic territories of these urban epicenters, exposes how Chinese transnational subjectivity is, in turn, perpetually in motion.

# data[].attributes.headline
Martin, Randy. “Between Intervention and Utopia: Dance Politics.” Emerging Bodies: The Performance of Worldmaking in Dance and Choreography, edited by Gabriele Klein and Sandra Noeth, Transcript Verlag, 2011, pp. 29–46, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1wxt9q.5.

# data[].attributes.subject
Martin, Randy. “Between Intervention and Utopia: Dance Politics.” Emerging Bodies: The Performance of Worldmaking in Dance and Choreography, edited by Gabriele Klein and Sandra Noeth, Transcript Verlag, 2011, pp. 29–46, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1wxt9q.5.

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Conceptions of who can move for what, the conventions by which people gather, the spaces made available, the training and preparation, notions of embodiment - all bear upon dance

Gathers its public then disperses them suddenly, leaving a sensible residue of what has been and what can only be desired, namely the will to create more

Both organise ephemerality (exists only temporarily), stage disappearance, leave a sense of lack (if only more has been done to get people to come, if only some more, the event would have made its mark).

- Vanishes within moments of its consummation in the live act of inhabiting the appointed space.

The organisers, presenters, performers all know that their fate lies near, that the show cannot go on forever, that there will be a return

Decolonisation breaches that seal that had governed movement verticality, much dance emerges in the break and in turn, the physicalisation of movement breaks open what is taken to be dancing

Postmodern: an assigned higher value of a participative community over a proscenium-divided audience, of a spatial diffusion of where dance might occur against a hierarchy of specialised theatrical venues

Need to re-evaluate how movement moves, of diasporic dispersions of style, of a certain corporal globalisation

While practices span diverse geographic and populations, and evoke disparate performance protocols and ensemble ethos, they also share dimensions of lateral affiliation (expansive valorisation of everyday spaces, engagement with the production of risk as a promise of self-appreciation and unexpected gain)
- Share the ambiguous legacy of appropriation and commercialisation
- But none are exhausted by these conventions of market culture

The expanded capacities for what bodies do together, what ground they break, desires unleashed, debts placed in circulation and demands placed upon one another in a sustainable society, all point to a more ambiguous realisation of the potential for moving otherwise.

Social kinesthetic is the loam from which emerges this ceaseless stream of possibility

# data[].attributes.headline
Bernard, Catherine. “Bodies and Digital Utopia.” Art Journal, vol. 59, no. 4, [Taylor & Francis, Ltd., CAA], 2000, pp. 26–31, https://doi.org/10.2307/778118.

# data[].attributes.subject
Bernard, Catherine. “Bodies and Digital Utopia.” Art Journal, vol. 59, no. 4, [Taylor & Francis, Ltd., CAA], 2000, pp. 26–31, https://doi.org/10.2307/778118.

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Current r/s to physical and social bodies:
- Endangered by altered definitions of physical identity and increasing media-centric behaviours

Manipulation of human longevity, health, appearance, and reproduction to foster the concept of disposable bodies and physical reality

Communication networks increase the dissociation from experienced physical reality

Digital communications promote an ideology of transcendence in regard to the plurality and diversity of cultures, politics, and histories that overcome space and time, offering the promise of an open space of equal exchange based upon a nonhierarchical structure.

Global network and space without physical boundaries subverts unilateral systems of information by de facto opening transnational and transcultural connections
- Allows the restructuring of geo-political boundaries into an ever-expanding market of limitless access

Digital space/physical bodies
- Promotes a distance from experienced reality and a uniform space and time
- Body and physical experiences are disruptive (physical functions are both unpredictable and difficult to quantify)
- Within digital economy, desire is given a privileged place cause it can be rerouted into consumerism

Multiple dimensions (live, broadcast, actual, virtual) can coalesce without necessarily destroying one another and reflect on the blurring of our perception of different levels of reality

Digital space/ social and political bodies
Idea of digital space as a space of great equality is supported by the entrepreneurs of the New Economy (present cyber-economy as a place of equal opportunity and nonhierarchical)
- Fosters the idea of global equality
- Seamless place where we can coexist and be treated equally
- Respects and protects cultural and historical differences
** does not take into account the digital divide, and that cyberspace ad any economic space is regulated more by laws or profit than by cultural enlightenment

Rhyzomes
Digital flux that frames our experience of physical and socio-political realities
Memory can be constructed from information drawn from several contiguous places and times, a process that tends to replace actual experience

It is possible that the digital erasure of physical, social and political narratives through such "global" and self-referential systems will neither open a new era of utopian freedom of expression nor promote the safekeeping of and democratic access to multiple histories and cultures
- Might serve the dynamics of oblivion and erasure on a global scale

# data[].attributes.headline
Assmann, Jan, and John Czaplicka. “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity.” New German Critique, no. 65, [New German Critique, Duke University Press], 1995, pp. 125–33, https://doi.org/10.2307/488538.

# data[].attributes.subject
Assmann, Jan, and John Czaplicka. “Collective Memory and Cultural Identity.” New German Critique, no. 65, [New German Critique, Duke University Press], 1995, pp. 125–33, https://doi.org/10.2307/488538.

# data[].attributes.body
"Collective" or "Social memory"

The specific character that a person derives from belonging to a distinct society and culture is not seen to maintain itself from generations as a result of phylogenetic evolution, but rather s a result of socialisation and customs.

The "survival of the type" in the sense of a cultural pseudo-species is a function of the cultural memory.

A collective concept for all knowledge that directs behaviour and experience in the interactive frame-work of a society and one that obtains through generations in repeated societal practice and initiation

1. "communicative" or "everyday memory" (lacking cultural characteristics)
2. collective self-image

Communicative memory
- Includes those varieties of collective memory
- Based exclusively on everyday communications
- Takes place between partners who can change roles (joke, memory, gossip, experience, becoming listener in the next moment)
- Predetermined occasions (train rides, waiting room, common table)

Through this manner of communication, each individual composes a memory which is
1. Socially mediated
2. Relates to a group

Every memory constitutes itself in communication with others ("Others - groups who conceive their unity and peculiarity through a common image of their past)

Every individual belongs to numerous such groups, entertaining numerous collective self-images and memories

Limited temporal horizon
- Does not extend more than 80-100 years into the past (3-4 generations)
- This horizon shifts in direct relation to the passing of time
- Offers no fixed point which would bind it to the ever expanding past in the passing of time
- Fixity can only be achieved through a cultural formation and hence lies outside of informal everyday memory

Identity:
The structure of knowledge - "concretion of identity", a group bases its consciousness of unity and specificity upon this knowledge and derives formative and normative impulses from it, allowing the group to reproduce its identity

The Cultural Memory
Communicative memory - characterised by proximity to everyday
Cultural memory - characterised by distance from the everyday
- Has its fixed point
- Horizon does not change with passing of time
- Fixed points are fateful events of the past, who's memory is maintained through cultural formation (texts, monuments) and institutional communication

"Figures of memory", forming "islands of time", islands of a completely different temporality suspended from time

In cultural formation - collective experience crystallises, whose meaning when touched upon, may suddenly become accessible again across millennia.

1. The concretion of identity - cultural memory preserves the store of knowledge from which a group derives as awareness of its unity and peculiarity. Objective manifestations of cultural memory defined through a kind of identificatory determination "we are this" or "that's our opposite"
- Evolves into "constitution of horizons", the supply of knowledge in the cultural memory characterised by sharp distinctions made between those who belong and those who do not. "Need for identity"

2. Capacity to reconstruct
Which society in each era can reconstruct within its contemporary frame of reference
Every contemporary context relates to these differently, sometimes by appropriation/criticism/preservation/transformation.
Exists in 2 modes: mode of potentiality (of the archive whose accumulated texts, images and rules of conduct act as a total horizon) and mode of actuality (each contemporary context puts the objectivised meaning into its own perspective, giving it its own relevance)

3. Formation
Objectivation or crystallisation of communicated meaning and collectively shared knowledge is a prerequisite of its transmission in the culturally institutionalised heritage of a society

4. Organisation
Institutional buttressing of communication
The specialisation of the bearers of cultural memory

5. Obligation
A normative self-image of the group engenders a clear system of values and differentiations in importance which structure the cultural supply of knowledge and the symbols.
The binding character of the knowledge preserved in cultural memory has 2 aspects
- Formative (educative, civilising and humanising functions)
Normative (function of providing rules of conduct)

6. Reflexibility
Practice-reflexive: interprets common practice in terms through proverbs (sacrificial rites that interpret the practice of hunting)
Self-reflexive: draws on itself to explain, distinguish, reinterpret, criticise, censure control, surpass and receive hypoleptically
Reflexive: reflects the self-image of the group through a preoccupation with its own social system

Those who cannot remember their past are condemned to relive it
Through its cultural heritage, a society becomes visible to itself and others
Which past becomes evident in that heritage and which values emerge in its identificatory appropriation tells us much about the constitution and tendencies of a society

# data[].attributes.headline
Lateiner, Donald. “Heroic Proxemics: Social Space and Distance in the Odyssey.” Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), vol. 122, [Johns Hopkins University Press, American Philological Association], 1992, pp. 133–63, https://doi.org/10.2307/284369.

# data[].attributes.subject
Lateiner, Donald. “Heroic Proxemics: Social Space and Distance in the Odyssey.” Transactions of the American Philological Association (1974-), vol. 122, [Johns Hopkins University Press, American Philological Association], 1992, pp. 133–63, https://doi.org/10.2307/284369.

# data[].attributes.body
The field of body-talk comprises 2 lesser known but significant categories of nonverbal behaviour
Chronemics
Proxemics: examines "social and personal space and man's perception of it" in different cultures. Physical proximity has social causes and psychological consequences. Humans depend on close-range receptors (smell and touch)

- human uses of time and position to structure communicative events

The human "ego", the social persona, extends beyond mere skin to an invisible and usually inviolable "body-envelope", the parameters of which vary by culture and class

Distance between communicating individuals
1. Public
2. Social
3. Personal
4. Intimate

# data[].attributes.headline
Dils, Ann, and Jill Flanders Crosby. “Dialogue in Dance Studies Research.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 33, no. 1, Congress on Research in Dance, 2001, pp. 62–81, https://doi.org/10.2307/1478857.

# data[].attributes.subject
Dils, Ann, and Jill Flanders Crosby. “Dialogue in Dance Studies Research.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 33, no. 1, Congress on Research in Dance, 2001, pp. 62–81, https://doi.org/10.2307/1478857.

# data[].attributes.body
Our dialogues were not simple exchanges of information, but negotiations of meaning

Dialogue and the Dialogical Process
Dialogue: Conversation, a mutual exchange of many potential types. Conjuring up images of working together, sharing information and building new insights

Opposing pair - consider the possible layers of complication
- Might have different, culturally enforced or personally held, understandings about what kind of information should be shared in a dialogue/how to conduct the conversation
- Might not share bodily conversational cues of gesture, facial expression, posture
- Might be attending to different internal dialogues, based on personality or needs of disciplines

Dialogical process:
Socially and culturally based web of negotiations
Opposing exchange makes it richer, opening up new avenues of inquiry and analysis, helping us realise and account for our assumptions and expectations

When researcher transcribes interview
- Taken out of context
- Ideas and sensibilities of the people involved may change in a number of ways
- Explanatory powers of body language and infliction and our abilities to clarify and restate are diminished to description/taken away entirely

Dialogue between 2 people becomes new dialogue, one defined by the needs of the text, that enters into a new discipline-based dialogue. A re-contextualisation of dialogue.

But
Texts might be written and read with a dialogical process in mind. Author sensitive to the political dimensions of representing others and their words (include more dialogue in her texts, trying to sustain and characterise the original flow, length, contextual sense of the exchange)

Concepts that underpin a particular way of thinking about the world

Establishing a Dialogue
Who should speak of and for the cultural products of a particular group, using what knowledge base, is an increasingly complex question as is the identification of a dance form as being the exclusive domain of any particular group

Laban System: how movers use and organise their bodies, shape their bodies, and space around them, and mete out their energy, timing, spatial sense, and force to produce physical expression

4 Major Categories of Movement
1. Body Use
2. Space/Shape
3. Efforts
4. Choreographic Elements

- Moving and observing could produce different results but both related to bodily knowledge and to theoretical knowledge about the use of the body
eg: Dils can't see particular aspects of the movement with the depth/specificity that Crosby could. Dils could make finer discriminations between various uses of weight than Crosby

Found a connection between our individual trainings and abilities to understand movement; both bodily and theoretical knowledge impinged on our ability to perform, see, and analyse movement

Laban Movement Analysis: to derive useful observations that would extend traditional anthropological analyses
- Info arrived at thru LMA training and observations more easily retained through body memory
eg: no need to memorise sets of numbers, rather experience movement kinesthically as patterns and sequences of shape, space, bodily configurations and dynamics.
The kinesthetic sympathy with the observed movement provides rapid and efficient access to the perception of complex patterns

Process of observation:
- Movement observed and made sense through the body (whether or not it's actually performed) by moving from familiar movement patterns to realise differences and eventually learn new patterns
- Body acts as a notebook, storing information and providing a means of comparison.
- Movement analysis process does not have the thoroughness and subtlety of learning a dance to the point of mastery, but is a physical learning process
- Doing and observing can provide different information about movement, but both tap body memory and depend on former movement experiences to help make sense of the new.

"Dance ethnography is unique because it is necessarily grounded in the body and the body's experience rather than in texts, artefacts or abstractions. All paths lead back to and from people moving"

"Movement performance... is... not just visual spectacle but ... kinesthetic, conceptual and emotional experience that depends upon cultural learning" - Deidre Sklar

# data[].attributes.headline
Costello, Brigid. “Rhythms of Kinesthetic Empathy.” Leonardo, vol. 47, no. 3, [Leonardo, The MIT Press], 2014, pp. 258–59, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43834184.

# data[].attributes.subject
Costello, Brigid. “Rhythms of Kinesthetic Empathy.” Leonardo, vol. 47, no. 3, [Leonardo, The MIT Press], 2014, pp. 258–59, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43834184.

# data[].attributes.body
Paper
- Focuses on the rhythmic interrelationship between the sensing body and the sensing computer
- Proposes that human-computer interaction is a rhythmic meeting between 2 energetic systems

<Psychologist Kaschak>
Interaction between body and world:
- Both energetic systems have the potential to affect the rhythms of the other

Memory is strengthened when multiple senses are engaged as they were here when the sound effect was triggered by a physical footstep

Sound can evoke kinetic memories
as it occurred at the same time as the participant's body was moved in a way that corresponded to these memories

<Sheets-Johnstone>
- Bodily movement is "experientially intertwined" with emotions to such as extent that "bodily feelings and feelings of emotion are divisible only reflectively"
- We not only move our bodies in certain ways when we feel emotion but also in moving our bodies we can through this engrained kinetic intelligence, provoke memories of emotions and bodily sensation
- Resonates with cognitive science research (found that both observed actions and objects that afford actions can activate the "somatosensory cortices" and produce sympathetic sensations, particularly those relating to "tactile simulation"

The close r/s between action and representational response produces the delightful feeling of causing the representation to emerge

Kinesthetic Empathy
- The capacity to participate with another's movement or another's sensory experience of movement
- In a human-computer interaction, this capacity is not just human, it's shared with the system through the dynamics of interaction
- Together they created a polyrhythmic r/s between system and interactor that resulted in a harmonious synchrony between the 2 energetic systems
- Both the system and interactor were opened to , penetrated by, the vital rhythmic play between self and the other

# data[].attributes.headline
Stets, Jan E., and Peter J. Burke. “Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 3, [Sage Publications, Inc., American Sociological Association], 2000, pp. 224–37, https://doi.org/10.2307/2695870.

# data[].attributes.subject
Stets, Jan E., and Peter J. Burke. “Identity Theory and Social Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly, vol. 63, no. 3, [Sage Publications, Inc., American Sociological Association], 2000, pp. 224–37, https://doi.org/10.2307/2695870.

