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Neurodiversity Hub - Open University (OU) Free Courses

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Neurodiversity Hub - Open University (OU) Free Courses

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OU Neurodiversity Collection - link to articles and courses

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OU Neurodiversity Collection - link to articles and courses

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Challenge misconceptions about neurological difference, celebrate neurodiversity and advocate for an inclusive world. Our articles and free courses are here to help you understand neurodiversity…

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Welcome to Every Learner Matters. This website has been designed to support school staff by providing simple, quick‑to‑use intervention ideas that can be put into practice immediately. It offers practical strategies to support wellbeing, inclusion, and readiness to learn, recognising that pupils’

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Factors Attributing to ASN Other than Neurodivergence

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Factors Attributing to ASN Other than Neurodivergence

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Tics and Tourette’s syndrome :: West Yorkshire Healthier Together

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This page is all about tics and Tourette’s syndrome. It explains the different types of tics, what to expect and when to seek help. WY, West Yorkshire, WY Healthier Together, West Yorkshire Healthier Together, child ill, child poorly, Wakefield, Leeds, Calderdale, Kirklees, Bradford

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Understanding Tics and the Effects of Tics (Tourette Scotland)

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Understanding Tics and the Effects of Tics (Tourette Scotland)

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Explains tics and their impact on people's lives.

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What is Sensory Processing Behaviour (NHS)

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What is Sensory Processing Behaviour (NHS)

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Sensory processing difficulties :: Lincolnshire Children’s Therapy Services

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We all receive and process sensory information continuously throughout the day. For most people this is not a problem but for some children this can cause difficulties with behaviour and concentration, as well as carrying out everyday activities.

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Presentation Explaining Sensory Processing (NHS)

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Presentation Explaining Sensory Processing (NHS)

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Information for parents and carers.

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People with PDA will be unable to go along with requests and expectations and go to extreme efforts to avoid these demands. Learn more from Just One Norfolk about supporting a child with PDA and where to get further help.

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Information for parents and carers.

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Learn the signs, causes and treatment options for oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and how to support a child with challenging behaviour.

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Information for parents and carers.

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for parents and carers

This resource is for parents and carers who are worried about their child's behavioural problems. It also looks at oppositional defiant disorder and conduct-dissocial disorder. It explains what these diagnoses are, why they happen and what support is available.

About our information

We publish information to help people understand more about mental health and mental illness, and the kind of care they are entitled to.

Our information isn't a substitute for personalised medical advice from a doctor or other qualified healthcare professional. We encourage you to speak to a medical professional if you need more information or support. Please read our disclaimer.

Most children behave in challenging ways from time to time. It's very unlikely that your child will always behave perfectly.

In younger children, behavioural problems can look like throwing a tantrum in a supermarket or hurting a sibling. Older children might break the rules you set by staying out later than they should or acting rudely or aggressively.

Behavioural problems can come and go. For example, children sometimes 'act out' if something stressful is happening in their lives. At other times, it can be a way of communicating that they are frustrated, tired or anxious, or that something difficult is happening in their life.

Sometimes these behavioural problems can be tackled by parents and schools before they become serious. However, sometimes behavioural problems become a bigger issue and can cause problems for your child in one or more of these environments:

If your child has been showing behavioural problems for a long time or they are severe, you might need to ask for more support.

Making the first step to get help for your child's behavioural problems can be incredibly difficult. You might feel as though it is your fault, or as though people will blame you for your child's behaviour. Whatever the reasons are for your child's behavioural problems, you should congratulate yourself for asking for help and working to improve things for your child and your family.

If your child's behavioural problems are causing challenges with their schooling or home life, it is important to ask for support. The kind of support you need will depend on how old your child is, and any other problems they might be having.

Younger children

If your child is under five, speak to your health visitor. These are trained nurses or midwives who might have visited you and your child when your child was born. They can continue to support you until your child is five years old. You can find out more about health visitors on the website of the pregnancy and baby charity Tommy's.

Older children

If your child is having problems at school, their school should work with you to create a plan. This plan should help come up with strategies for responding to your child's behaviour that will help them to remain in school and get the most out of their education. At the same time this plan can help to keep them and other children safe. Some schools have teachers and other support staff who can support with behavioural problems and direct you to further support if necessary.

If your child is also having behavioural problems at home, you may be able to get help and support from a local parenting support service or family support charity. Health visitors, GPs or schools may be able to tell you about local services.

Further support

If these problems are more severe and are making it difficult for them or your family to live a normal life, your child might benefit from an assessment for oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder. You can find out more about these conditions below. Speak to your GP if you need more help for your child's behavioural problems.

Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct-dissocial disorder sit in the group of 'disruptive behaviour and dissocial disorders'. In the past conduct-dissocial disorder was just called 'conduct disorder'.

Your child might be diagnosed with one of these conditions if they are having persistent behavioural problems. For example, if they are consistently:

Defiant - They refuse to do what they are asked.

Disobedient - They do things they know they shouldn't do.