# data[].attributes.body
Concept of Identity
Self-Categorisation (social identity theory) or Identification (identity theory): self is reflexive in that it can take itself as an object and can categorise, classify or name itself in particular ways in relation to other social categories/classification

Social Identity Theory: a person's knowledge that he/she belongs to a social category/group
>> Set of social identities that make up a person's self concept is unique

Social group: a set of individuals who hold a common social identification or view themselves as members of the same social category

Social Category: parts of a structured society and exist only in relation to other contrasting categories. Precede individuals (Social class, unemployed etc)
>> Indvs are born into an already structured society
>> Once in society, people derive their identity/sense of self largely from the social categories to which they belong

Self-Categorisation (social identity theory):
Consequence is an accentuation of the perceived similarities between the self and other in-group members, and an accentuation of the perceived differences between the self and out-group members
- Attitudes
- Beliefs
- Values
- Affective reactions
- Behavioural norms
- Styles of speech

One's self-esteem is enhanced by evaluating the in-group and the out-group on dimensions that lead the in-group to be judged positively and the out-group negatively
>> In-group identification leads to greater commitment to the group and to less desire to leave the group, even when the group's status is relatively low

Identity Theory: deals principally with the components of a structured society
>> Core of an identity is the categorisation of the self as an occupant of a role and the incorporation into the self (of meanings and expectations associated with that role and its performance)
>> Sets standards that guide behaviour
>> Naming includes all things that take on meaning in relation to our plans and activities

Basis of Social Identity
Uniformity of perception and action among group members
<Deaux>
- Indicates that particular personal identities may be linked to specific social identities, creating unique ways of expressing membership in particular groups
- Suggests that some personal identities may represent a general view of the self and therefore may pervade all the membership groups to which one belongs

Salient Social Identity
One which is functioning psychologically to increase the influence of one's membership in that group on perception and behaviour

Salience Hierarchy
Addresses which role a person will enact in a situation when more than one role may be appropriate

Basis of Role Identity
Resides in the differences in perceptions and actions that accompany a role as it relates to counter-roles
>> Different perspectives are involved among the persons in the group as they negotiate and perform their respective roles, creating micro social structures within the group

Person Identity
Set of meanings that are tied to and sustain the self as an individual, these self-meanings operate across various roles and situations in the same way as Deauz believes that some person identities pervade all the membership groups to which one belongs

Macro-Level: Examine whether participation in social movement increases as one identifies with the group is committed to the role identities within the group vs other identities one claims
>> Participation may be highest when individuals are linked at all 3 levels of abstraction (group, role, person)

Meso-Level: Study inter and intragroup relations
>> Different role that one assumes in a group may increase/reduce identification with the group depending on (eg: power and status)

Micro-Level: Analysis of the group, role and person can help us understand more clearly such motivational processes as self-esteem, self-efficacy and authenticity

# data[].attributes.headline
Smyth, Mary M. “Kinesthetic Communication in Dance.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 16, no. 2, Congress on Research in Dance, 1984, pp. 19–22, https://doi.org/10.2307/1478718.

# data[].attributes.subject
Smyth, Mary M. “Kinesthetic Communication in Dance.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 16, no. 2, Congress on Research in Dance, 1984, pp. 19–22, https://doi.org/10.2307/1478718.

# data[].attributes.body
Dance rewards the beholder by considering the processes by which dance communicates.
<Anderson>
"Dance communicates because it prompts responses within in"

This paper...
1. Study of perception and communication within psychology
2. To examine the ways in which we can gain information about the movements of other people
3. How such information could give rise to kinesthetic experience

Kinesthesis
- Study of sensation and perception
- Relates to movement of one's own body while the movement of another's must be perceived via one or more of the 5 exteroceptive systems
- Refers to the nature of communication, not to the perceptual system by which it is picked up

How watching someone dance could link to the movement system of the observer
>> Suggestion: perceptual input links to the motor command system, which becomes active and somehow gives rise to sensations which actually are from the observer's body
>> Suggestion: the input links to stored memory representations of what movements feel like without involving the motor commands

kinein = to move
aesthesis = perception
sense of movement of one's own body, derived from movement information provided by receptors in joints, muscles, tendons and skin
"Sense of one's own movement:

Receptors
give us info about objects and events in the world

Exteroceptors
Source of external info

Interoceptors
Receptors solely concerned with the internal state of the organism (Pain, pressure)

Proprioceptors
Receptors in the muscles, joints, tendons

Visual kinesthesis
Sense of movement of one's own body when movement is seen

- Info picked up from environment must come in via eyes, ears, nose, taste buds, skin
- Dance must communicate through these modalities
- If there's kinesthetic communication when we do not move, then this must be mediated via other senses and need how ask how this is done

Dance utilises a number of channels

Physical nature of stimuli is different
Different physical stimuli can produce the same understanding and meaning
Different kinds of sensory input relate to an abstract representation of meaning

"You may be presented visually with one message while you are hearing/subliminally experiencing yet another"

Dance can convey several meanings simultaneously

Subliminal
- Threshold for detection
- Subtle and mysterious communication lies in how we use and understand signs which we do not know that we produce or receive
(Blind using echos produced when the sound of their own movement reflected back to them)
- To understand how info is transferred, it's necessary to consider more than the experience of the receiver

Toe tapping - response to rhythmic stimulation (music, rather than dance)
Trance - induced by watching rhythmic movements of many kinds
>> Cannot be used to suggest that dance and dance alone, affects the neuro-muscular system in this way

If kinesthetic is not direct but mediated via one or more of the exteroceptors and involves activity in the motor system of the spectator, then for the activity to be "neuro-muscular", motor commands must be sent from brain to muscle

Suggestion that perception of another's movement involves production of movement in one's own body seems INADEQUATE
>> reflect a lack of understanding of the kinds of mental representation which could be involved in both the perception and production of movement

Those watching dance may be totally incapable of performing the movements they perceive, so knowledge of movement production is only a weak approximation to the movements they see and hear

Kinesthetic experience of someone else's movement could arise if the sight of the movement triggered memories of what it felt like to perform that movement/movements of that type

Implausible that everyday activities of leaping/turning around are sufficient to provide kinesthetic experience of jetes or pirouettes

Kinesthetic memory
kinesthetic imagery involved
imagery relates to movement and includes sensations of movement/kinesthetic imagery

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In the spring of 1528, the Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca made landfall on what is now the gulf coast of Florida. Over the next eight years, as he and a small party traversed thousands of miles, they found themselves in a new-world Babel, moving from 'one strange tongue to another'. In their many encounters with native peoples, their own tongue, Spanish, proved of little use. But their hands served them well. 'You would have thought, from the questions and answers in signs,' de Vaca later recounted, 'that they spoke our language and we theirs.'

De Vaca is not the first or last explorer to claim successful communication with indigenous peoples through gesture. Similar reports abound. Over and over - on Easter Island and Tasmania, on the shores of Canada and Patagonia - European interlopers and native peoples used pointing and pantomimes to bridge cultural chasms. Sometimes, the messages conveyed were surprisingly sophisticated. If you stay until morning, we will feed you. In that direction, there are goats and pigs of all sizes. The people in that direction eat human flesh.

The parties in these exchanges could not have known it at the time, but they were following the advice of Joseph Marie Degérando, a French philosopher with an anthropological bent. In 1800, he wrote a treatise offering practical advice for would-be explorers and 'philosophical travellers'. To first establish communication with the native peoples of unfamiliar lands ('savages' in the cringe-inducing term of his day), he recommended going back to 'the signs which are closest to nature'. Go back to gestures, in other words - the 'language of action'.

Degérando's proposals swam with the tide of much of Western thinking. The notion that gesture is a natural mode of expression - one that transcends the contrivances of culture - is a very old one. In 95 CE, the Roman rhetorician Quintilian wrote that 'though the peoples and nations of the earth speak a multitude of tongues, they share in common the universal language of the hands'. For many centuries after Quintilian, the idea of gesture as a universal language retained its lustre. It emerged in different guises: some would invoke it in speculating about the evolutionary origins of language, others in advancing proposals for a gesture-based lingua franca. The notion might have found its most eloquent - or at least enthusiastic - champion in the English physician John Bulwer. In a 1644 treatise, Bulwer described gestures of the hands as 'the only speech which is natural to man', one that 'men in all regions of the habitable world do at first sight most easily understand'. Gesture, he continued, 'had the happiness to escape the confusion at Babel'.

Amid all this inflated rhetoric, one kind of support for the universality of gesture was conspicuously absent: careful observations about how people around the world actually use their hands and bodies to communicate. When Quintilian, Bulwer, Degérando and other Europeans were impressed by the universality of gesture, they were mostly impressed by the strength of their own intuitions. They had not actually been to 'all regions of the habitable world'. They had no photographs, videos or other visual documents to consult. (Degérando did request that his readers bring back drawings.)

Systematic gathering of data about bodily communication would not begin in earnest until the mid-19th century. In putting together The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), Charles Darwin prevailed upon far-flung correspondents in Malaysia, Australia, South America and elsewhere to report details about how indigenous people used their face, head and hands in communication. Pioneering as this method was, epistolary observations about whether people shake their heads or shrug their shoulders at various colonial outposts fall short of modern scientific standards. They amount to what is sometimes called 'anecdata'.

In the past 50 years, however, much has changed. Technical limitations have evaporated. Video-recording technologies are now cheap, portable and easy to use; video files can be readily stored, swapped and posted online in massive databases. Anthropologists, linguists and other researchers have fanned out to every niche of the globe, documenting communication in hundreds of the world's cultures. These efforts have generated a wealth of observations, which we can rifle through, collate and try to make sense of. For the first time in history, perhaps, we are actually in a position to evaluate the ancient idea that gesture is universal. How does it hold up?

Before building up to an answer, some preliminary points are in order. A first is that the act of gesturing is certainly universal, as far as we know. In every group yet studied, the hands at least occasionally stir and take flight as people talk. We are certainly capable of communicating without these aerialist accompaniments, but our hands tend toward motion. A second preliminary point is that evidently not all gestures are universal. Most, perhaps all, human communities harbour a storehouse of hand gestures with fixed meanings, which are often called 'emblems'. Examples of emblems in the English-speaking world include the shhh gesture (an index finger held vertical across the mouth), the peace sign (an outward-facing V made with the index and middle fingers), and the thumbs up. Notoriously, such gestures can lead to confusion or worse. Another emblem, the okay gesture, made by forming a ring with the thumb and index finger, is perfectly benign in the US but a provocation elsewhere.

Emblems might be what many think of when they first think of gestures, but in the United States and perhaps most other places they are only rarely put to use. (Try to recall the last time you shhh-ed someone, or gave a thumbs up.) What people produce much more often are gestures for 'yes' and 'no'; points to people, places and things; gestures that sketch objects, actions and represent abstract ideas through visual metaphors. These are the real workhorses of gestural expression. And, as it turns out, a case can be made that these workhorses are broadly similar the world over.

All human communities, as far as we know, have gestural means of expressing 'no' and 'yes'. Across the English-speaking world and many parts of Europe, this is done by shaking the head from side to side for 'no', and nodding the head up and down for 'yes'. This 'shake-no, nod-yes' pattern is in fact extremely widespread beyond Europe - Darwin's correspondents reported it in Ceylon, Guinea, China and beyond, and many researchers since have commented on it in passing. Such wide diffusion suggests that the pattern has been independently innovated in different communities and is not merely an arbitrary pact.

Yupno speakers pout the lips to negate and make an upward flash of the eyebrows to affirm

But nor is the pattern biologically fixed. At least two other systems are found. One - seen in Greece, parts of Italy, and elsewhere in the Mediterranean - involves a backward jerk of the head for 'no' rather than a shake. A third, more boggling pattern is found in Bulgaria: an up-and-down head movement is used for 'no' and a side-to-side movement for 'yes'. This is sometimes described as a simple reversal of our own pattern, though there may also be subtle aspects of how these movements are done that set them apart from our familiar nods and shakes.

How is it that these gestures are identical in so many places and yet reversed in others? The answer seems to lie in the earliest roots of these signals in infancy. As Darwin observed, the familiar headshake for 'no' could stem from the act of turning the head to the side to refuse food. This turning-away then might get stylised, becoming the repetitive headshake that we recognise today. The nod might then develop to form a contrast with the shake - opposite motions for opposite meanings. A similar explanation works for the two other systems. A backward jerk, after all, is another way of bodily rejecting a food source. This backward action can then be stylised in different ways: the Greek pattern exaggerates the single movement; the Bulgarian pattern adds repetition. Then, in selecting the contrasting signal, the Greeks opt for a forward nod, while Bulgarians go with a side-to-side shake.

Many cultures also have back-up bodily signals for 'yes' and 'no'. English speakers, for instance, will sometimes negate with a side-to-side waggle of the index finger (perhaps a manual imitation of the head shake), or a swipe of both hands across the body. In the Yupno, an indigenous group in the interior of Papua New Guinea where I have done fieldwork, the headshake and head nod are used as primary signals for 'no' and 'yes', but Yupno speakers also pout the lips to negate and make an upward flash of the eyebrows to affirm.

Zooming out to take stock of these observations, we find a remarkable regularity: not only do all cultures have gestural signals for 'yes' and 'no', all cultures produce their primary versions of these signals with movements of the head. (There are a few reports from the 19th century of cultures that use manual gestures for affirmation and negation, but these authors might have been describing secondary versions.) Yet, upon zooming in on the particulars, we also find culture-specific wrinkles. This proves to be a recurring theme across many gestural phenomena.

Another gestural workhorse is pointing. All humans point - that is, use their bodies to orient another's attention to some region of space. Accounts of first contacts are positively rife with pointing - pointing to the mouth to mean food or water, to nearby villages, to the sun to indicate time. (In his treatise, Degérando advocated pointing as the type of gesture 'whose effect is most sure'.) What is more, it seems that people in all cultures make use of the index finger for pointing. This form of indicating usually emerges early in children, before they have said their first word. One study found that infants from six cultures - spanning Western, industrialised communities and small-scale, indigenous ones - all favoured pointing with the forefinger over other forms.

But when we zoom in, we find that pointing is far from a monolithic behaviour. In some places, it is taboo to point with the left hand; elsewhere it is a no-no to point to rainbows. Among the Arrernte of Indigenous Australia, you would encounter index-finger pointing, but also pointing with other handshapes that are used for distinct purposes. The 'horned' hand, for instance, is used for pointing out a general direction of travel, but not for pointing to people.

Everyone points, and nowhere do people favour pointing with their elbow or 'index toe'

Other attested ways of pointing might strike Western eyes as exotic, but are hardly uncommon in a global perspective. Notably, indigenous cultures the world over have conventions for pointing with the face. One method is to protrude the lips while you look toward some target of interest. Another is to scrunch the nose. These are not just colourful rarities. My collaborators and I recently showed, for instance, that Yupno speakers are just as likely to point with a scrunched nose as they are to point with the hand.

Another way of pointing that would confound Westerners involves pointing to the sky. This is used to refer to particular times of day. You simply point to a location on the Sun's east-west arc to communicate a particular time (straight above would be noon), or sweep over part of that arc with your hand to convey a longer time interval. 'Celestial pointing', as this is called, has been examined in detail in the Amazon and Bali, and appears to have been quite common once - perhaps especially so in the tropics, where the Sun's arc is more stable throughout the year.

When we look at pointing across cultures, we thus find a phenomenon that is kaleidoscopic and yet constrained. We see broad patterns and, at a more zoomed-in level, curious particulars. Everyone points, and nowhere as far as we know do people favour pointing with their elbow or 'index toe'; but cultures have also found ways to give this basic communicative tool a distinctive twist.

Beyond shaking, nodding and pointing, another major class of gestures are those that depict. That is, people use their hands to imitate actions such as pulling or pinching, to show the shape and size of animals, crops or objects, and to illustrate configurations or movements in space. When the indigenous peoples of New Britain, an island off the coast of New Guinea, wanted to convey that they had pigs and goats of various sizes, they imitated animals sounds and then showed their hands at various heights above the ground.

Depicting as a gestural technique appears to be used everywhere. But, again, it is not hard to identify diversity in the specifics of how this technique is used. Consider gestures for size. In some places, how you show the height of something depends on what kind of thing you're talking about. In many parts of Mesoamerica, your palm faces to the side when showing the height of an animal, faces down when showing the height of a thing, and faces up when referring to the height of a corn plant. An outside observer would catch the gist of these gestures, but would also miss some subtleties.

Another subtle cultural difference is found when people reconstruct spatial relationships in their gestures. Say you see something unexpected - a hawk whooshes toward you, with a freshly plucked squirrel dangling from its beak. Later, when you tell the story, you would want to show this whooshing in gestures. As an English speaker, you would most likely show how it happened relative to your own body - that is, that the hawk flew toward you. But speakers of other languages, such as the Australian Indigenous language Guugu Yimitthirr, might not. Instead, they would likely convey the original cardinal orientation of the event. If the hawk flew at you from the south, the speaker would gesture it flying from south. Thus, depending on which way the re-teller is facing, the gestured hawk might whoosh in from the left, from behind, or from any other direction.