Provocative - They do things to intentionally annoy or upset others.

This behaviour can also include more serious issues like:

It is normal to feel alarmed by such strong words, or by your child receiving one of these diagnoses. However, these are just the names that researchers have given to groups of symptoms. These names help researchers and doctors to:

Remember, a lot of children who have behavioural problems don't have oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder, and don't need support from CAMHS or other services. However, some children will need more support.

Oppositional defiant disorder

Children with oppositional defiant disorder will have behaviour that is very:

defiant

disobedient

argumentative

provocative

spiteful

irritable

angry.

This behaviour will happen in different settings and with different people, not only with their siblings or parents.

Children with oppositional defiant disorder might:

For a diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder to be made, these behaviours need to:

have been going on for more than six months

be more severe than what is typical for other children your child's age

cause significant problems with your child's:

schooling

friendships

family life

any other environments.

Conduct-dissocial disorder

Children with conduct-dissocial disorder will have more serious behaviours than children with oppositional defiant disorder. These can include:

overstepping the rights of others

breaking rules, or even laws

acting aggressively towards people or animals

destruction of property

lying, hiding things or stealing things

For a diagnosis of conduct-dissocial disorder to be made, these behaviours need to:

have been happening for at least one year

cause significant problems with your child's:

schooling

friendships

family life

any other environments.

Temperamental traits

Children who are born with traits like irritability or limited prosocial emotions are more likely to have behavioural problems than children who do not have these traits. We explain more about irritability and limited prosocial emotions below.

What is irritability?

We all feel irritable from time to time. If you are feeling irritable, it can feel like you are more likely to 'snap' at someone. Or you might feel like you are full of negative feelings about what is going on around you. Feelings of irritability can happen occasionally in every child.

Irritable children will get angry quicker and more often than other children their age. You might think of irritability as 'anger'. You might also hear medical professionals calling it 'dysregulation'. Irritable children can also have exaggerated responses to being told they can't do something or being asked to do something they don't want to do.

If your child is very irritable this can understandably be extremely frustrating for you as a parent. It might lead you to become frustrated and angry yourself, which can escalate your child's anger. Or you might end up giving in and letting your child have what they want. This can cause your child to learn that angry behaviour can help them to get what they want. It can feel impossible to know what the 'right thing' is to do.

This is where parenting interventions can be helpful, as you will be supported to find ways to approach challenging behaviour that are helpful for you and your child. We look at parenting interventions in the support section in this resource.

What are prosocial emotions?

Usually children feel a certain amount of guilt at having done something wrong, or for getting in trouble with an authority figure. They will be able to tell you that they feel sorry for what they have done, and apologise.

However, there are a small number of children that do not feel this way. We say that these children have 'limited prosocial emotions'.

Children with limited prosocial emotions will:

lack or have less remorse or guilt

lack or have less empathy for others

not seem to care if they don't do well at school or in other activities

show fewer emotions, or show emotions that seem superficial (fake or 'put on').

Research suggests that genetic and environmental risk factors contribute to the development of these traits. However, there is still a lot we don't understand about these traits.

Children with limited prosocial emotions are a much smaller group of children with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder. However, their conduct problems can be more severe and persistent.

The person working with your child should find out if your child has limited prosocial emotions. This is because this will inform the kind of parenting interventions you are offered. For example, if your child has limited prosocial emotions, they will respond better to rewards than punishment. So you might learn skills around giving rewards to encourage good behaviour.

Unfortunately, there is rarely a simple explanation for a child's behaviour. The causes tend to be complex and related to multiple areas. There are lots of factors that can make children more likely to develop one of these conditions. These factors can be biological, environmental, or a combination of the two.

Biological factors

Sometimes these disorders run in families. This has been shown in studies with adopted children whose biological parents had behavioural problems. In these studies, some of these children had more behavioural problems than their peers.

As discussed in the previous section, some children have a more irritable temperament than others. These children are more likely to have behavioural problems than children who do not have these traits.

Environmental factors

Environmental factors are related to the environments your child spends time in. Environmental factors that might lead to someone developing one of these conditions include things like:

Just because a child has one or more of these factors does not mean that they will definitely develop one of these conditions.

These conditions are quite common. In 2017 it was reported that just under 1 in 20 young people aged 5 to 19 in England had a behavioural or conduct-dissocial disorder.

Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct-dissocial disorder can often happen alongside other mental health or neurodevelopmental conditions. These other conditions can sometimes be incorrectly confused with behavioural disorders.

It can be difficult to work out if this other condition is:

causing your child's behavioural problems

or happening alongside your child's behavioural problems.

It is important that healthcare professionals work to understand how everything is connected because it can help to ensure that your child receives the right treatment and support.

For example, if your child has started showing behavioural problems after they have experienced a traumatic event, it is important for doctors to establish if these behaviours are caused by post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). If they are, treating and supporting your child's PTSD should resolve the behavioural problems.

Some of the conditions that can cause or happen alongside behavioural problems include:

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Children with ADHD can have problems with:

Your child might have behavioural problems that are related to their ADHD. If so, they should not be diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder.

If your child is getting in trouble at school for interrupting in class and has ADHD, this will be a symptom related to impulsivity, which is a symptom of ADHD. Behavioural problems will be things like lying, hitting or stealing.

Mood disorders

If your child is refusing to do something because they:

they might have a condition like depression. If this is the case, they won't be refusing to do something because they are being oppositional.

Anxiety

If your child is anxious, for example has a specific phobia, they might act in problematic ways when they are faced with the thing they are scared of or anxious about. This will be because they are trying to avoid it. For example, if they are afraid of the dark, they may have difficult behaviours around bedtime. If your child is only experiencing a phobia, these behaviours will go away if the phobia is tackled.

However, if they have behavioural problems that do not improve when the phobia is treated, this might be better explained by oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder.

Autism

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition. It affects how people communicate and interact with others.

Autistic children are more likely to experience irritability than other children. They might also have tantrums or meltdowns if:

If these meltdowns are only due to challenges related to these core traits of autism, they will not be diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder. The aim of any treatment and support will be to make it easier for them to cope with the situations that make life difficult for them.

Getting information from different people

When your child is being assessed for oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder, the person assessing them should collect information from:

your child

you and any other parents or carers

their teachers

any other professionals who know them. For example, youth workers.

This information should come from multiple settings including:

Understanding the problem

Doctors call this 'formulating' the problem. This can help to understand:

the vulnerability factors for your child. For example, if they:

have always been irritable

have another condition. For example, neurodevelopmental, mental health, or physical problems such as head injuries or seizures.

have a learning difficulty

have been bullied or are currently being bullied at school.

what might have triggered the behaviours. For example, experiencing a traumatic event, or hanging out with problematic friends who also have behavioural problems.

what is keeping the behaviours going. For example, not treating a condition they may have, or inconsistent and low-involvement parenting.

Risk assessments and safety plans

The person assessing your child should also consider making a risk assessment if your child's behaviours are putting them or others at risk. The assessment will help to establish a clear safety plan. It should be drawn up with anyone else who is involved in your child's care, such as their school.

Once healthcare professionals have understood the areas mentioned above, they will be able to work with you to create a plan. This plan is called a management plan. It will cover the different kinds of treatment and support you and your child need.

The treatment and support you are offered should be personalised to you. It should be focused on the specific areas that you, your child and your family are having problems with.

There is very good research in this area of child and adolescent psychiatry. The support offered to you should always be based on high-quality research.

The interventions will aim to support your child, you and any other parents, and how you interact with each other. Examples include:

1. Support for your child

Psychoeducation

Psychoeducation involves explaining to the child or young person, in words that they can understand:

what doctors have understood in their assessment of them

and what they can do to help.

It may include drawings and pictures, depending on how old your child is.

Treating other conditions

As we have already said, children who have other conditions should receive treatment and support for these. Children should not be denied help for other mental health or neurodevelopmental conditions because they also have behavioural problems.

Sometimes treating other conditions will be enough to improve behavioural problems. For example, a child with PTSD who has meltdowns when they experience a flashback might stop having meltdowns once their PTSD is treated. However, sometimes children will need more help.

Your child might be offered medication to address these other conditions. You and your child should be provided with information on the benefits and side-effects of any medication.

Treatment of other traits

Even if your child doesn't receive a diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder or conduct-dissocial disorder, they might still have some traits like those listed below. These might also benefit from support:

Poor social skills
Social skills work can help your child to:

increase their interactions with others

enter group settings

start conversations

share with others

ask questions politely

listen and negotiate.

Poor problem-solving skills
Problem-solving therapy is a brief intervention. It involves identifying problems your child is having and teaching them how to solve them appropriately.

Poor control of negative mood
Emotional regulation workcan help your child to:

Cognitive distortions and inaccurate self-evaluation
Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) can help your child to understand themselves and others better.

CBT typically involves three stages:

1. A therapist will work with your child to help them understand more about their own thoughts, behaviour and mood, and the links between these things.

2. The therapist will work with your child to identify areas that they want to improve

3. The therapist will support your child to learn and practice new patterns of thoughts and behaviours, and to see what effect these have.

Encouraging strengths

It is very important to encourage your child's strengths and abilities. You can also empower them to take part in hobbies and activities where they can use these strengths. For example, joining a sports team, or a drawing class, depending on what things they enjoy. This can increase your child's sense of achievement, self-esteem and hope for the future.

2. Support for parents

As a parent your main focus will probably be on getting help for your child. However, you and any other adults involved in your child's life deserve support as well. It is important that the people working with you and your child identifyareas you might need support in. These could make it easier for you to support your child with their behavioural problems.

This might mean seeking help for physical or mental health problems, or getting support if you are struggling financially or with your housing.

Are behavioural problems my fault?