We are creatures of culture - we are indefatigable innovators, and we like to copy what those around us are doing

The final workhorse of gesture is also the most abstract: the metaphors that people create with their hands. Many of the metaphors humans seem to favour are based on spatial images, and so they lend themselves well to the imagistic medium of gesture. The best-studied example of gestural metaphors are those used to represent time. People all over the world think of time as having concrete spatial properties. And they gesture accordingly, as though events had a certain 'length' or were located in different places. English speakers, for example, often imagine sequences either as a line stretching across their bodies - with past events to the left and future ones to the right - or as a path they are walking on - with past events behind them and future ones ahead. These particular metaphorical models, however, are not universal. Speakers of Aymara in the Andes point to a future that is not ahead but behind them. Mandarin speakers locate next week below last week. When Yupno speakers gesture about time, as my collaborators and I have documented, they locate the past downhill and the future uphill, no matter which way they are facing.

A complete account of gestural universals and diversity would have to consider a number of other phenomena, too - how people use their hands and bodies to greet each other, to represent numbers, to ask questions, to beckon or dismiss, and to negotiate the conversational floor. Certainly, there is still a lot of work to be done to further document such behaviours. But a reasonable guess is that the punchline would be the same: gestures around the world exhibit constrained diversity. This, after all, is the primary moral that can be extracted from the best-studied workhorses of gestural communication. On the one hand, several general methods of gesturing - signalling 'yes' and 'no', pointing, depicting, conjuring metaphors in the air - appear to be universally used and in constrained ways. On the other, when we dig into the details of precisely how such methods are deployed, we find unexpected texture.

This recurring pattern of constrained diversity should perhaps be unsurprising. People everywhere have the same bodily equipment to work with - our hands, arms and heads are basically the same, and they flex, bend and rotate in the same basic ways. We also have the same kinds of minds, which means we tend to notice and care about the same sorts of things. And we all have to solve similar communication problems - problems such as orienting attention, correcting misunderstandings, and posing questions. But we are also creatures of culture - we are indefatigable innovators, and we like to copy what those around us are doing. As a result, innovations spread. This basic tension is generative. It gives rise to the constrained diversity we see not only in our gestures but also in a wide range of other human behaviours.

Strictly speaking then, gestures are not universal 'across all regions of the habitable' world - though they are much more so than some have claimed. (The documentary A World of Gestures (1991) informs viewers that gestures 'vary in infinite ways'.) And, to be fair, this is only one of the guises that the notion of gesture as a universal language has taken. Another is the idea that, when people who don't share a spoken language need to communicate, they are better off using their hands than their voices. This was the idea behind Degérando's advice, and recent research weighs in on whether this advice was any good.

In one study, researchers had people try to communicate a range of concepts - having to do with feelings (eg hunger), actions (eg fleeing), and objects (eg fruit) - to a partner without using any conventional language. The set-up is basically like charades but more controlled. Depending on which version of the task participants were assigned to, they had to communicate using only gestures, only vocalisations, or a combination of the two. The results were unequivocal. Those who played the gesture-only version communicated much more effectively than those who played the vocalisation-only version. And being allowed to use vocalisations in addition to gestures did not really help. As the authors write, when you need to create a communication system from scratch, 'gesture beats vocalisation hands down'.

What explains this gestural advantage? The answer lies in the kinds of signals that humans can create, and in how easily such signals can be created in different expressive mediums. When people want to refer to something, they have three basic options. They can point to the referent directly (or to something related to it). They can try to show what it looks like. Or they can just use an agreed-upon convention - a pact that when I form my hand like this or utter this particular sequence of sounds, you know what I mean. Of course, if you are a 16th-century explorer making first contact in the New World - or an English speaker in the charades experiment just described - agreed-upon conventions are off the table. So you are left with pointing and depicting. These two strategies are relatively easy to execute with your hands, but much less so with your voice.

Sign languages have diverged, much as spoken languages have

Visual-bodily communication is thus more direct and transparent than vocal-auditory communication - or at least it has the potential to be. But this does not mean that all communication in this medium is fully transparent. This brings us to a final guise that the 'gesture as a universal language' idea has often taken: the canard that sign languages of the deaf are all a single language, made up of gestures. The signs that signers use do certainly look like the gestures that hearing people produce in many ways: they are also made mostly with the hands, and they also involve pointing, depiction and visual metaphors in abundance.

But sign languages are just that: languages. They might unfold in the visual modality, but they have all the expressive range and grammatical intricacy of spoken languages - and much of their opacity, too. Historically, sign languages might well have roots in on-the-spot gestural communication systems. But as such systems grow, they change: some signs become abbreviated, while others are added; new grammatical devices emerge for tracking who did what to whom, or for distinguishing questions from statements. And so sign languages have diverged, much as spoken languages have.

And yet there might be some truth to the idea that signing is more transparent than speaking. There is evidence, much of it anecdotal, that signers of different sign languages can communicate with some success, in a way that speakers of different spoken languages simply could not. These interactions - sometimes called 'cross-signing' - are not without bumps and frustrations, but they are workable. Researchers are not sure exactly what accounts for this modest success. Part of the answer might well be the transparency of pointing and depicting, methods that sign languages make heavy use of. Another part could be that signers are experts when it comes to communicating in the absence of a shared code. After all, they spend much of their lives navigating a world dominated by hearing people who do not sign.

The idea that gesture is a universal language is ancient, intuitive, and not altogether wrong. It's true that plenty of particular gestures are culture-specific. But it's also true that plenty of gestural patterns are broadly similar the world over, the products of people with similar minds and similar bodies solving similar communicative problems. Whatever its merits, the idea of gesture as a universal language is likely not going away. It is caught up in a timeless tug-of-war between two romantic ideals: one, the universalist notion that humans everywhere are essentially the same; the other, the relativist insistence that every culture is a mysterious island all to itself. Both ideas have their charm, but neither is quite correct.

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From pointing to nodding: is gesture a universal language? | Aeon Essays

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In the spring of 1528, the Spanish explorer Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca made landfall on what is now the gulf coast of Florida. Over the next eight years, as he and a small party traversed thousands of miles, they found themselves in a new-world Babel, moving from 'one strange tongue to another'.

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The act of gesturing is certainly universal
Second preliminary point is that evidently not all gestures are universal

Human communities harbour a storehouse of hand gestures with fixed meanings (Emblems)
Eg: shhh gesture (index finger held vertical across mouth)
peace sign (outward-facing V made with index and middle fingers)
thumbs up

Some emblems can be rarely used (think about last time you gave someone a thumbs up)

People produce much more often gestures for yes/no, pointing, gestures that sketch objects, actions and represent ideas through visual metaphors

No (shaking head from side to side), yes (nodding head up and down)
The pattern that has widespread diffusion suggest pattern has been independently innovated in different communities and is not merely arbitrary nor biologically fixed

"Everyone points, and nowhere do people favour pointing with their elbow or index toe"

Constrained diversity - unsurprising
- people everywhere have the same bodily equipment to work with (hands, arms, heads, and flex, bend and rotate in the same basic ways)
- have the same kind of minds (we tend to notice and care about the same sorts of things)
- have to solve similar communication problems (orientating attention, correcting misunderstandings, posing questions)
- creatures of culture (indefatigable innovators and like to copy what those around us are doing)
- innovation spread
Gives rise to the constrained diversity we see not only in our gestures but also in a wide range of other human behaviours

Gestural advantage
Lies in the kinds of signals that humans can create, and how easily such signals can be created in different expressive mediums (when people want to refer to something)
- Pointing to referent directly/something related to it
- Show what it looks like
- Use an agreed-upon convention (eg sports gestures)

While true that plenty of particular gestures are culture-specific, its true that plenty are broadly similar all over the world (products of people with similar minds and bodies solving similar communicative problems.

2 Romantic ideals
- the universalist notion that humans everywhere are essentially the same
- relativist insistence that every culture is a mysterious island all to itself

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Just as verbal language is broken up into various categories, there are also different types of nonverbal communication. As we learn about each type of nonverbal signal, keep in mind that nonverbals often work in concert with each other, combining to repeat, modify, or contradict the verbal message…

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Adaptors: touching behaviours and movement that indicate internal states typically related to arousal or anxiety
- Can be targeted towards self, objects or others
- In social situations, adaptors result from uneasiness, anxiety or general sense that we're not in control of our surroundings
- Subconsciously clicking pens, shaking legs, to do something with excess energy
- (Self-adaptors) Common self-touching behaviours (scratching, twirling hair, fidgeting with fingers and hands)
- Some self-adaptors manifest internally (cough, throat-clearing sounds)
- (Object adaptors) bending or fidgeting with objects. Can signal boredom (smartphones, straws, peel labels)
- (Grooming/adjusting adaptors) Similar to how primates pick things off each other

Emblems: gestures that have a specific agreed-on meaning
- Different from sign language
- Not part of a formal sign system that is explicitly taught to a group of people
- Eg: Hitchhiker raised thumb, agreed-on meaning with a culture
- Can be still/in motion
- Can trace some nonverbal signals especially emblems to their origins
- eg: peace sign meaning "up yours" in britain, traced back to centuries when primary weapon of war was bow and arrow

Illustrators: Most common type, used to illustrate the verbal message they accompany.
- Eg: hand gestures to indicate size or shape of an object
- Do not typically have meaning on their own and used more subconsciously than emblems
- Largely involuntary and seemingly natural gestures flow from us as we speak
- Vary in terms of intensity and frequency based on context
- Automatically, though never explicitly taught

Facial Expression
Paul Ekman's 7 universal facial expressions of emotion
Happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, contemp, disgust, anger
The triggers for these expressions and the cultural and social norms that influence their displays are still culturally diverse

As we get older we learn and begin to follow display rules for facial expressions and other signals of emotions and to better control our emotional expression based on the norms of our culture

Smile:
- Muscles around the eye that are activated when we spontaneously/genuinely smile are not under our voluntary control
>> Peter A. Anderson, Nonverbal Communication: Forms and Functions (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1999), 35

Eye Contact/Gaze
"Oculesics"
Along with ears, our eyes take in most of the communicative information around us
"The eyes are the window to the soul"
- Certain eye behaviours have become tied to personality traits or emotional states
- Eye contact serve several communicative functions (regulating interaction, monitoring interaction, conveying information, establishing interpersonal connections)
- Cue others we ready to speak, use it to cue others to speak

- During interaction, eye contact also changes as we shift from speaker to listener (when speaking, looks away from listener then look back at their faces every few seconds. when finishing, we make more direct eye contact with listener to indicate we ending)

- takes in feedback and other nonverbal cues
- Bring in the visual information we need to interpret people's movements, gestures, eye contact

- Assess social situations

- Show active listening, helps establish rapport or connection

- To intimidate (staring in some context can communicate intimidation, in other context can communicate flirtation)
- There are social norms about how much eye contact we make with people (depending on setting and person)

-Key immediacy behaviour

- Avoid eye contact to signal we do not want to engage connecting with others
- Eye contact to coax one into speaking
- Person avoiding eye contact might give in/become curious/become irritated

Pupil Dilation: The expansion and contraction of the black part of the center of our eyes and is considered a biometric form of measurement.
- Involuntary
- Seen as valid and reliable form of data collection compared to self-reports on surveys/interviews

Pupils dilate when
- Lack of lighting and contract when light is plentiful
Laura K Guerrero and Kory Floyd, Nonverbal communication in close relationships
- Pain, sexual attraction, general arousal, anxiety/stress, information processing (thinking)

eg: notion of mood lighting and the common practice of creating a "romantic" ambiance with candlelight or light from fireplace - leads to pupil dilation. although intentionally manipulate lighting to create a romantic ambiance, not to dilate our pupils, the dilated pupils are still subconsciously perceived which increases perceptions of attraction

Body Language
the use physical behaviour, expressions and mannerisms to communicate nonverbally, often done instinctively rather than consciously
Head movements:
- head nod is universal, a sign of acknowledgement, also serves as an abbreviated bow
- heads up is a sign to indicate interest, engaged or neutral attitude
This nonverbal signal begins at birth, even before a baby has the ability to know it has a corresponding meaning

Posture:
Standing
Sitting
Squatting
Lying down
- within each postures there are many variations
- when combined with particular gestures/ other nonverbal cues, can express many different meanings
- hands on hips: subconscious cue to make us look bigger and show assertiveness (elbows pointed out prevents others from getting past us easily, sign of attempted dominance)
The Definitive Book of Body Language (New York, NY: Bantam, 2004), 243–44.

Haptics:
study of communication by touch

touch is necessary for human social development
can be welcoming/threatening/persuasive

several types of touch
- functional-professional (related to a goal or part of a routine professional interaction, making it less threatening and more expected. eg: let barbers, doctors, tattoo artists touch us in ways that might seen as intimate/inappropriate if not in a profess context)
- social-polite (help initiate interactions and show that others are included and respected. eg:handshake, pat on back)
>> both f-p and s-p has interpersonal implications
- friendship-warmth (touch is more important and more ambiguous than s-p. important cause they serve a relational maintenance purpose and communicate closeness, liking, care and concern)
>>vary greatly from more formal and ritualised to more intimate
- love-intimacy (touch is more personal and typically only exchanged between significant others. eg: best friends, close family members, romantic partners. touching faces, holding hands, full embrace)
>> enhance feelings of closeness and intimacy and can lead to s-a though not sexual
-sexual-arousal (most intimate form of touch, intended to physically stimulate another person)
Richard Heslin and Tari Apler, “Touch: A Bonding Gesture,” in Nonverbal Interaction, eds. John M. Weimann and Randall Harrison (Longon: Sage, 1983), 47–76

Inadvertently send messages through accidental touch

Presence/absence of touching cues us into people's emotions

Touching behaviour as a way to express feelings is often reciprocal
>> Due to common politeness rituals, you'll be more likely to respond with other forms of nonverbal communications like scooting back, rather than saying right out "sorry i'm not interested"

Proxemics: the study of how space and distance influence communication

space influences how people communicate and behave

Smaller spaces with higher density - leads to breaches of our personal space bubbles
If this is a setting where density is expected beforehand, (concert/train during rush hour), we make various communicative adjustments to manage space issue

Proxemic Distances
- people are socialised into the norms of personal space within their cultural groups
Intimate, Personal, Social, Public
Edward T. Hall, “Proxemics,” Current Anthropology 9, no. 2 (1968): 83–95
>> Zones are more elliptical than circular, taking up more space in front (where our line of sight is)

Public Space/ social zones: 4 feet or more, public space starts 12 feet and more
- Formal and not intimate communication
- Often not obliged/expected to acknowledge/interact with people who enter our public zone
- Difficult to have deep convo with someone at this level (speak louder, no physical closeness often needed to promote emotional closeness/rapport)

Social Space: 4-12 feet
- often context of professional/casual interaction
- but not intimate/public
- "keep someone at an arm's length", means someone kept out of personal space and kept in social/professional space
- perceived as safe distance because possibility for intentional/unintentional touching doesn't exist
- possible to have people in outer portion of social zone and not feel obligated to interact with them
-
Personal Space: 1.5-4 feet
- reserved for friends, close acquaintances, significant others
- may still use verbal communication to signal that our presence in this zone is friendly and not intimate
- Sub zones: outer-personal zone (2.5-4feet), inner-personal zone (1.5-2.5 feet)

Intimate Space: 0-1.5 feet
- reserved for only the closest friends, family, romantic partners
- impossible to completely ignore people in this space even when pretending to ignore
- breach of this space can be comforting/annoying/frightening
- in order for that much needed touch to occur, people have to enter our intimate space
- there are social norms regarding the amount of intimate space interactions that can be displayed in public
- determining what constitutes a "violation" of space is subjective and contextual

Territoriality: an innate drive to take up and defend spaces
- this drive is shared by many creatures and entities
- 3 main divisions (primary, secondary, public)
Owen Hargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice, 5th ed. (London: Routledge, 2011), 70-71
Primary: official, because marked or understood to be exclusively ours and under our control (house, desk, side of bed, shelf)
Secondary: don't belong to us and aren't exclusively under our control but associated with us, may lead us to assume that the space will be open and available to us when we need it without taking further steps to reserve it (classrooms)
Public: Open to all people, people allowed to mark public territory and use it for a limited period of time, but space is up for grabs, which makes it diff to manage for some people and can lead to conflict (using items to reserve seats, some markers have ambiguity like half-empty cup)

Environment: the manipulation of the nonverbal environment to suit our communicative needs
- placement of objects and furniture in a physical space can help create a formal, distant, friendly, intimate climate

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Facial Expression - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics

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M.G. Frank, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

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The face is responsible for communicating not only thoughts or ideas but also emotion

It appears as if some of the expressions of emotions may be biologically hardwired and are expressed the same way by all peoples of all cultures.

Contrasts with views that all facial expressions are a product of social learning and culture

Charles Darwin (6 "core" expressions)
The expression of the emotions in man and animals
- Propose some facial expressions of emotions have origins in the evolution of human species
- Help organism survive because it appeared important to social animals
- Expressing these imminent behaviours implied by the emotions can avoid conflict, danger, allow approach etc
- But not immune to modification by social learning (display rules to manage their expressions of emotions)

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The human face is the most intricate and versatile of all animals. Using our face alone, we can communicate a wealth of information to others. We can use our face to emphasise speech, convey our emotional state, as well as use it to silently communicate our understanding and intent.

Consider all that can be said with just a facial expression...

A smile to show happiness or agreement.

A frown to let someone know you are unhappy.

A lowering of your brows to show someone you are angry or frustrated.

A raise of the eyebrows to ask a question or emphasize a word.

These are all ways that we purposely manipulate the muscles in our faces to show another person a particular message, thought or feeling. With 43 muscles in the face, sitting just under the skin's surface, they can produce 1000's of different facial expressions when moved and manipulated.

While many of these expressions will not carry any significant meaning or value to others, there are seven particular facial expressions we should all know about and know how to spot them - The 7 universal facial expressions of emotion.

These common facial expressions appear across all humans (and some animals) irrespective of culture. The theory of universality among facial expressions was first outlined by Guillaume Duchenne in 1862 and further elaborated on by Charles Darwin in his legendary book - The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

It's important to remember that while these seven universal expressions appear the same across all people, that does not discount the subtle differences due to the variety of face shapes, possible injuries, or other variables like cosmetic surgery and botox.

The Two Types of Facial Expressions

There are two distinct differences in the way a facial expression is generated -

1. Posed
Expressions that the sender intends to show for social communication. These expressions are consciously created travelling through our brain's cerebral cortex, which plays a role in thought, language, and consciousness (among other functions). As it passes through our cortex, we have control over them; this is where display rules are managed; for example, you would not laugh at a colleague being fired (even if you did not like them).

2. These types of expressions are fed by innate emotional reactions to stimuli and do not pass through the cerebral cortex, leaving no time for consciousness or awareness, also leading to Microexpressions, which are considered leakage of our true internal emotions before we have time to become aware of the emotion and possible control it in one way or another (we will look at Microexpressions in more detail). This is supported by the universality of emotions and their expressions, as well as studies showing expressions in infants, congenitally blind children and athletes.

Why are facial expressions useful?

The ability to read and understand the facial expression of the person you are communicating with provides you with a deeper level of understanding of their point of view and internal state. If used constructively, it can lead to effective communication, increased likeness, higher emotional intelligence, and better rapport, to name just a few benefits.

If you notice an expression of sadness (e.g. lip corners pulled down and middle of eyebrows raised) on your co-workers face, you have to consider why that has been displayed. Is it due to something you have just said or because they have something else on their mind? In this example, gentle questioning could help you understand and then offer help if appropriate. Being able to offer help, assistance or show understanding to another person when they have not said anything shows a level of awareness and empathy that others will remember you for.

Alternatively, you can use recognition of facial expressions to give you the upper hand. When negotiating for a business deal or purchasing a new car, you can gauge the other person's emotional reactions from their facial expressions. If you go in with a lowball offer and see disgust on the face of your interlocutor, you could consider them to be offended by the number you have put forward, or possibly offended by the aggressiveness in which you presented the offer, either way; you can evaluate where you want to go next in the negotiation.

Micro Expressions

Facial expression can also show hidden feelings and thoughts; they appear without our awareness, spontaneously and unconsciously, known as Micro Facial Expressions or Microexpressions (6). These involuntary facial expressions can occur in less than half a second. Due to the person not being aware they are displaying these expressions, it provides an insight into their true thoughts and emotions.

Unlike facial expressions used in overt communication, Microexpressions are difficult to fake due to the rapid and unconscious display; they appear quickly before the sender is fully aware and can't control their emotional reaction. This can make it challenging to notice and recognise them, but it is possible to read others with training and practice while having a conversation.

Microexpressions are useful in detecting lies and deceit; if the words someone is speaking contradicts the emotions, you see in a microexpression you have a contradiction from the controllable communication (words) and the uncontrolled micro facial expressions, which can suggest a lack of credibility with the account/answer they are providing.

Police officer - 'have you been drinking, sir'?
Drunk man - 'no officer' *while they flash a microexpression of fear.

The fear microexpression does not match their response; why show fear if they truly have not been drinking? Further questioning is required to understand why that person may be feeling fearful. It could be that they are drunk and do not want to be caught, or possibly have had a bad experience with a police officer in the past; either way, there are hidden emotions that can be picked up on and can help lead you to a clearer understanding of the other person.

Facial expressions also appear as blends of two felt emotions, a feeling of disgust and anger (scorn) may show features of both universal expressions. For example, the lowered brows found in anger and the upper lip raise in the disgust expression.

How to Read Facial Expressions and Microexpressions

Learning to read facial expressions accurately can be difficult; recognising Micro Expressions accurately requires training and a lot of practice. You can learn how to spot micro expressions through online training or more in-depth workshops. They provide a background into what triggers the emotions and their expressions and focuses them towards your desired outcome, better communication and emotional intelligence or deception detection and behaviour analysis.

After training, the key to reading Microexpressions is attentiveness; really focusing on the other person to understand what they are saying and what their face is signalling is an important step in applying these skills within your personal life and work.

Microexpressions are so quick (less than 0.5 seconds), a tip is to focus softly on the bridge of the persons' nose and allow your peripheral vision to again pick up the lower face and eyebrow movements. This can take practice, and there is training that can develop this skill.

To become an expert in facial expressions, many begin to look into Facial Action Coding System or FACS. FACS is the gold standard in measuring facial movement and has been adopted by animators, researchers, and behaviour analysts practitioners around the world. Learning FACS is not for everyone; however, if you want to know more about FACS and FACS training, you can learn more here.

Measuring Facial Movement and Expressions - Facial Action Coding System

The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) is an internationally recognized, sophisticated research tool that precisely measures the entire spectrum of human facial expressions.

Created in the 1970s by psychologists Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, FACS provides a comprehensive taxonomy of human facial expressions. The system dissects observed expressions by determining how facial muscle contractions alter appearance. Each movement is categorized into specific Action Units (AUs), which represent the contraction or relaxation of one or more muscles.

The numbers and labels (action units) on the right side of the image above show each facial expression's individual muscle movements; they denote the specific movements involved and the distinctive features seen on the surface of the face.

Persons trained in FACS can utilize these concepts in conjunction with their expertise to benefit their interviews, interrogations, and business transactions. FACS is also widely adopted by animators, behavioural researchers, and AI specialists looking to better portray emotions in their characters and analyse emotional displays by others.

The future of facial expression detection and the challenges to overcome?

Over recent year's, there has been a large increase in the research and development of technology for reading facial expressions automatically. We have seen the use of webcams to analyse the emotions of users reactions to online advertising, which has then branched into facial expression recognition in supermarket aisles with shoppers.

Animators such as Pixar and Disney have studied FACS to ensure their characters are as lifelike as possible, conveying a much deeper meaning and affect through accurate facial expressions; this has then spread into video game development and now moving into artificial Intelligent characters and robots through machine learning.

Large established recruitment companies and fresh start-ups are looking at new ways to make the global recruitment of staff more efficient and trustworthy. Potential employees send in a recorded video of themselves answering structured questions, which is then analysed using expression detection software, with the focus to outline specific traits and credibility of the candidate.

Airports, military and security firms are researching the use of cameras and software to pair what we know about facial expressions and deception to aid with investigative interviewing and primary detection of potential suspects in large, busy areas.

The current status of this technology is far from fully functional and reliable; while a camera system and accompanying software may be able to 'detect' a facial expression, the problem arises when it tries to interpret that display and hypothesis its potential meaning/relevance. Right now, the technology is not there to accurately assess these contextual variances, and therefore current systems present a high rate of false positives. One day, I believe the technology will catch up with humans, but I wouldn't hold my breath to see that occur anytime soon. For now, a trained human who can evaluate the account, baselines and context of an individual will far outperform any computer.

Summary

Although expressions and Microexpressions are instrumental in understanding others and better communication, they are not the complete picture if you are looking to excel or increase your deception detection. They are one part of verbal and nonverbal communication, which also includes the voice, verbal style, verbal content, body language and psychophysiology. These channels all lead to understanding the behaviour of others which you can direct towards your desired outcome, be that strengthening a relationship or investigating credibility.

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Consider all that can be said with just a facial expression... A smile to show happiness or agreement. A frown to let someone know you are unhappy. A lowering of your brows to show someone you are angry or frustrated. A raise of the eyebrows to ask a question or emphasize a word.

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We can use our face to emphasise speech, convey emotional state and use it to silently communicate our understanding and intent

These are all ways that we purposely manipulate the muscles in our faces to show another person a particular message, thought or feeling. With 43 muscles in the face, sitting just under the skin’s surface, they can produce 1000’s of different facial expressions when moved and manipulated.

Posed: Expressions sender intend to show for social communication
- Consciously created travelling through our brain's cerebral cortex which plays a role in thought, language and consciousness
- When passed through cortex, we have control over them
- Display rules are managed

Emotional: Expressions fed by innate emotional reactions to stimuli and do not pass through cerebral cortex
- Leaves no time for consciousness/awareness
- Leads to micro expressions (considered leakage of our true internal emotions before we have time to become aware of the emotion and possible control in it one way or another)

Micro expressions: involuntary facial expressions can occur in less than half a second
- Difficult to fake due to rapid and unconscious display they appear quickly before sender is fully aware and can't control their emotional reaction
- Make it challenging to notice and recognise them
- Useful in detecting lies and deceit

Facial Action Coding System (FACS) by Paul Ekman and Wallace V.Friesen
Comprehensive taxonomy of human facial expressions
- Dissects observed expressions by determining how facial muscle contractions alter appearance

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Communicating non-verbally involves visual cues (visual acuity), gestures (body language), paralanguage (intonation, pitch, speaking speed), oculesics (study of eye movement), chronemics (study of role of time in communication), haptics (communication through touch) and proxemics (study the use of space in communication). Non-verbal communication develops a social-emotional development from a childhood haptics, a non-verbal communication method that communicates through the sense of touch in humans and animals in the real world.

©[Shannon Fagan]/Adobe Stock
Etymology
The term haptics was derived from Greek "haptikos" focus on medical, technological and biological applications of touch and closely connected with proxemics as haptics and proxemics communicate through space and territory. Haptic communication differs around the world cultures, it is insignificant to touch in Western and British cultures and frequent among Italian and French.
Theory
Haptic communication is exclusively designed to course the information quickly. Communicating through non-verbal haptics involves handshake, pat, kiss, slap, hug, massage, hit, kick, embrace, tickle etc. Each touch communicates a unique message like fear, disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, sex, pain, violence etc. Moreover, haptic communication depends on environment and interpretations such as on who, why, when and differs with setting and purpose as professional, friendship, guide, punishment, sympathy, arousal, attention, greeting, seeking, etc.

Communication through touch is an essential part of human social development. Haptic is either intentional or unintentional leads towards either positive or negative consequences. The sense of touch is the effective, direct and intimate way of communication starts from a fetus and helps to sense the world in and around. It carries distinct emotions and the intensity of its emotion may vary as good and bad touch. Non-verbal haptic communication sends messages through sensory nerves and receives messages through brain sensors as it impacts the psychological stimulus. Involuntarily and persistently both humans and animals communicate with their environment through touch, since it's a basic and vital survival instinct for them. Touch communicates emotions and feelings in a physical form, creates physical intimacy, bonds, rapport, comfort, and amplify.

Haptics is categorized into functional/professional, social/polite, friendship/warmth, love/intimacy, sexual/arousal. Significantly humans communicate non-verbally, they send signs and emotions through many forms which need understanding as touch is critical for effective communication that could be interpreted differently. Haptic communication is correlated with kinesics (eye movement-gaze), where adaptors in gestures are touching movements and behaviours targeted towards self and others like shaking legs, scratching, using mobile phones, clearing throat, etc. Advantages of non-verbal communication are a compliment, substitute, attraction, express, helps physically challenged and illiterate people. Disadvantages are vague, culture bond, difficult to interpret, information distortion and multi-channel.

When there happens no communication through touch, humans feel abandoned and isolated since the basic survival instinct of the six and five sense living organisms is touch. Haptic communication connects and intense in transmitting emotions like task-orientation, ritual interaction, idiosyncratic relationship, emotional attachment, and sexual intent. These categories depend on the tolerance of an individual and intense in sharing feelings as touch with a hidden motive is strategic communication. Touch communication which is an immense method could be with high contact, low contact, and internal differences result in positive and negative correlations. The ability of the human to understand and respond to the haptic communication helps them to decode the encoded message.
Field Application

1. Touch communication is an effective and intimate way to handle and nurture the children. Anything communicated through touch would be more effective compared with other forms of communication as touch involves physical attachment.

2. Haptic communication is applied with physically challenged students, where they learn through touch.

3. Haptic communication widely used in the field of AI (Artificial Intelligence and Robotics sensor system), This system supports the medical haptic methods in surgical and other applications. In the Entertainment industry, the emergence of haptic methods and the haptic sensor provides adequate support for computing and gaming.

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Introduction Communicating non-verbally involves visual cues (visual acuity), gestures (body language), paralanguage (intonation, pitch, speaking speed), oculesics (study of eye movement), chronemics (study of role of time in communication), haptics (communication through touch) and proxemics (study the use of space in communication). Non-verbal communication develops a social-emotional development from a childhood haptics, a non-verbal communication [...]

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depends on environment and interpretations such as on who, why, when and differs with setting and purpose as professional, friendship, guide, punishment, sympathy

sends messages through sensory nerves and receives messages through brain sensors as it impacts the psychological stimulus.

Touch communicates emotions and feelings in a physical form, creates
- Physical intimacy
- Bonds
- Rapport
- Comfort
- Amplify

when theres no communication through touch, humans feel abandoned and isolated since basic survival instinct of 6 and 5 sense living organisms is touch

connects and intense in transmitting emotions like
- Task-orientation
- Ritual interaction
- Idiosyncratic relationship
- Emotional attachment
- Sexual intent
depends on the tolerance of an individual and intense in sharing feelings as touch with a hidden motive is strategic communication
high contact/low contact

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Having obtained a Master of Science in psychology in East Asia, Damon Verial has been applying his knowledge to related topics since 2010. Having written professionally since 2001, he has been featured in financial publications such as SafeHaven and the McMillian Portfolio. He also runs a financial newsletter at Stock Barometer.

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Artifacts and Environmental Factors in Nonverbal Communication | Synonym

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The environment and social and cultural artifacts are vital for understanding nonverbal communication. The environment refers to the physical place in which communication takes place. Artifacts are the objects in the environment that can provide some form of stimulus to the communicators. It is these concepts that ...

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Environment: refers to the physical place in which communication takes place
Artefacts: the objects in the environment that can provide some form of stimulus to the communicators

Provide the context for nonverbal communication
- there're number of factors that can effect changes in how individuals communicate nonverbally

1. Appropriateness
- a factor of both environment and artefacts present in the environment
- give clues to what nonverbal behaviours are in and out of context
eg: wedding ring indicates that romantic advances are in appropriate

2. Climate
- environmental factor that affects not only an individual's nonverbal behaviour but that of native resident's in specific climate type
eg: gays and lesbos tend to move to warmer climates, certain musical groups tend to move to rainy and cold climates

3. Microenvironments
- refers to local environment constructed by humans (gardens, patios and office spaces)
- local environment itself and artefacts contained in it communicate messages to people that influence the nonverbal communication of those present
eg: replace square table with circle to increase classroom interaction

4. Scents
- smell is important factor in predicting how people will behave in it
- triggers memories of the past and can be meaningful in different ways
eg: smell of rotting food changes people's willingness to eat as influences their physical position in the environment

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Abstract

Social interactions involve complex exchanges of a variety of social signals, such as gaze, facial expressions, speech and gestures. Focusing on the dual function of eye gaze, this review explores how the presence of an audience, communicative purpose and temporal dynamics of gaze allow interacting partners to achieve successful communication. First, we focus on how being watched modulates social cognition and behavior. We then show that the study of interpersonal gaze processing, particularly gaze temporal dynamics, can provide valuable understanding of social behavior in real interactions. We propose that the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model, which combines both sensing and signaling functions of eye gaze, provides a framework to make sense of gaze patterns in live interactions. Finally, we discuss how autistic individuals process the belief in being watched and interpersonal dynamics of gaze, and suggest that systematic manipulation of factors modulating gaze signaling can reveal which aspects of social eye gaze are challenging in autism.