The professionals working with you and your child might want to find out more about your parenting. This is not because they think that your child's behavioural problems are caused by your parenting. They will be aware that there are many reasons for your child's behavioural problems, and that some of these reasons might have been completely out of your control.

If you are referred for an assessment, the professionals working with you and your child will try to come up with an intervention plan. This will look at all of the different things that might be involved in your child's behaviour, including:

looking at some aspects of your parenting and seeing where there are things you could change

finding out if your child has other problems affecting their behaviour. For example, neurodevelopmental conditions (such as ADHD or autism) or problems at school.

Healthcare professionals should support you as a parent to become a 'co-therapist'. They should do this by listening to your background and your ideas about parenting. This can be a key part of treatment.

For example, a parent who is naturally calm will respond to defiant behaviour very differently to a parent who is anxious or on-edge. Knowing this can help to improve the approach to your child's treatment.

3. Support for the parent-child relationship

All of our relationships are two-way. Parents and children often have different personalities that interact with each other in different ways. Parenting interventions enable parents to:

strengthen their relationship with their child

and manage behavioural problems confidently by adapting their parenting style.

There are lots of different kinds of programmes and therapies available for behavioural problems. You should only be offered those that are evidence-based and recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines. The kind of programme you will be offered will depend on what is available where you live.

Depending on how old your child is, you might take part in a programme on your own (with any other parents or carers involved in your child's care). Or you might take part in a programme with your child. Older children might also take part in programmes or therapies on their own.

For younger children

If your child is aged 3 to 11, you might be offered a parent training programme. This will take place with a therapist, and might be:

as part of a group of other parents

one-on-one with you and any other parents or carers

There are some individual programmes where you and your child will take part in sessions together. In these, the therapist will coach you directly while you play with your child.

The aim of these training programmes is to strengthen your parenting skills. This can help to increase your child's sociable and helpful behaviours. You will learn new skills, and be supported to strengthen skills you already have. With the therapist, you will be supported to:

express interest, warmth and approval when your child is displaying appropriate behaviours

safely ignoring inappropriate behaviours.

These might be things you have already tried to do on your own. A training programme can help by giving you access to the support of someone who is specially trained in behavioural problems.

Two examples of these programs are:

Personalized Individual Parents Training (PIPT)
In PIPT, both you and your child will be present in sessions. Your therapist will coach you directly as you play with your child. They will help you to strengthen the relationship with your child and learn where you can apply new techniques and ideas. You will usually be offered eight appointments, though you might be offered more depending on the needs of you and your child.

Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD)
VIPP-SD will help you to care for your child by building a strong relationship with them, and seeing the world through their eyes. You will spend time with your child, and this will be recorded. Afterwards you will watch this recording to learn more about your parenting and how your child responds to your parenting.

You will usually be offered up to seven appointments, each lasting around 90 minutes. These sessions can take place in a clinical setting (such as a therapist's office) or can take place in your own home.

For adolescents

Older children can benefit from:
Family-focused therapy
This therapy is given to the family. Depending on the type of therapy, it focuses on one or more of the following things:

Some examples of family-focused therapy include Strategic Family Therapy (SFT) or Functional Family Therapy (FFT).

Multi-modal therapy

This involves the family and the community. One example of this is multisystemic therapy (MST).

MST offers an intensive, home-based approach that looks at different 'systems'. These systems include:

the family itself

the school your child goes to

their peers

your wider community.

Understanding these systems can help to address severe behavioural issues in young people who have high-risk behaviours. MST takes place more regularly than usual therapy, sometimes as often as 3 or 4 times a week over 3 to 5 months.

Other
Non-violent resistance
Non-violent resistance (NVR) is designed for children withhigh levels of aggression. It can help to address the way in which violent behaviours are responded to at home. It concentrates on having a consistent and unified approach from all parents and carers.

This information was produced by the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Child and Family Public Engagement Editorial Board (CAFPEB). It reflects the best available evidence at the time of writing.

Expert author: Dr Carmen Pinto

Full references for this resource are available on request.

Published: Aug 2025

Review due: Aug 2028
© Royal College of Psychiatrists

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Behavioural problems for parents and carers

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This resource is for parents and carers who are worried about their child's behavioural problems.

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Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety-related mental health condition. It can affect people of any age, gender, race, religion or anything else. Although it can be serious and affect your daily life, it’s treatable.

There are two main parts to OCD:

‘Obsessions’ – These are unwanted and intrusive thoughts, images, impulses, worries, doubts or feelings that cause anxiety and distress.

‘Compulsions’ - These are behaviours or rituals that people with OCD carry out to try to stop the obsession.

It might feel like compulsions are helping in the moment, but the relief is always short lived. Sooner or later, the urge to repeat the compulsion returns. This can create a vicious cycle of obsessions and compulsions that feels hard to break. It can take up lots of time and get you really down.

But help is available, and we’re here to support you in finding it.

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Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a type of anxiety disorder. It can be serious, but it is treatable.