Keywords: eye gaze, audience effect, interpersonal dynamics, social interaction, autism

Introduction

In any face-to-face interaction between two people, both agents are continuously exchanging a variety of social signals, such as gaze, gestures or facial expressions. This two-way exchange of social information is possible because they are able to see each other, and consequently both agents can gather and communicate information. Although traditional cognitive research has largely ignored this interactive nature of social encounters, an increasing number of studies are looking at how social behavior changes in a live interaction, as well as how eye gaze of two individuals coordinates to achieve successful communication, that is, to accurately process incoming signals and send back meaningful signals at a suitable pace.

In the present paper, we explore gaze as a communicative signal in a two-person interaction, considering both patterns of gaze to/from the other person and the interpersonal dynamics of gaze in relation to other behaviors. To explore these issues, we first introduce the dual function of eye gaze and describe two cognitive theories that explain changes in behavior when being watched. We then consider gaze exchanges during communicative situations, and propose the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model as a framework to study the dynamics of gaze in face-to-face interactions. Finally, we look into the case of autism to discuss how studies on the audience effect and interpersonal dynamics of gaze can shed light on why autistic people find social communication challenging.

The Dual Function of Eye Gaze

Eye gaze has a dual function in human social interaction - we can both perceive information from others and use our gaze to signal to others ( Argyle and Cook, 1976; Gobel et al., 2015; Risko et al., 2016). Simmel (1921) already stated that "the eye cannot take unless at the same time it gives." This contrasts with the auditory modality, where we use our ears to hear, but our mouth to speak. This makes our eyes a powerful tool for social interactions, with a "uniquely sociological function" ( Simmel, 1921). For instance, when we see a pair of eyes we can gather information about what other people are looking at ( Frischen et al., 2007), and how they feel or think ( Baron-Cohen et al., 1997). At the same time, we can use our eyes to strategically cue another's attention ( Kuhn et al., 2009). Depending on the duration and direction of our gaze, we are also able to perceive and signal a variety of meanings, such as desire to communicate ( Ho et al., 2015), threat and dominance ( Ellyson et al., 1981; Emery, 2000), attractiveness ( Argyle and Dean, 1965; Georgescu et al., 2013), or seeking for approval ( Efran and Broughton, 1966; Efran, 1968).

The dual function of the eyes has often been ignored in cognitive research studying social interactions. In typical lab studies, participants interact with a monitor that displays pictures or videos of other people, while their gaze or other behavior is recorded (see Risko et al., 2012 for a review). In these experimental settings signals are sent only one-way (from the picture to the participant) and the dual function of gaze is completely lost. Although these traditional approaches allow good experimental control, they are not interactive ( Schilbach et al., 2013; Gobel et al., 2015; Risko et al., 2016). Recent research has implemented more ecologically valid approaches that can restore the dual function of gaze. The belief that someone can see us, intrinsic to live interactions, is thought to recruit a range of social cognitive processes that are missing when participants interact with videos or pictures ( Risko et al., 2012, 2016; Schilbach et al., 2013). Moreover, in face-to-face interactions communication is multimodal ( Vigliocco et al., 2014): information is exchanged through eye gaze, but also through gestures, facial expressions or speech, and all these signals need to be integrated over time and across agents ( Jack and Schyns, 2015; Hirai and Kanakogi, 2018; Holler et al., 2018).

In the following, we first describe two cognitive theories that explain changes in behavior when being watched. Then, we discuss why interpersonal dynamics are relevant when studying social eye gaze.

Cognitive Theories of the Audience Effect

On the other hand, the audience effect is a change in behavior specifically caused by the belief that someone else is watching me. It builds on mechanisms which process the perceptual state of the other, known as perceptual mentalising ( Teufel et al., 2010b). Perceptual mentalising modulates the processing of social information from the eyes in a variety of ways. For example, seeing a live-feed of a person with transparent glasses (who can see) leads to a larger gaze cuing effect than a matched stimulus of a person with opaque glasses (who cannot see) ( Nuku and Bekkering, 2008; Teufel et al., 2010a), and similar results are seen in tests of visual perspective taking ( Furlanetto et al., 2016). This demonstrates that even basic social processing is influenced by the knowledge that another person can see something. The audience effect takes this one step further, considering how our social cognition is affected by the knowledge that another person can see us.

Audience effects differ from social facilitation in that social facilitation could occur if another person is present but looking away, whereas audience effects are specific to the case when another person is believed to be watching (even from another location). When people believe they are being watched, they typically change their behavior to maintain a positive public image. This has been described in terms of self-presentation theory ( Bond, 1982), which claims that people modulate their performance in front of others to maintain a good public image and increase their self-esteem. Bond (1982) further showed that making errors while being observed translates into decreased self-esteem and poor performance, regardless of task difficulty.

In the following, we strictly focus on changes in social behavior that derive from audience effects, that is, from the belief in being watched. To explain these changes, two main cognitive theories have been proposed: the Watching Eyes model ( Conty et al., 2016) and reputation management theory ( Emler, 1990; Resnick et al., 2006; Tennie et al., 2010). Both theories give plausible explanations about the relationship between an individual and an observer, but they have different focus. The Watching Eyes model concentrates on how an observer influences cognitive processing within individuals (self-focus), beyond self-esteem effects proposed by self-presentation theory. Reputation management theory explains how individuals manipulate the observer's beliefs to their advantage (other-focus) in an updated version of the self-presentation theory. Below we describe each of these theories in more detail.

Watching Eyes Model

Similar to the Fast-track Modulator model by Senju and Johnson (2009), the Watching Eyes model proposes two stages in the processing of direct gaze. In the first stage, direct gaze captures the beholder's attention by a subcortical route. This seems to be an automatic effect of direct gaze ( Senju and Hasegawa, 2005), and is thought to be triggered by the detection of low-level visual cues in eye gaze (e.g., luminance distribution in the eye; von Grünau and Anston, 1995; Kobayashi and Kohshima, 2001). Then, the subcortical route engages mentalizing brain areas (medial prefrontal cortex and temporo-parietal junction) that process the perceptual state of the observer, that is, the belief that s/he is or is not watching us. In the second stage, if the observer can see us, then direct gaze will elicit self-referential processing, and the sense of self-involvement in the interaction will increase. This will lead to the Watching Eyes effects, causing a change in behavior in various ways, such as enhancement of self-awareness ( Pönkänen et al., 2011; Baltazar et al., 2014; Hazem et al., 2017) or promotion of prosocial actions ( Izuma et al., 2011, 2009).

Recently, Hietanen and Hietanen (2017) have directly tested the Watching Eyes model of self-referential processing. To measure self-referential processing they used the foreign-language task, where participants read sentences in a language that they do not understand and need to match underlined words with pronouns in their native language. In this task, more use of first person singular pronouns is thought to be related to more self-referential processing. Participants completed this task but they watched a video-clip of a person with direct or averted gaze before each sentence was presented. Results showed no effect of eye gaze direction on the pronouns used. Then, a second group of participants completed the same task while they watched live faces with direct or averted face. They found that participants in the direct gaze group used more first person singular pronouns than the averted gaze group. In line with this, a recent study on bodily self-awareness ( Hazem et al., 2017) has found that participants are more accurate in rating the intensity of a physiological signal when they believe they are in online connection with someone wearing clear sunglasses (the observer can see through) rather than someone wearing opaque sunglasses (the observer cannot see through). Taken together, these findings show evidence in favor of the Watching Eyes model: to trigger self-reference and self-awareness it is not enough to see a pair of eyes directly gazing at us - the belief that these pair of eyes can see us is also required.

Yet, it is important to consider that different tasks measure different forms of self-reference and self-awareness. This means that different tasks are likely to engage different self-related cognitive processes, which might have different sensitivity to the belief in being watched. For instance, the pronoun-selection task used by Hietanen and Hietanen (2017) is rather intuitive and has been shown to be sensitive to manipulations of self-awareness ( Davis and Brock, 1975). However, it could be that other tasks which elicit more complex self-referential cognitive processes (e.g., self-referential effect memory task; Craik and Tulving, 1975; Lombardo et al., 2007) are not as sensitive to this top-down modulation. It is equally important to distinguish between different forms of self-awareness, such as bodily self-awareness (accuracy in reporting physiological signals; Cameron, 2001) and metacognitive self-awareness (accuracy in judging performance in a task; Fleming and Dolan, 2012). Thus, it remains to be seen whether direct gaze and the belief in being watched modulate all forms of self-referential processing and self-awareness or not.

Reputation Management Theory

Reputation is a social construct that emerges from the desire to cultivate good self-impressions in others ( Silver and Shaw, 2018). It is based on how we think others see us, and it changes over time depending on our actions ( Izuma, 2012; Cage, 2015). People can gain approval from others and increase their own reputation in various ways, such as acting for the benefit of other people or behaving according to social norms. To maintain or manage reputation, individuals need to think about what others think of them, care about how others see them, and have the desire to foster positive impressions in others ( Izuma, 2012; Cage, 2015). Thus, mentalizing and social motivation have a central function in reputation management ( Saito et al., 2010; Tennie et al., 2010; Izuma, 2012; Cage, 2015). In line with this, neuroimaging studies have shown that mentalizing and reward brain areas are engaged during different phases of reputation management, such as processing what others think of them (e.g., medial prefrontal cortex; Frith and Frith, 2006; Izuma et al., 2010) or anticipating positive reputation (e.g., ventral striatum; Izuma et al., 2009, 2010) respectively.

One strategy that people use to maintain a good reputation in front of others is to behave in a more prosocial fashion ( Smith and Bird, 2000; Bradley et al., 2018). A way to measure prosocial behavior in the lab is by using economic games. Because they usually have repeated trials, this facilitates reputation building between participants in the game ( Pfeiffer and Nowak, 2006; Bradley et al., 2018). For instance, Filiz-Ozbay and Ozbay (2014) used the Public Goods game and found that people invest more effort to contribute to public, but not private, goods when someone is observing them. Izuma et al. (2011) used the Dictator game ( Kahneman et al., 1986; Guala and Mittone, 2010) as a donation task, where participants receive a sum of money and must decide on repeated trials whether to accept a proposal to share the money with a charity, or reject it and keep all the money. Results showed that in the presence of a confederate who pretended to monitor the answers, participants decided to accept the proposed sharing more often than when they were alone in the room. These findings clearly illustrate how participants manipulate the beliefs of the observer to maintain their good reputation.

Several factors modulate how strong the audience effect is on prosocial behavior ( Bradley et al., 2018), such as the identity of the observer (experimenter, other participants, stranger) or whether decisions of participants are consequential. For instance, Cage et al. (2013) also used the Dictator game in the presence and absence of a confederate, but additionally contrasted two conditions: one in which participants believed the recipient of the sharing arrangement was an individual who could later reciprocate (consequential decision), and one in which the recipient could not reciprocate (non-consequential decision). They found that participants accepted the chance to share money most frequently in the presence of a confederate and when the confederate could later reciprocate. This shows that the context associated with the observer (e.g., can s/he reciprocate or not?) also modulates the extent to which being watched affects behavior.

Another strategy used to maintain reputation is to behave according to social norms. Social norms can be of various kinds, such as saying thank you or holding a door for someone after you. A more subtle type of social norm is civil inattention ( Goffman, 1963), which proposes that the amount of gaze directed to strangers "should be enough to acknowledge their presence but not so much as to indicate that they are of special interest." Multiple studies have used eye-tracking to test if social attention is modulated according to social norms of eye gaze. For instance, Laidlaw et al. (2011) found that participants sitting in a waiting room would look more to a confederate in a video-clip than to the same confederate present in the room. The authors claimed that this change in gaze patterns is due to a social norm whereby it is not polite to stare at someone, which in turn translates into active disengagement.

So far, we have discussed how the presence of an observer modulates an individual's cognitive processing, both self-focused (Watching Eyes model) and other-focused (reputation management theory). However, the studies presented above have a major limitation: confederate and participant are not expected (and do not intend) to interact, verbally or physically, with each other. This means that there is no explicit communicative exchange between them. In the same way that social behavior changes when participants watch a video-recorded person or a live person, it could be that it also differs between a situation where there is potential for an interaction and a situation where there is an actual interaction with explicit communicative exchanges (henceforth communicative encounter; Foulsham et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2013; Macdonald and Tatler, 2018). Focusing on the particular case of eye gaze, in the next section we argue that interpersonal gaze dynamics have a key role in modulating social behavior during communicative encounters.

Interpersonal Dynamics of Eye Gaze

Recent studies show that direct gaze can act as an ostensive communicative signal ( Csibra and Gergely, 2009). During face-to-face interactions, where individuals exchange information with communicative purpose through a variety of channels (e.g., gaze, gestures, facial expressions, speech), direct gaze helps to integrate and coordinate auditory and visual signals ( Bavelas et al., 2002). Moreover, it has been shown that to successfully produce and detect gestures with communicative purpose, information conveyed by gaze signals (e.g., direct gaze) is preferentially used over information conveyed by kinematics of the gesture ( Trujillo et al., 2018). Thus, eye gaze has a core function in leading social interactions up to successful communicative exchanges, where there is efficient transmission of information between sender and receiver.

In the studies presented in the previous section, the authors claim that changes in eye gaze when participants are being watched respond to demands of social norms ( Foulsham et al., 2011; Laidlaw et al., 2011; Gobel et al., 2015). The context of those studies does not require participants to explicitly communicate with the confederate, but only look (or not) at each other. Moreover, the confederate is usually a complete stranger to the participant. It is therefore not surprising that this awkward interaction without communicative purpose leads participants to modulate eye gaze in compliance with social norms ( Wu et al., 2013). However, in communicative encounters (e.g., conversation) gaze patterns need to coordinate with other verbal and non-verbal signals to successfully receive and send signals ( Bavelas et al., 2002; Trujillo et al., 2018). In studying such communications, we must consider not just the average pattern of gaze (toward/away from the face) but also the dynamics of gaze behavior in relation to other social events (speech, turn taking, facial expressions, etc.). This means that to succeed during communicative exchanges, eye gaze needs not only modulation by social norms, but also constant adjustments to keep pace with interpersonal dynamics that emerge as the interaction develops.

In the following, we first describe the main social functions that eye gaze has during communicative interactions. Then, we focus on the temporal dynamics of gaze as a key mechanism that enables meaningful interpersonal exchanges during communication, as well as successful progression of the interaction.

Social Functions of Eye Gaze During Conversation

During communicative encounters, such as conversations, the eyes of both agents are generally very active. In a seminal study on gaze direction during conversation, Kendon identified asymmetrical gaze behavior between speakers and listeners ( Kendon, 1967): while listeners gazed at speakers most of the time, speakers shifted their gaze toward and away from listeners. More recently, Rogers et al. (2018) found that during a 4 min conversation participants spent on average 60% of the time directing their gaze toward the face of the other person (only 10% of the time it was directed specifically to the eyes), and that these events were approximately 2.2 s long (for direct eye contact events were 0.36 s long). The brief duration of these events supports Kendon's original findings, because it indicates that participants are constantly alternating their gaze between face or eyes of their partner and other regions. There has been much debate about the meaning of these rapid and subtle changes in eye gaze direction and duration. Kendon (1967) originally suggested that they give rise to three main social functions of gaze. Note that, although the gaze patterns described below allow us to send signals to another person, these signals are sent implicitly and without awareness.

It is important to bear in mind that the social functions of gaze are only meaningful during face-to-face interactions, where both partners can see each other. It is only in this context that eye gaze has a dual function and both agents can perceive and signal information ( Gobel et al., 2015; Risko et al., 2016). Moreover, gaze signals are not isolated: speakers need to shift their gaze toward or away from the listener at specific time points during speech, listeners need to coordinate gaze direction with facial expressions to indicate preference or reduce arousal, and speakers and listeners need to engage in brief mutual gaze periods to exchange turns or elicit back-channeling. Thus, to succeed in communicative encounters social signals need to be coordinated within and across conversation partners over time.

Temporal Dynamics of Gaze

Successful communication requires that both agents involved in the interaction process incoming signals and send back meaningful signals at a suitable pace. Since these signaling exchanges (specially for eye gaze) happen very quickly, timing becomes a critical factor to enable successful progression of the interaction. The need for timed coordination gives rise to patterns of gaze behavior, that is, temporal dependencies that emerge between gaze and other social signals. For instance, using gaze cueing paradigms (e.g., Posner's paradigm; Posner, 1980) it has been shown that averted gaze results in reflexive gaze following behavior, which is key to build joint attention ( Pfeiffer et al., 2013). Similarly, there could be a systematic relationship between gaze and speech within an individual (e.g., direct gaze at others when finishing an utterance, but avert gaze when hesitating; Ho et al., 2015), or between the gaze direction of two conversation partners (e.g., establish mutual eye gaze to elicit back-channeling; Bavelas et al., 2002). The presence and direction of these temporal dependencies at different time points can contribute to identifying which social cognitive processes modulate gaze behavior in the course of the interaction.

Experimentally manipulating temporal dynamics of eye gaze in the lab can be challenging, because it requires some degree of control over gaze patterns for at least one of the agents. Virtual reality and humanoid robot avatars offer an efficient alternative to this issue, because their behavior can be meticulously controlled while participants respond with comparable social behaviors as in interactions with real human beings ( Pfeiffer et al., 2013). With the aim of studying interactions in a truly reciprocal context, Wilms et al. (2010) created the now widely used gaze-contingent eye-tracking paradigm (see also Bayliss et al., 2012; Kim and Mundy, 2012; Edwards et al., 2015). In this paradigm, participants wearing an eye-tracker interact with an avatar whose gaze is controlled by the real-time gaze data collected from the participant. Thus, the avatar becomes a gaze-contingent stimulus that responds to the participant's gaze behavior. Using this paradigm in the context of joint attention, it has been shown that avatars are perceived as more human-like ( Pfeiffer et al., 2011) and more likeable ( Grynszpan et al., 2017; Willemse et al., 2018) if they follow the gaze of participants to achieve joint attention. Another study has shown that participants are quicker to assume that the avatar understands their instructions when there is contingent gaze following ( Frädrich et al., 2018). At the neural level, joint attention has been linked to activation in brain areas related to gaze direction (superior temporal sulcus), processing of reward (ventral striatum) and mental states (medial prefrontal cortex, temporo-parietal junction) ( Pelphrey et al., 2004; Schilbach et al., 2010; Pfeiffer et al., 2013; Caruana et al., 2015).

Some attempts have also been made to study the nature of temporal dynamics of gaze in real human-to-human interactions. For instance, Lachat et al. (2012) designed a joint attention task where dyads of participants engaged in joint and no-joint attention periods, respectively. They found that during joint attention periods mu rhythms in centro-parietal regions were suppressed for both leaders and followers, which has been previously associated with interpersonal coordination processes ( Naeem et al., 2012). In another study, participants completed a structured interview with a pre-recorded or live confederate, whose gaze was directed at them or averted ( Freeth et al., 2013). They found that participants gazed more to the confederate's face if her gaze was directed at them than if her gaze was averted, but only in the live condition. This means that participants' gaze was adjusted according to the looking behavior of the confederate only when their gaze acquired a signaling function (i.e., they were in a live interaction), thus creating a reciprocal social signal. Recently, a dual eye-tracking study ( Macdonald and Tatler, 2018) has also shown that pairs of participants who are given specific social roles in a collaborative task align their gaze quicker than pairs who have no social role. This indicates that eye gaze adjusts to the communicative purpose embedded in different social contexts.

All these studies show that temporal coordination of gaze patterns are characteristic of human interactions ( Pfeiffer et al., 2011; Willemse et al., 2018), and that they have beneficial effects for the interacting partners, such as increasing the reward value of the interaction ( Schilbach et al., 2010), or facilitating social coordination ( Lachat et al., 2012; Freeth et al., 2013; Frädrich et al., 2018) and information transfer ( Saito et al., 2010; Hirsch et al., 2017; Leong et al., 2017). They also highlight that gaze is a dynamic and interpersonal signal which changes over time depending on the social situation and communicative purpose. However, there is no cognitive model of gaze processing that takes into account these interactive factors. We believe that in the current context of social cognitive research, which has a strong focus on ecologically valid approaches ( Schilbach et al., 2013; Risko et al., 2016), there is an urgent need to build up a cognitive model of eye gaze in live interactions. With this aim, in the next section we introduce the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model, which tries to makes sense of gaze dynamics during face-to-face interactions.

Interpersonal Gaze Processing Model: Active Sensing and Social Signaling

Active Sensing in Eye Gaze

Active sensing is a key process in our interaction with the world, since it allows our sensors to be directed to the environment in order to extract relevant information ( Yang et al., 2016). Gaze behavior (i.e., deciding where to look) can be considered a form of active sensing in that we choose to move our eyes to specific locations to sample useful information from a visual scene. Since our visual system only gains high-resolution information for items falling in the fovea, the motor system needs to move our eyes to orient the fovea to different locations of interest. Thus, our motor actions shape the quality of the sensory information we sample ( Yang et al., 2016).

The active sensing framework provides a mathematical account of how we can sample the world with our eyes to get useful information. Because we can only direct our eyes at one location at a time, each eye movement (i.e., saccade) comes at some opportunity cost. For instance, in , looking at the woman and child on the bottom means we might lose the chance to get information about the house in the center or the woman and child on the left. Similarly, in , looking at the landscape on the right means we will lose information about the blue car on the left or the speedometer. Active sensing suggests that saccades are planned to maximize the information we sample depending on the goal of the task at hand.

To understand how sampled information is maximized it is useful to consider the concept of saliency maps. A saliency map is "an explicit two-dimensional topographical map that encodes stimulus conspicuity, or saliency, at every location in the visual scene" ( Itti and Koch, 2001). It results from the combination of different topographical or feature maps, each representing a single visual feature ( Koch and Ullman, 1985; Itti et al., 1998; Veale et al., 2017), such as intensity or color. A saliency map is a pre-attentive computation, in the sense that at this stage all locations are competing for representation in the visual cortex ( Itti and Koch, 2001). Only the location that is most salient will gain further access in downstream visual areas and the oculomotor nerve, and guide the next eye movement so as to deploy attention in that specific location ( Koch and Ullman, 1985; Kastner and Ungerleider, 2000; Itti and Koch, 2001; Veale et al., 2017) (see ).

Early models of saliency maps only included static features of visual scenes (e.g., color, orientation, intensity, center-surround difference; Koch and Ullman, 1985; Itti and Koch, 2001), but later proposals have suggested saliency maps that also integrate dynamic features ( Milanese et al., 1995; Jeong et al., 2008). For instance, the integrated saliency map by Jeong et al. (2008) considers dynamic features such as rotation, expansion, contraction or planar motion. These dynamic features are especially effective in attracting visual attention, and have been associated with an alerting mechanism that rapidly detects moving objects ( Milanese et al., 1995). Both static and dynamic features generate a bottom-up bias on the saliency map.

However, saliency maps can also be modeled by a top-down bias emerging from affective features (e.g., preference or dislike for the visual stimuli; Olshausen et al., 1993; Tsotsos et al., 1995; Itti et al., 1998; Veale et al., 2017; Jeong et al., 2008) (see ). Affective features are mainly associated with the goal of the task at hand, and are integrated with bottom-up information in associative visual areas (extrastriate cortex) ( Veale et al., 2017). For instance, as shown on , different search goals will model different priority maps derived from the same saliency map. Recent evidence has also found that when participants view social naturalistic scenes low-level salient features are less important, and participants primarily fixate on the faces and eyes of people in the scene ( Nasiopoulos et al., 2015; End and Gamer, 2017; Rubo and Gamer, 2018). This suggests that there is an implicit preferential bias to attend to others in social scenes to obtain information about them ( Nasiopoulos et al., 2015). In the same way that non-social task goals (e.g., search for the cell phone) model different priority maps, implicit social task goals (e.g., identify feelings of an actress in a movie) will model different sensing maps. This top-down bias is particularly important in the context of active sensing, since the task goal will modify the reward value of each location in the visual scene and, in turn, determine which information needs to be maximized ( Jeong et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2016).

Active sensing provides a useful framework to understand how eye movements are planned to process non-social stimuli (e.g., objects or landscapes), as well as social stimuli in pictures or videos. In both cases, the saccade planner combines bottom-up and top-down features in a priority or sensing map to maximize information relevant for the task and decide where gaze is next directed ( Yang et al., 2016). However, in the case of face-to-face interactions, our gaze not only needs to maximize the information gained but also send signals to another person (i.e., dual function of eyes; Argyle and Cook, 1976; Gobel et al., 2015; Risko et al., 2016).

Social Signaling and Eye Gaze

Research on animal communication has explored in detail the question of what behavior counts as a social signal and what message (if any) is sent ( Stegmann, 2013). A cue is a behavior or feature that can be used by another creature to guide its behavior; for example, mosquitoes use the increased carbon dioxide in exhaled air as a cue to find people to bite, but there is no benefit here to those sending the cue. In contrast, the mating call of a bird that attracts a mate acts as a signal because it benefits both sender and receiver ( Stegmann, 2013). A key way to distinguish between these is that signals are sent with the purpose of having an effect on another individual, which means they are more likely to be sent when they can be received. In the context of human interaction, signals are sent when another person is present (an audience effect) but should not be sent when a person acts alone. A stronger definition of explicit and deliberate signaling might require sending a signal repeatedly or elaborating on the signal until it is received. However, based on animal communication models ( Stegmann, 2013), we will use a minimal definition of communication where signals are sent implicitly.

As described above, our eyes can act both as a cue to our current thoughts (e.g., if I am looking at my watch, I want to know the time) and as a signal to another person (e.g., I ostentatiously stare at my watch to signal to my friend that we must leave the party) ( Argyle and Cook, 1976; Gobel et al., 2015; Risko et al., 2016). As Watzlavick's axiom "one cannot not communicate" ( Watzlawick et al., 1967) suggests, even in a waiting room where two people are not intended to communicate and avoid engaging in eye contact, they are sending a signal that means "I do not want to interact with you" ( Foulsham et al., 2011). This means that, in line with signaling theory, in face-to-face interactions our eye movements are constantly planned so as to send signals to others, and not just to gain information from the world. We propose that the signaling function of gaze creates a signaling map in the brain equivalent to the sensing map generated by the sensing function. In the same way that sensing maps show where to look to gain information, we hypothesize that signaling maps are computed in the brain to show where to look to send an appropriate signal to another person. In the following, we argue that the signaling map is computed by taking into account three key factors: communicative purpose, other's gaze direction, and coordination with other social signals.

First, the value of each gaze target in the signaling map will vary depending on the communicative purpose, that is, the type of message we wish to send. Just as saliency maps incorporate the task goal to create priority or sensing maps of visual attention, signaling maps need to take into account the communicative purpose. Imagine a waiting room with two people, where one person (A) wants to engage in an interaction, but the other person (B) does not. For person A, the optimal signaling behavior is to direct gaze to person B in order to send the message "I want to engage in an interaction with you." However, person B should avert gaze to efficiently signal "I do not want to interact with you." Thus, the signaling map will be different for person A and B, depending on the message they want to send.

Second, the signaling map will change according to the direction of the other person's gaze. The relationship between other's gaze direction and the signaling map lies in the fact that my signal will be received depending on whether the other person is gazing at us or not. Let's go back to the case of the waiting room with person A and B. For person A, who wishes to interact with person B, the optimal signaling behavior is to direct her gaze when person B is also looking at her, in order to disclose interest in the interaction. Directing her gaze when B is not looking has little benefit, because the signal will not be received. Equally, for person B the optimal signaling behavior is to avert gaze specifically when A is looking at her. This illustrates how the values associated with each location in the signaling map changes on a moment-by-moment basis, contingent on the gaze direction of the other person and in relation to communicative purpose.

Finally, the signaling map depends on the need to coordinate with other social signals that are sent in multimodal communication, such as speech or gestures ( Vigliocco et al., 2014; Ho et al., 2015; Jack and Schyns, 2015; Hirai and Kanakogi, 2018; Holler et al., 2018; Trujillo et al., 2018). This is particularly relevant for explicit communicative encounters. Imagine that person A and B in the waiting room are now engaged in a lively conversation: to signal interest in keeping the conversation going, the choice of direct or averted gaze will vary depending on the role of each partner in the conversation, as well as the time-course of speech itself. For instance, when person A starts speaking, she may avert gaze every now and then to signal she still has more things to say ( Kendon, 1967; Ho et al., 2015). While person B is listening, her gaze may be directed toward person A in order to signal interest in what A is saying ( Kendon, 1967; Ho et al., 2015). However, when person A is finishing the utterance, she may look toward person B to signal that she can take the floor ( Kendon, 1967; Ho et al., 2015). Thus, the coordination with other social signals also modulates the optimal location in the signaling map on a moment-by-moment basis.

Signaling theory provides a framework to understand how the communicative function of gaze shapes the planning of eye movements during face-to-face interactions. In the following, we propose a model where both active sensing and social signaling are combined to make sense of gaze patterns in human-to-human communication.

The Interpersonal Gaze Processing Model

The Interpersonal Gaze Processing model considers how gaze transitions from one state to the other (i.e., how eye movements are planned) when presented with social stimuli (,). This model distinguishes between two situations that differ in the belief in being watched: one where the social stimulus is a picture or video (i.e., cannot see us), and one where the social stimulus is a real person in front of us (i.e., can see us).

In the first case, where the stimulus is a picture or video of another person, there is no need to send a signal because it will not be perceived. Thus, the planning of eye movements only responds to active sensing, which aims to gain maximal information from the stimulus ( Yang et al., 2016). The Interpersonal Gaze Processing model considers that gaze patterns derived from active sensing correspond to baseline gaze behavior. When the goal is to get social information from the picture or video (e.g., what is the man in the picture feeling?) gaze patterns will be mostly influenced by sensing maps (see ,). This baseline sensing map reveals how people use gaze to gain different types of social information during interactions. For example, in a noisy environment where it is hard to hear, they will look more to the center of the face to help with speech comprehension; conversely, to recognize emotions they will look more to the eyes ( Buchan et al., 2007, 2008; Lewkowicz and Hansen-Tift, 2012). This also demonstrates how task goals (e.g., speech comprehension or emotion recognition) translate in different eye movements depending on the information that needs to be maximized.

In the second case, where the stimulus is a real person in front of us, our eyes will be sending a signal to the other person. Here, the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model proposes that gaze patterns result from a trade-off between sensing maps and signaling maps (see ,). This means that the planning of eye movements combines the maximal gain of information from a particular location in the sensing map (e.g., eyes of the other person), together with the optimal benefit of gazing to that location in the signaling map. illustrates how different possible gaze targets on the face of the man can provide various types of information to the woman (sensing function), but also can send different signals to the man (signaling function). Comparing baseline gaze behavior in a video to gaze behavior in a matched real-life interaction, can provide a measure of the signaling components of eye gaze. For example, some studies show that people direct gaze to the eyes of a stranger in a video, but not to the eyes of a live stranger: this indicates that averting gaze from the real person has a meaningful signaling value, since it expresses no desire to affiliate with the stranger and reduces the intensity of the interaction ( Argyle and Dean, 1965; Foulsham et al., 2011; Laidlaw et al., 2011). This example considers the case of watching a stranger with a rather neutral face, but another interesting situation is that where partners show emotional facial expressions. Although this scenario has not yet been tested, it would give further insight on how sensing maps and signaling maps are integrated during gaze planning. Moreover, we acknowledge there may also be changes in arousal in association with being watched by a live person ( Zajonc, 1965; Myllyneva and Hietanen, 2015; Lyyra et al., 2018), but these effects are not included in our model because of non-specific predictions on sensing and signaling maps.