People with OCD have repeating thoughts, images or feelings that are distressing. These are sometimes known as 'obsessions' or 'obsessive thoughts'. Sometimes when our mind is filled with very upsetting thoughts, we can try to take actions that will bring us relief and make the thoughts go away. We might start to believe that these actions will get rid of our anxiety or make these thoughts go away. Sometimes having rituals that calm us down can be really helpful. But sometimes these rituals or habits become 'compulsions', meaning that we think we have to do them. We might start to believe that if we don't do them, something bad will happen to us, or to the people around us.

It's important to realise that with OCD, often our compulsive habits or rituals end up making us feel worse. This is because once the ritual is finished, anxious thoughts come rushing back again, sometimes even more extreme. This is how some people get trapped in a cycle of doing the same action again and again, feeling unable to stop.

OCD rituals can be obvious to other people (like checking if doors are locked) or they can happen inside your head (like counting things, or trying to counteract negative thoughts with positive ones).

OCD is not just about being tidy

There is a misconception that 'being OCD' is just about being tidy and ordered. This is not true.

OCD thoughts can come in all shapes and sizes and involve lots of different types of habits and rituals. They often revolve around things like danger, dirt and contamination, or worries around sexuality or religion.

Some people feel guilty, or even ashamed of their thoughts. But it is common to have thoughts like these, and there is nothing to be ashamed of.

The symptoms of OCD

Common symptoms of OCD include feeling:

like your mind is being 'invaded' by horrible thoughts repeatedly

scared, disgusted, guilty, tearful, doubtful or depressed

a powerful urge to do something to stop the feelings

temporary relief after rituals

a need to ask for reassurance or get people to check things for you

Just because you experience one or more of these symptoms, it doesn't mean you're definitely affected by OCD. It's important to talk to your GP to get more help.

Things that can really help

It is important to recognise when your behaviour is making you feel worse. Knowing that what you are doing is increasing your anxiety, rather than helping it, is the first step to overcoming it.

Talking about how you feel is the first step towards getting better. It might be difficult to explain, but people who care about you will want to support you. You could try talking to a relative, teacher, friend, counsellor or helpline.

Let the people know what you find helpful. Whether you just want someone to listen, or you need someone to help distract you when you're feeling anxious, it's ok to say what you need.

If you're not sure who to talk to, take a look at our guide to support and the organisations listed at the end of this page.

Whenever you feel like you are getting anxious, or about to do something you don't want to do, find a distraction. You could try:

listening to music

texting a friend

going for a walk

It's important not to try and manage alone, as OCD normally needs treatment to get better. Your doctor will be able to help you get that treatment. They may offer to refer you to Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAMHS), an expert or a psychiatrist who can help you.

Show/hide caption

OCD is not just there when you can see someone performing compulsions

Treating OCD

You might be offered cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) using a technique called exposure response prevention (ERP), which helps you feel less upset by your thoughts.

You might also be offered other types of psychological therapy such as counselling or family therapy, and you might be given support from specialist Mental Health Nurses, Occupational Therapists and Art Therapists working in CAMHS.

There are medications that can help too, e.g. antidepressants.

With the correct combination of professional treatment and support, people with OCD can improve their condition and recover.

When times are tough, know that whatever you are going through right now, it isn't permanent. You have reserves of strength you don't even know about.

More information and support

Get help now

OCD can be really hard to cope with, so please don't struggle alone. Here are some services that can help and support you.

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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder | OCD Symptoms & Support

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Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a type of anxiety disorder. It can be serious, but it is treatable. People with OCD have repeating thoughts, images or feelings that are distressing. These are sometimes known as 'obsessions' or 'obsessive thoughts'.

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Information about dyslexia (CALL Scotland)

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Information about dyslexia (CALL Scotland)

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Links to information and advice for different elements of the impacts of dyslexia.

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Dyslexia exists in all cultures and across the range of abilities and socio-economic backgrounds. It is a hereditary, life-long, neurodevelopmental condition. What can help with writing, reading and numeracy.

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Posters and advice from Communication, Access, Literacy and Learning (CALL Scotland). Includes supportive apps suggestions.

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Communication apps, Dyslexia apps, Eye Gaze, Assistive Technology.

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Information about dyslexia (Education Scotland)

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Information about dyslexia (Education Scotland)

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Information and links to other sites as recommended by Education Scotland.

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​Dyslexia can affect the way people communicate, and it's different for everyone. It is not just about reading and writing and it is not an indication of low intelligence. Dyslexia exists in all cultures and across the range of abilities and socio-economic backgrounds.

Dyslexia is on a continuum or spectrum, which means individuals can be mildly or severely dyslexic and each will experience different strengths and difficulties. This can depend on the activity undertaken, the learning environment and any coping strategies and support in place - there is however a common set of signs that can be observed.