Thus, the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model proposes that, moment-by-moment, the gaze control systems in the brain must evaluate both the information gained and the signaling potential of a saccade, to determine where to look next. This model and other theories of the audience effect (i.e., Watching Eyes model and reputation management theory) are linked because they are all modulated by the belief in being watched. The Watching Eyes model and reputation management theory explain how the presence of an observer modulates an individual's self- and other-focused cognitive processing, but they do not attempt to explain the dynamics of eye gaze in live communicative exchanges. By contrast, the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model places special emphasis on communicative purpose and coordination with other social signals (e.g., other's gaze direction, speech, facial expressions): while communicative purpose (together with the belief in being watched) is key to define the signaling map, the coordination with other social signals modulates this map on a moment-by-moment basis. Future studies on gaze processing should try to elucidate how each of these factors modulates gaze sensing and signaling during communication, as well as if and how these maps are computed and integrated in the brain.

Gaze Processing in Autism

Autism Spectrum Condition (ASC) is a developmental condition characterized by difficulties in interpersonal interaction and communication, as well as the presence of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior ( American Psychological Association, 2013). Since eye gaze has a critical role in regulating social interactions and enabling successful communicative exchanges, it is not surprising that the presence of abnormal gaze patterns is one of the most used diagnostic criteria for ASC from early infancy ( Zwaigenbaum et al., 2005). Although research into gaze behavior in autistic adults has identified some general patterns, it has also yielded some inconsistent findings: some studies using pictures and videos suggest that they avoid looking at the eyes, whereas others indicate that they have typical gaze patterns ( Falck-Ytter and Von Hofsten, 2011; Chita-Tegmark, 2016; Frazier et al., 2017). Some of these discrepancies may be a consequence of the wide spectrum in autistic individuals, but in line with the second-person neuroscience framework ( Schilbach et al., 2013; Schilbach, 2016), it has been suggested that they could also be a consequence of the lack of experimental paradigms for studying eye gaze in real social interactions ( Chevallier et al., 2015; Von dem Hagen and Bright, 2017; Drysdale et al., 2018). Moreover, a recent qualitative study highlights that self-declared autistic adolescents and adults struggle with the appropriate use and timing of eye gaze during face-to-face interactions ( Trevisan et al., 2017). These findings suggest that to fully understand autistic social cognition it is necessary to examine how they process social signals in real dynamic interactions.

Audience Effects in Autism

We have previously presented two distinct cognitive theories to explain audience effects: the Watching Eyes model ( Conty et al., 2016) and reputation management theory ( Emler, 1990; Resnick et al., 2006; Tennie et al., 2010). Both theories involve mentalizing and distinction between self-beliefs and other-beliefs, either to process the perceptual state of the observer ( Teufel et al., 2010b) or to further infer what the observer thinks of us ( Izuma et al., 2010; Cage, 2015). This means that mentalizing is a key cognitive component of audience effects ( Hamilton and Lind, 2016). Difficulties in processing mental states of others is one of the hallmarks of autism: they have trouble inferring beliefs and intentions of other people ( Happé,, 1994; White et al., 2009), as well as attributing a social meaning to eye gaze ( Baron-Cohen et al., 1997), especially when they need to do so spontaneously ( Senju et al., 2009). Thus, impaired mentalizing in autistic people implies that being watched will elicit less self-related processing and reputation management, and they will show reduced audience effects ( Hamilton and Lind, 2016).

To our knowledge, no studies have directly tested the Watching Eyes model on autistic individuals, but instead have looked at differences in self-referential processing between typical and autistic populations. Lombardo et al. (2007) used a task measuring self-referential memory and found that high-functioning autistic individuals as well as with Asperger Syndrome (two similar subgroups within the autism spectrum) had smaller self-referential bias compared to typical individuals. Moreover, from early infancy autistic individuals' show reduced orienting to their name, which is a salient stimulus uniquely related to oneself ( Werner et al., 2000; Nadig et al., 2010). These studies suggest that autistic people have a general impairment in processing self-related information as distinct from other-related information, already when they are in a non-interactive environment. Interestingly, it has recently been suggested that autistic people might have a narrower cone of direct gaze (i.e., the range of gaze directions that an individual judges as being directed to oneself), which means that they might be less likely to perceive that an observer is watching them ( Gianotti et al., 2018). Thus, a plausible prediction is that autistic individuals will fail to process self-relevant signals in interactive environments, such as the belief in being watched ( Conty et al., 2016). Studies directly testing effects of being watched on self-referential processing will be needed to clarify this question.

In contrast, a body of research has investigated reputation management in autism. Using the donation task, it has been found that the frequency of donations of autistic participants is not affected by the presence or absence of a confederate who is watching them ( Izuma et al., 2011; Cage et al., 2013). It is worth noting that Izuma et al. (2011) found a social facilitation effect in autistic participants on a perceptual task, which indicates that autistic people have specific difficulties with reputation management processes. Cage et al. (2013) further showed that, while typical participants donated more frequently when the observer could reciprocate, autistic participants had reduced expectation of reciprocity. Moreover, autistic children do not engage in flattery behavior toward others ( Chevallier et al., 2012) and do not use strategic self-promotion when describing themselves in front of an audience ( Scheeren et al., 2010). These findings demonstrate that autistic people are less inclined to manipulate beliefs of observers to maintain their reputation, either due to mentalizing impairments ( Frith, 2012) or to social motivation deficits ( Chevallier et al., 2013).

However, it is not clear how social norms of eye gaze (i.e., civil inattention; ( Goffman, 1963) are implemented in autism, since no study has directly contrasted gaze patterns of autistic individuals in live versus pre-recorded non-communicative interactions. A study by von dem Hagen and colleagues approached this question in typical individuals with high and low autistic traits ( Von dem Hagen and Bright, 2017, Experiment 1). Participants were shown videos of a confederate and were deceived to believe that the videos were either pre-recorded or a live video-feed. They found that people with low autistic traits decreased the amount of gaze directed to the face of the confederate in the live video-feed condition, but no reduction was found in the group with higher autism traits. This finding indicates some degree of insensitivity to the belief in being watched and, consequently, to social norms associated with social behavior toward strangers. However, it remains to be seen whether these findings are true for individuals with an ASC diagnosis.

Interpersonal Dynamics of Gaze in Autism

Few studies have looked at how gaze patterns differ between typical and autistic groups during interactions with communicative purpose, and the evidence is mixed. For instance, when asked to actively engage in an interaction (QandA task) over a video-feed, individuals with high autistic traits looked less toward the face of the confederate than individuals with low autistic traits ( Von dem Hagen and Bright, 2017, Experiment 2). Using a similar QandA task in a face-to-face interaction, it was found that high amount of autistic traits was not associated to reduced looking to the face, but to reduced visual exploration ( Vabalas and Freeth, 2016). However, in a study testing a sample with autism diagnosis, no differences in visual exploration were found between typical and autistic groups ( Freeth and Bugembe, 2018). It is worth noting that in all these studies they found no between-group differences in gaze patterns during speaking and listening periods (i.e., typical/low autistic traits and high autistic traits behave equally), which suggests that to some extent social functions of gaze are preserved in autism (e.g., regulating turn-taking during conversation).

A reason why autistic people show poor coordination of social behavior could stem from difficulties in appropriately adjusting gaze to the dynamics of communication. It has been found that infants at high risk for ASC alternate less between initiating and responding to joint attention compared to infants at low risk ( Thorup et al., 2018), and that they preferentially orient toward a person that always responds in the same way over a person that can show variable responses ( Vernetti et al., 2017). This means that, since early infancy, individuals at high risk for ASC experience less dynamic social contexts and less variety in gaze-contingent events. Using a gaze-contingent eye-tracking paradigm with virtual avatars, Caruana et al. (2017) have found that autistic adults are less accurate and take a longer time than typical adults to respond to joint attention. In line with this, Freeth and Bugembe (2018) have found that when a confederate directly gazes at participants during a QandA task, autistic adults look less at the confederate's face than typical adults. These findings suggest that difficulties in adjusting eye contact make it hard for autistic individuals to keep pace with rapid and spontaneous face-to-face interactions.

Overall, these findings indicate that autistic individuals have difficulties with social dynamics of gaze in real interactions. However, current research is not enough to clearly distinguish which cognitive components of eye gaze processing are most disrupted in autism. In this sense, the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model (,) provides common ground where studies manipulating various gaze-related factors can come together. We previously suggested that comparing gaze patterns in a video versus a matched real-life interaction provides a measure of the signaling components of eye gaze. If autistic people do not engage in social signaling, the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model predicts that their gaze patterns in live and video conditions should be similar, which is in line with recent evidence ( Von dem Hagen and Bright, 2017). Future research should try to systematically study which factors modulating gaze signaling make interpersonal gaze processing challenging in autism.

Conclusion

Natural social interactions are characterized by complex exchanges of social signals, so achieving successful communication can be challenging. This paper aimed to review research manipulating three key factors that modulate eye gaze processing during social interactions: the presence of an interacting partner who can perceive me, the existence of communicative purpose, and the development of interpersonal and temporal dynamics.

Current findings indicate that the belief in being watched has a strong impact on other-focused social cognition (both on prosocial behavior and social norms of eye gaze), but evidence is less clear for self-focused cognition: future studies should clarify to what extent being watched affects different forms of self-related processes. We also find that, to achieve successful communication, eye gaze needs to coordinate with verbal and non-verbal social signals, both within and between interacting partners. We propose the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model as a framework where gaze sensing and signaling are combined to determine where the eyes will look next in a live interaction. In this model, the belief in being watched and the communicative purpose of the interaction are key to define the gaze signaling map, while the contingencies between different signaling modalities (e.g., gaze, speech) are critical in changing this map on a moment-by-moment basis. Systematic manipulation of these factors could help elucidate how they relate to each other to enable successful communicative encounters, as well as how signaling maps are computed in the brain.

Finally, research on autistic individuals reveals that they are less sensitive to the belief in being watched, but more studies are needed to clarify how the presence of an audience impacts self-related processing in autism. Although evidence on interpersonal dynamics is mixed, it is agreed that autistic individuals have difficulties with social dynamics of eye gaze during real interactions. We argue that the Interpersonal Gaze Processing model provides a framework for future studies to systematically characterize which aspects of gaze communication are most challenging for autistic people.

Author Contributions

RC wrote the initial draft of the manuscript and prepared the figures. AH made critical revisions to the original draft. RC and AH approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Funding. This work was supported by University College London Open Access Team. RC acknowledges financial support from "la Caixa" Foundation (ID 100010434, Grant code LCF/BQ/EU16/11560039).

References

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The Role of Eye Gaze During Natural Social Interactions in Typical and Autistic People

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Social interactions involve complex exchanges of a variety of social signals, such as gaze, facial expressions, speech and gestures. Focusing on the dual function of eye gaze, this review explores how the presence of an audience, communicative purpose and temporal dynamics of gaze allow interacting partners to achieve successful communication.

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How the presence of an audience, communicative purpose and temporal dynamics of gaze allows interacting partners to achieve successful communication

Two-way exchange of social information is possible because they're able to see each other and hence both agents can gather and communicate information

Dual Function of Eye Gaze
- Perceive and signal
- When we see a pair of eyes we can gather information about what other people are looking at (Frischen et al., 2007), and how they feel or think (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997).
- Use our eyes to strategically cue another’s attention (Kuhn et al., 2009)
- Depending on duration and direction of gaze: perceive, signal a variety of meanings, desire to communicate, threat and dominance, attractiveness, seeking for approval

- In cognitive research studying social interactions, the dual function of gaze is completely lost
>> Experiments have participants interact with a monitor that displays pictures or videos of other people
Signals are hence only sent one-way (picture to participant)

The belief that someone can see us, intrinsic to live interactions, is thought to recruit a range of social cognitive processes that are missing when participants interact with videos or pictures

Cognitive Theories of Audience Effect
- We behave differently when we are alone/in presence of others
- More prosocial actions when we're with other people
- The bodily presence of another" causes changes in the behaviour of participants which makes them more competitive when racing against others (experiment 120 years ago with cyclists)

1. Social facilitation refers to a change in behaviour caused by the presence of a conspecific that may or may not be watching us (Zajonc, 1965).

2. Audience effect is a change in behaviour specifically caused by the belief that someone else is watching me.
- Builds on mechanisms which processes the perceptual state of the other (Perceptual mentalising)
Perceptual mentalising: modulates the processing of social information from the eyes in a variety of ways
>> Basic social processing is influenced by the knowledge that another person can see something

Audience effect different from social facilitation
SF can occur if another person is present but looking away, AE are specific to the case when another person is believed to be watching (even from another location)

Recent evidence suggests that being watched modulates gaze patterns directed at the face of the observer (direct gaze acquires social meaning that an individual may/may not wish to signal to someone else)

When being watched, eye gaze is adjusted to send appropriate signals to the observer, rather than to only gather information from the environment

The Watching Eyes model concentrates on how an observer influences cognitive processing within individuals (self-focus), beyond self-esteem effects proposed by self-presentation theory. Reputation management theory explains how individuals manipulate the observer’s beliefs to their advantage (other-focus) in an updated version of the self-presentation theory.

Watching Eyes Model
- A pair of eyes watching us is an ostensive communicative cue that rapidly captures our attention
>> Baron-Cohen (1995) suggested that there is a specialised Eye Direction Detector module in the brain
(The module rapidly identifies whether we're the target of someone else's attention by processing the direction of other people's eyes relative to us)

Reputation Management Theory
- Reputation is a social construct that emerges from the desire to cultivate good self-impressions in others (Silver and Shaw, 2018).

Interpersonal Dynamics of Eye Gaze
- Gaze directed at other people serves to control the level of intimacy or affiliation with the partner, and that it compensates with other behaviours (e.g., physical proximity) to achieve an equilibrium level of intimacy (see also Loeb, 1972).
- "One cannot not communicate" since the lack of response is a response in itself (not looking at someone signals lack of interest in the interaction)
- To succeed during communicative exchanges, eye gaze needs not only modulation by social norms, but also constant adjustments to keep pace with interpersonal dynamics that emerge as the interaction develops.

Social Functions of Eye Gaze During Conversation
- Eye gaze has a regulatory function during conversation, because it allows individuals to modulate transitions between speaker and listener states (i.e., turn-taking).
- Found that speakers use averted gaze when they begin to talk and during hesitation (to indicate they want to retain their role as speakers), use direct gaze when they're about to end an utterance
- Eye gaze has a monitoring function: it allows each participant to track attentional states and facial displays of the partner to ensure mutual understanding and seek social approval from others (Efran and Broughton, 1966; Efran, 1968; Kleinke, 1986).
- Eye gaze has an expressive function, which allows participants to regulate the level of arousal in the interaction.
>> Social functions of gaze are only meaningful during face-to-face interactions where both partners can see each other

Temporal Dynamics of Gaze
- These signalling exchanges (specially for eye gaze) happen very quickly
- Timing becomes a critical factor to enable successful progression of the interaction

Opportunity Cost in Gaze

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Creating, Performing and Presenting

A1. The Creative Process: use the creative process the elements of dance (body, space, time, energy, and relationship), and a variety of sources to develop movement vocabulary;

A2. Choreography and Composition:combine the elements of dance in a variety of ways in composing individual and ensemble dance creations;

A3. Dance Techniques: demonstrate an understanding of the dance techniques and movement vocabularies of a variety of global dance forms;

A4. Performance:apply dance presentation skills in a variety of contexts and performances.

Reflecting, Responding and Analysing

B1. Critical Analysis Process: use the critical analysis process to reflect on and evaluate their own and others' dance works and activities;

B2. Dance and Society:demonstrate an understanding of how societies present and past use or have used dance, and of how creating and viewing dance can benefit individuals, groups, and communities;

B3. Continuing Engagement: demonstrate an understanding of the purpose and possibilities of continuing engagement in dance arts.

Foundations

C2. Contexts and Influences: demonstrate an understanding of the social, cultural, and historical origins and development of dance forms, including their influence on each other and on society;

C3. Responsible Practices: demonstrate an understanding of safe, ethical, and responsible personal and interpersonal practices in dance activities

Learning Goals

(Unpacked Expectations)

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

present the duet they have created based on a character trait

give constructive feedback to peers

work with the feedback given to modify/revise their duet

make artistic choices and work towards finalizing the duet

reflect on their experiences as dance creators and collaborators

Readiness

Students will have the vocabulary now to critically analyze and offer another pair feedback based on the presentation of their duet.

Terminology

Elements of dance
Choreographic forms
Audience Etiquette

Materials

Internet Availability to view Dance Video
Post-It Notes
Student Collages

BLMs
BLM #6 Rubric for Summative Assessment

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Lesson 5 - Critical Thinking - Dance Performance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Creating, Performing and Presenting A1. The Creative Process: use the creative process the elements of dance (body, space, time, energy, and relationship), and a variety of sources to develop movement vocabulary; A2. Choreography and Composition:combine the elements of dance in a variety of ways in composing individual and ensemble dance creations; A3.