If your child is dyslexic, they may experience a range of difficulties which continue even though they are given appropriate learning opportunities. These difficulties may mask how able your child is in other areas.
There are often associated strengths in areas such as:

verbal communication and social interaction

problem solving, thinking outside the box, seeing the whole picture

creativity and practical tasks

visual thinking skills eg see/think in 3D, visualise a structure from plans.

There are often associated difficulties in areas such as:

auditory and/or visual processing of language-based information

phonological awareness - (associating letters with their sound(s) and how they are blended to form words)

oral language skills and reading fluency

short-term and working memory

sequencing and directionality

number skills

organisational ability

motor skills and co-ordination may also be affected.

How can I help?

Encourage the use of language skills to help build a wide range of vocabulary - talking, rhymes, singing, listening, reading stories, audio books.

When talking to your child, use as many pictures and objects as possible.

Make sure written information is easy to read with a clear type.

Make a pictorial/visual timetable or task list.

Be direct and use short sentence when giving instructions.

Encourage creative and visual talents.

Encourage learning through play and games - make it enjoyable.

Make use of computers/tablets, free software and apps - reading from a computer screen is often easier than reading handwriting, text recognition software can read words back.

Where can I find further advice?

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​Dyslexia can affect the way people communicate, and it's different for everyone. It is not just about reading and writing and it is not an indication of low intelligence. Dyslexia exists in all cultures and across the range of abilities and socio-economic backgrounds.

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What is dysgraphia (Inverurie Academy document)

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What is dysgraphia (Inverurie Academy document)

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Explains what dysgraphia is, how it may present in class and supports which can be put in place.

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What is dyscalculia (Inverurie Academy document)

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What is dyscalculia (Inverurie Academy document)

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Explains what dyscalculia is, how it may present in class and supports which can be put in place.

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Royal Hospital for Children and Young People

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Royal Hospital for Children and Young People

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Neurodiversity - Royal Hospital for Children and Young People

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Neurodiversity is the concept that when it comes to the human brain, people do not end up all the same. […]

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Neurodiversity: what it is and why it matters.

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Information request and response under the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002.

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Definitions of Learning Disability, Autism and Neurodiversity: FOI release

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Information request and response under the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002.

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iOS Apps to support numeracy difficulties (CALL Scotland)

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iOS Apps to support numeracy difficulties (CALL Scotland)

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CALL Scotland Recommended iOS Apps for Dyscalculia and Numeracy Difficulties for use at home.

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Dyscalculia Defintion (Dyslexia Scotland - charity)

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Dyscalculia Defintion (Dyslexia Scotland - charity)

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Research into dyscalculia is still in the early stages compared with dyslexia. It is estimated that dyscalculia affects 4% to 6% of the population and it can co-occur alongside other specific learning differences such as dyslexia and dyspraxia.

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Basic information about DLD from the NHS.

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Language disorder – NHS Ayrshire & Arran

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A video exploring what it is like to be a teenager living with DLD

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Animation by a young person with DLD (Charity)

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Animation by a young person with DLD (Charity)

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Lily, a young woman with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) explains what it is like to live with this condition. Everyone who watches this video will learn something valuable about DLD.

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Lily Farrington's Amazing Developmental Language Disorder Animation

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First hand accounts from young people with DLD.

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Awareness raising charity (Speech and Language UK).

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Speech and Language UK: Changing young lives

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Skip to content

Watch our new video and share it to help us raise awareness of this lifelong condition. #2in30

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is a lifelong condition affecting 2 children in every average classroom of 30 in the UK.

DLD is a diagnosis given by a speech and language therapist to people who have lifelong difficulties with talking and understanding words. These difficulties create barriers to communication or learning in everyday life and aren't due to another condition.

Lots of children have it, yet most people don't know about it.

Watch our new video and find out how you can help raise awareness below.

Are you an educator?

Learn more about how you can help children in your classroom by accessing our resources today.

Quick answers to your questions about DLD

Although it's common, DLD isn't very well-known. Here's some answers to questions that people sometimes ask us about DLD.

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Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) awareness - Speech and Language UK: Changing young lives

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Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) awareness - Speech and Language UK: Changing young lives

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What is Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)/Dyspraxia (Inverurie Academy)

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What is Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)/Dyspraxia (Inverurie Academy)

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Inverurie Academy's guide to supporting pupils with DCD/dyspraxia.

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Movement Matters is committed to making research accessible to everyone, in particular, families, individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (also known as Dyspraxia) and anyone else who might benefit from this information.

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Information for parents/carers.

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Sign up to our regular communications to keep up to date with all the latest news and events from the Dyspraxia Foundation:

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Information for young people.

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Sign up to our regular communications to keep up to date with all the latest news and events from the Dyspraxia Foundation:

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Causes, treatment etc information from the NHS. Helpful for new diagnoses.

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Developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, is a condition affecting physical co-ordination. It causes a child to perform less well than expected in daily activities for their age, and appear to move clumsily.
This topic is about DCD in children, although the condition often causes continued problems into adulthood.

Find out more about DCD in adults.

Symptoms of DCD

Early developmental milestones of crawling, walking, self-feeding and dressing may be delayed in young children with DCD. Drawing, writing and performance in sports are also usually behind what is expected for their age.

Although signs of the condition are present from an early age, children vary widely in their rate of development. This means a definite diagnosis of DCD does not usually happen until a child with the condition is 5 years old or more.

Find out more about symptoms of DCD in children.

When to seek medical advice

If you're concerned about your child's health or development, talk to a GP or health visitor, or speak to a nurse, doctor or special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCO) at your child's school.

They may refer your child to an occupational therapist, paediatrician, or another health professional who can assess them and try to identify any developmental problems.

Find out more about diagnosing DCD in children.

Causes of DCD

Doing co-ordinated movements is a complex process that involves many different nerves and parts of the brain.

Any problem in this process could potentially lead to difficulties with movement and co-ordination.

It's not usually clear why co-ordination doesn't develop as well as other abilities in children with DCD.

However, a number of risk factors that can increase a child's likelihood of developing DCD have been identified.

These include:

being born prematurely, before the 37th week of pregnancy

being born with a low birth weight

having a family history of DCD, although it is not clear exactly which genes may be involved in the condition

the mother drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs while pregnant

Treating DCD

There's no cure for DCD, but a number of therapies can help children to manage their problems.

These include:

being taught ways of do activities they find difficult, such as breaking down difficult movements into smaller parts and practicing them regularly

adapting tasks to make them easier, such as using special grips on pens and pencils so they are easier to hold

Although DCD does not affect how intelligent a child is, it can make it more difficult for them to learn and they may need extra help to keep up at school.

Treatment for DCD will be tailored to your child and usually involves a number of different healthcare professionals working together.

Although the physical co-ordination of a child with DCD will remain below average, this may be less of a problem as they get older and develop coping strategies. Some children may continue to have problems.

However, difficulties in school - particularly producing written work - can become much more prominent and require extra help from parents and teachers.

Find out more about treating DCD in children.

Dyspraxia or DCD?

While many people in the UK use the term dyspraxia to refer to the difficulties with movement and co-ordination that first develop in young children, this term is used less often by healthcare professionals.

Instead, most healthcare professionals use the term developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD) to describe the condition.

This term is generally preferred by healthcare professionals because dyspraxia can have several meanings.

For example, dyspraxia can be used to describe movement difficulties that happen later in life because of damage to the brain, such as from a stroke or head injury.

Some healthcare professionals may also use the term specific developmental disorder of motor function (SDDMF) to refer to DCD.

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Developmental co-ordination disorder (dyspraxia) in children

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Read about developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD), also known as dyspraxia, a condition that affects physical co-ordination.

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Exercises to improve fine motor skills.

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Exam Stress Support (Aberdeenshire Educational Psychology Service)

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Exam Stress Support (Aberdeenshire Educational Psychology Service)

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Exam stress and study support: a guide for pupils and parents and carers.

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Dyslexia Unwrapped (Dyslexia Scotland and the Scottish Government)

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Dyslexia Unwrapped (Dyslexia Scotland and the Scottish Government)

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This free resource provides information for teachers, schools and local authorities on inclusive practice, literacy difficulties and dyslexia.

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‘An Introduction to Autism and Inclusive Practice’ is designed to provide an introduction for educational staff and anyone with an interest in supporting autistic learners into the settings which they work and support.

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About this course
Ratings
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Sign up to get more

You can start learning at any time. By signing up and enrolling you can track your progress and earn a Statement of Participation upon completion, all for free.
View this course Sign up to get more

Welcome to the module

Welcome to this free module, 'An Introduction to Autism and Inclusive Practice'. It is designed to provide an introduction for educational staff and anyone with an interest in supporting autistic learners into the settings which they work and support.

This introductory module aims to support you to develop an awareness of what autism is, its impact and how it can be supported within an inclusive school community. It may also be of interest if you work in the voluntary sector or simply have an interest in autism and inclusive practice.

A digital badge will be awarded for the successful completion of the module.

This module has been developed by Education Scotland.

Gain a digital badge

By studying the course you will have the opportunity to gain a digital badge - you need to click on the 'Enrol' button to be able to do the quizzes and earn the badge.

This course is part of a collection

This course is part of a collection of courses called Education Scotland - Inclusion and Equalities. There are 4 courses in this collection so you may find other courses here that maybe of interest to you.
See this collection

After studying this introductory module and participating in the tasks you will have an awareness of:

What autism is and its impact

The education context in Scotland

Autism and inclusive practice

How autism is identified

Supporting autistic learners and their families

A range of further information, reading and signposting

If this is your first visit to this site, you need to register for a free account, then login on this site and click on the Enrol button for this course.

Course content

Below is the course content. You can click on any section here and it will take you through to this section of the course.