# data[].attributes.body
The Creative Process: use the creative process the elements of dance (body, space, time, energy, and relationship), and a variety of sources to develop movement vocabulary;

Choreography and Composition: combine the elements of dance in a variety of ways in composing individual and ensemble dance creations;

Dance Techniques: demonstrate an understanding of the dance techniques and movement vocabularies of a variety of global dance forms;

Performance: apply dance presentation skills in a variety of contexts and performances.

Reflecting, Responding and Analysing

B1. Critical Analysis Process: use the critical analysis process to reflect on and evaluate their own and others’ dance works and activities;

B2. Dance and Society: demonstrate an understanding of how societies present and past use or have used dance, and of how creating and viewing dance can benefit individuals, groups, and communities;

B3. Continuing Engagement: demonstrate an understanding of the purpose and possibilities of continuing engagement in dance arts.

Foundations

C2. Contexts and Influences: demonstrate an understanding of the social, cultural, and historical origins and development of dance forms, including their influence on each other and on society;

C3. Responsible Practices: demonstrate an understanding of safe, ethical, and responsible personal and interpersonal practices in dance activities

What elements of dance did you see present in the piece? How were the elements of dance used to communicated the message of the piece? What choreographic forms were used?

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Critical thinking is not limited to scientific thinking or logic. We use critical thinking every time we face a perplexing situation without an immediate answer. It's the process of evaluation we go through before we make decisions or try to solve a problem. It is not problem-solving or decision-making in and of itself. When we imagine and explore all of the possible solutions or outcomes to a problem or situation and then evaluate them to make a decision, we are using critical thinking.

Lesser-skilled critical thinkers tend to see decisions as binary, with one choice as flawed and the other as "right." They also see the answer to their problems as "out there." They express a lack of control over their choices and doubt that there is a benefit to imagining or exploring their options. They do not see the answer as a solution they can construct, but rather a predetermined outcome or option. For this reason, lesser-skilled critical thinkers often do not see the value in exploring the depth of outcomes within a given problem. Higher-skilled critical thinkers understand that there are multiple ways to look at any problem or situation and believe that doing so is worthwhile. They know that if they spend time reflecting and examining a situation, they will find new ways to think about it. Furthermore, they do not see the lack of a perfect solution as a reason to give up. They understand that although there isn't a right answer for their problem, there are still answers and outcomes that are better than others.

Dancers, as with any artist working in any medium, are highly skilled critical thinkers. Art is a process of decision-making. When someone is choreographing a dance, they make multiple decisions. There is an unlimited amount of possible ways to make that decision. Therefore, although there is rarely a right way to move, there are multiple possible ways to do so. The dancer knows that no one move will completely convey what they want to the audience, but there are better and more expressive ways to move than others.

To create and perform their work, dancers must take their ideas and embody them. Dancers are experts at embodying ideas. They do not only think about what a movement will look like, but also how it will feel. They explore the limits and restrictions of their body and know what discomfort to ignore and what pain must be respected. They take time to explore the sensations in their body to understand the best way to convey their ideas. They allow their bodies to stretch and move to the sensations they feel, as opposed to restricting them. On the surface, it might feel like these skills are not related to the decisions that we make in our everyday life. By exploring the process of dance and movement, we too can learn an embodied approach to critical thinking.

When it comes to critical thinking, one of the biggest deterrents is fear. Fear is a physical reaction in the body, not a thought in the mind. It is a signal our body sends to our brain. Our brain then reacts swiftly and mostly unconsciously. If the fear comes from a physical object, our brain will tell us to fight or flee. If the fear comes from an idea, our brain tells us to fight the idea or get it out of our heads. Just as an explorer can not be afraid to open doors and look around corners, when we are in the process of critical thinking, we can not be fearful of imagining, exploring, and examining all possibilities in front of us.

Dance is an excellent way to practice and study the feelings that startle us. Novelty, such as that found in a new problem, an unconventional idea, or a belief antithetical to ours, often triggers a fear response. When we are afraid of a problem, idea, or belief, we give up the opportunity to evaluate it and limit what is possible. In challenging their bodies to be expressive and flexible, dancers are not just getting better at what is already known; they open themselves and their audience to new ways of thinking and feeling.

In Moving Minds, we challenge participants to try different perspectives. We challenge them to expand their thinking about what they see and how they participate in it. We also challenge them to consider how each of these perspectives feels in their bodies. How is their body reacting when they are in vulnerable situations and how is that affecting their decision-making? We challenge participants to slow down and feel the feedback their bodies give them so that this information doesn't become a trigger for fight or flight, but an avenue to explore and find new perspectives.

Seeing critical thinking as a process that is just as much a dance as it is a scientific endeavor can help us become better decision-makers. It can remind us that most decisions are not about discovering or finding the solution to a problem. Critical thinking is an exploratory process that, in most cases, moves us incrementally towards a better understanding of what is in front of us. Like the dancer we can know that, although the possibilities can feel endless, there is value in taking time to explore them. We can also realize that our bodies have as much to tell us about these possibilities as our minds.

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Dance and Critical Thinking - Moving Minds

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Critical thinking is not limited to scientific thinking or logic. We use critical thinking every time we face a perplexing situation without an immediate answer. It's the process of evaluation we go through before we make decisions or try to solve a problem. It is not problem-solving or decision-making in and of itself.

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We use critical thinking every time we face a perplexing situation without an immediate answer.

The process of evaluation we go through before we make decisions or try to solve a problem.

When we imagine and explore all of the possible solutions or outcomes to a problem or situation and then evaluate them to make a decision, we are using critical thinking.

Lesser-skilled critical thinkers see right or flawed (decisions as binary)
- Express a lack of control over their choices and doubt that there's a benefit to imagining or exploring their options.

Higher-skilled critical thinkers understand that there are multiple ways to look at any problem or situation and believe that doing so is worthwhile. They know that if they spend time reflecting and examining a situation, they will find new ways to think about it.

Art is a process of decision-making
There is rarely a right way to move -there are multiple possible ways to do so

Dancer knows that no one move will completely convey what they want to the audience but there are better and more expressive ways to move than others

To create and perform their work, dancers must take their ideas and embody them.
- think about what a movement will look like
- also how it will feel

Allow their bodies to stretch and move to the sensations they feel, as opposed to restricting them

Fear is a physical reaction in the body.

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For 20 years, Red Bull has been at the forefront of the breaking scene with the conception of, the world's most prestigious and largest, one-on-one breaking competition, giving b-boys and b-girls across the globe a platform to unite and showcase their celebrated craft. With its anticipated 18th iteration, the U.S line-up of Red Bull BC One regional cyphers are taking place in New York, Los Angeles, Boston, Houston, and Orlando, with each battle featuring dedicated b-girl cyphers - a first in Red Bull BC One history. BC One's return also marks the revival of the Red Bull BC One Camp. Taking place in Orlando ahead of the U.S. National Final, Red Bull BC One Camp will feature three days of educational dance programming such as workshops, panels, and competitions led by a line-up of world-class dancers. Coinciding with the global momentum and recent recognition of breaking as an official competitive sport for the Paris 2024 Summer games, the worldwide breaking community is prepared to bring the heat to the Red Bull BC One competition, kicking off in breaking's birthplace of New York City on July 24th.

See complete schedule of U.S. regional cyphers below.
RED BULL BC ONE U.S. SCHEDULE

New York City Qualifier: Saturday, July 24

Los Angeles Qualifier: Saturday, July 31

Boston Qualifier: Saturday, August 7

Houston Qualifier: Friday & Saturday, August 13-14

Orlando Red Bull BC One Camp and National Final: Thursday-Sunday, August 19-22

Also, we had exclusive access to sit down and interview with Red Bull BC One allstars Neguin, Victor, and USA Breaking Rep, Sunny .
First off, thanks for meeting with me guys. What are you most excited about with the return of this competition? Victor: I'm excited to battle, to see people, to dance with people... Yeah to be in that live environment again? V: Yeah, and also to see who has changed their style. You know with the pandemic a lot of people got time to train and kind of marinate in different ways to dance so it'll be interesting you know!

Sunny, you have any tricks up your sleeve, speaking of changing styles [laughs]? Sunny: Umm...I wish [laughs] I mean I'm kind of in the same boat just excited to be in person with other people and not just dancing with my headphones on or like with the music really quiet in the corner of the room. So I'm excited to feel that energy again.

Do you come up with a routine or do you just let the music kind of dictate your moves, and that goes for anybody? V: Well for me, half of it is already pre-meditated so I already know what I'm doing, and the other half is feeling. There's times where I actually forget my moves while I'm dancing and its like alright, whatever you know just dance to the music.

Have you worked on anything new since we've been quarantined? Neguin: Yeah, I would say that some movements that used to be faster, I've taken the time to be slower. So the change for me is not necessarily creating new movements but putting a different flavor into it. Especially now that I'm not competing as much so why am I going to be stressing with my dancing when I could just be having fun.

S: Yeah, so usually I have like one tiny combo of what I'm going to do and the rest is whatever happens in the moment. Sometimes if the music is really bad, a little more might be scripted, but generally I would say around 20% of the round is probably planned.
What are some of the goals you all have for these upcoming cyphers?
Okay, so how do you ensure that you stay up-to-par? Like do you hit the gym to workout frequently or just dance, dance, dance? S: So I do hot yoga and I workout at home, and then break. I used to just train breaking but now that I've gotten a little bit older I can't just do that everyday [laughs]. It just depends, during this pandemic those numbers definitely changed a lot.

N: For me, I balance with other activities that I do so jiu jitsu and martial arts. V: For me I do a lot of interval workouts. I bike a lot, I box a lot, I break the same amount, and I just put everything together.

What would you say has been the key to your success thus far? V: The key to my success has just been staying consistent and trying to reinvent myself for each event because I feel like when you battle, your moves are up like the next day on YouTube and everyone gets to see it the very next day so you have to reinvent yourself but also stay consistent.
What advice would you give to the next generation of breakers?
N: For me, its basically like as a competitor I want to create something that is different for the platforms but also my approach to this art form I want to be consistent as well.

S: I think one of the things that has helped me in breaking is not caring about what anyone else has to say about me. I've always been a bit of a lone wolf but that's also helped me to be me and not pay attention to what anyone else is doing as far as their moves so I think that has helped me to express myself and dance the way that I should be dancing.

Okay, so your own uniqueness in what you bring. Let me ask Sunny, how does that mindset come across when you're competing? Like do you compete against the last time you performed or do you have something inside that says "I've got to be better than this person" when you're in your zone? Yeah, I think its just an internal competition all the time. I mean there are people out there that I see them and I'm like "oh I don't want to lose to this person [laughs] but generally its just me versus me because I have this standard for myself. And generally, I have a standard for myself across the board in everything that I do. When I enter a battle, I'm like yeah I know I can do this, I just have to show it.

V: For me, its to win everything that I enter this year. Like in 2015, I had a really good year I won almost every championship so I'm trying to repeat that this year.

N: Back in 2009, I was competing in the Red Bull Final here in New York. Today, I'm judging the upcoming cypher [laughs]. I'm excited for it. So its amazing for me to reflect on the time that I was as a competitor and see the newer generation. More than actually focusing on me, I want to see who will taking breaking to the next level from the evolution that's taking place.

S: Well, I'm also judging the New York cypher actually so I won't be competing; but, generally I think the competitions that I enter now, the goal is different than what it used to be. It used to be about doing my best, but now its really more about expressing myself and having fun and letting go and letting myself move to the music however funky or weird or awkward that might be sometimes. But letting go of some control. The other part I think is a big part. Its about inspiring other women and showing them that they can do it too! And setting the bar, you know like a high bar to say you can keep up with the guys and you can dance at this level too. To let them know hey you can even beat the guys but to really join in and have fun and do what they want.

S: My advice is just to be you, and don't let anyone tell you the way you need to dance. At the end of the day, its not about how good of a b-boy or b-girl you are but more about how you feel when you're dancing. So don't let other people dictate how you dance because at the end of it all you have to be happy with what you're doing everyday. I won't say throw technique out the window because breaking does have foundation and technique that is important for breaking and then building on your own upon that I think is also important.

V: I feel like it has a lot to do with confidence. I've judged before and see some that have a lot of potential but they don't believe in themselves and you can see it. And that's something that's really important in breaking. As long as you believe in yourself and you have your own identity, and your own originality. It doesn't matter who you're up against, you can beat them. Just keep on going, and stay consistent.

Red Bull BC One is also home to one of the most competitive breaking crews in the world, the Red Bull BC One All Stars. Thank you to Sunny, Victor, & Neguin for interviewing with us. For more information, visit: www.redbullbcone.com.

If you are interested in reaching our audience, please contact us via info@stupidDOPE.com

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World's Largest Breaking Competition, Red Bull BC One 2021 Return To USA + Interview with BC One All Stars

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For 20 years, Red Bull has been at the forefront of the breaking scene with the conception of, the world's most prestigious and largest, one-on-one breaking competition, giving b-boys and b-girls across the globe a platform to unite and showcase their celebrated craft.

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Meet Bruce Ykanji, the mastermind behind Juste Debout

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Bruce Ykanji is a great dancer, a visionary choreographer, an outstanding teacher and founder of the Juste Debout dance events and school. We met him to talk about his brainchild and its evolution.

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After earning his stripes as the forefather of breakdancing in Singapore and leader of the 16-year-old b-boy crew Radikal Forze, Felix Huang's career came to a painful halt 4 years ago when a fractured ankle broke him.

But Felix, whose combative reputation was built on a quantization of fearlessness and determination, is not the kind to resign to a little wear and tear.

His gritty spirit is rooted in his founding endeavours, steep in passion and dedication -a model leader that pushes the envelope by example.

In one of the most intimate interviews of the Singapore Seven series, Felix reveals how he led his charges, when he couldn't do it anymore, by finding different ways through change and how that changed him.

Next week: Entrepreneur, speaker and blogger Pat Law turned a casual interview into a resourceful TEDTalk-styled evening - schooling us in the fundamentals of success; a call to action.

Meanwhile, you can catch the rest of the Singapore Seven web series right here.

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After earning his stripes as the forefather of breakdancing in Singapore and leader of the 16-year-old b-boy crew Radikal Forze, Felix Huang's career came to a painful halt 4 years ago when a fractured ankle broke him. But Felix, whose combative reputation was built on a quantization of fearlessness and determination, is not the kind to resign to a little wear and tear.

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The Peak Singapore - Your Guide to The Finer Things in Life

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"Young people have the luxury of information and seem to know so much. They are picky about what they think is right or wrong, which is not necessarily a bad thing, but they should also keep themselves open to broader perspectives," says Felix Huang, founder of *SCAPE Radikal Forze Jam, the biggest annual street dance festival in the Asia-Pacific.

(Related: How a dance performance can be tailored to tell your story)

As the founder and managing director of Recognize! Studios - which he started in 2010 - Huang has introduced many international names to the Singapore dance scene and given young dancers here a space to hone their craft. Through this, he has also had the chance to closely observe the evolution of the breakdancing scene since 1998 in Singapore and the region, when he first started dancing and went by the moniker, ThinkTwice.

(Related: How ONE Championship CEO Chatri Sityodtong is pivoting during this pandemic)

At the time, "we were the only b-boys in Singapore", says Huang, who, together with his crew, mastered breakdancing by watching VCR tapes from the US.

He cites passion as a driving factor in his pursuit of dance as a career, especially since the arts industry is not an easy business to, well, break into. That as well as identifying the correct opportunities as they come along. Huang recognises that, with all the resources and opportunities over the years, it can be easy to chase recognition rather than to follow the love for the craft. He urges younger generations to strive to do their best but to "never forget the fun".

(Related: Why the cofounder of a preloved luxury digital platform believes that the pandemic will strengthen her sphere)
Photography Tan Wei Te Art direction Ashruddin Sani Hair & Makeup, Benedict Choo, using Chanel
(Related: How two female F&B leaders are helping the vulnerable during this pandemic)

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How Felix Huang founded the largest street dance festival in Asia-Pacific | The Peak Singapore - Your Guide to The Finer Things in Life

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"Young people have the luxury of information and seem to know so much. They are picky about what they think is right or wrong, which is not necessarily a bad thing, but they should also keep themselves open to broader perspectives," says Felix Huang, founder of *SCAPE Radikal Forze Jam, the biggest annual street dance festival in the Asia-Pacific.