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Course reviews

Hoai Nguyen

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website: introduction to autism and inclusive practice

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OLCreate: Intro to Autism Introduction to Autism and Inclusive Practice

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Ratings 4.5 out of 5 stars You can start learning at any time. By signing up and enrolling you can track your progress and earn a Statement of Participation upon completion, all for free. View this course Sign up to get more Welcome to this free module, 'An Introduction to Autism and Inclusive Practice'.

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The course explains how ideas about autism have evolved and explores diagnosis, causes, intervention and life-span development. Widely varying perspectives on autism are illustrated and key societal and cross-cultural issues highlighted.

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Learn about autism, one of the most challenging long-term conditions of the century. This free course, Understanding autism, introduces the autism spectrum, how it is experienced by individuals and...

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How do we learn? Understanding how is the key to learning more effectively. This free course, Learning, thinking and doing, looks at the three main categories of theories: the acquisitive, constructivist and experiential models of learning. There is no right way to learn but developing an active approach will ensure that you are open to new ideas.

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How do we learn? Understanding how is the key to learning more effectively. This free course, Learning, thinking and doing, looks at the three main categories of theories: the acquisitive, ...

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This course takes your life as its starting point, developing your awareness of just how much you have already learned and what you are capable of. It will suggest ways of 'fine-tuning', and building on, the expertise you have developed in your life. You will also learn some interesting theories about how we learn, and some of the key skills and tools to make your learning a success.

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This course is for people who want to feel more confident about their learning skills. Informal in approach, the course builds on each person’s own qualities, knowledge and skills to develop a…

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Learning how to learn: a process we all engage in throughout our lives, but no single method of learning guarantees success. This free course, Learning how to learn, aims to make the process of learning much more explicit by inviting you to apply various ideas and activities to your own study as a way of increasing your awareness of your own learning.

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Learning how to learn: a process we all engage in throughout our lives, but no single method of learning guarantees success. This free course, Learning how to learn, aims to make the process of...

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Dyslexia is a neurodivergent condition affecting over 10% of the population. It is often linked to reading and writing challenges, but also gives rise to strengths like creativity and problem-solving.

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Dyslexia is a neurodivergent condition affecting over 10% of the population. It is often linked to reading and writing challenges, but also gives rise to strengths like creativity and…

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Do you get stressed at the thought of an examination? Does the idea of revision fill you with dread? This free course, Revision and examinations, will provide a host of tips to help you improve your revision and examination techniques and enable you to manage your time effectively by creating a timetable for your revision.

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Do you get stressed at the thought of an examination? Does the idea of revision fill you with dread? This free course, Revision and examinations, will provide a host of tips to help you improve ...

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This free course, Understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), explores the experience of ADHD from the perspective of those who are diagnosed with the condition, and those who care for them.

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This free course, Understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), explores the experience of ADHD from the perspective of those who are diagnosed with the condition, and those who ...

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The links are for the SIGN and NICE guidelines which explain the process of ADHD assessment, diagnosis and treatments within the

NHS.

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Aberdeenshire Educational Psychology Service: ADHD Resources

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Aberdeenshire Educational Psychology Service: ADHD Resources

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What is Tourette Syndrome? (Tourette Scotland)

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What is Tourette Syndrome? (Tourette Scotland)

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Explains what Tourette Syndrome is.

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Symptoms

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Tourettes- Checklist of Tics and Symptoms

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Autistic Masking Animation from the National Autism Implementation Team (NAIT)

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Autistic Masking Animation from the National Autism Implementation Team (NAIT)

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An animation developed by Atlas Autism for NAIT about the personal experience of autistic masking.

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Autistic Masking Animation - National Autism Implementation Team

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An animation developed by Atlas Autism for NAIT about the personal experience of autistic masking.

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Scottish charity supporting those with autism.

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We are Scotland’s leading autism charity. We support autistic people and their families across the country, and take action to achieve the more inclusive world we want for all autistic people.

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The Curly Hair Project is an organisation that helps people on the autistic spectrum and the people around them.

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Autism Toolbox (Scottish Government and Education Scotland)

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Autism Toolbox (Scottish Government and Education Scotland)

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The Autism Toolbox is a free online platform developed to support all practitioners working in and with Scottish Early Learning and Childcare settings, Primary and Secondary schools.

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Local Authority's strategy to support young people with autism.

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Understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), explores the experience of ADHD from the perspective of those who are diagnosed with the condition, and those who care for them.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This free course, Understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), explores the experience of ADHD from the perspective of those who are diagnosed with the condition, and those who ...

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Exam Stress | How To Deal with Exam Stress

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It's normal to feel a bit worried about exams, but sometimes they can make you feel anxious or depressed. Find out how you can deal with exam stress.

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This hub brings together free OpenLearn courses, articles and personal stories on autism, ADHD, dyslexia and more.

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Suggested support for dysgraphia - CALL Scotland (funded by Scottish Government and other agencies)

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Suggested support for dysgraphia - CALL Scotland (funded by Scottish Government and other agencies)

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Suggestions as to ways to support learning if you have dysgraphia.

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I Have a Writing Difficulty, What Can Help?