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she was an american author and created uncle toms cabin

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a network of secret routes established in the united states and used by african americans to escape slave states and go into free states.

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an act that required slaves to be given back to their owners.

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the power to state comes from the people.

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5 seperate bills that were passed by congress that defused political confrontation.

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joseph smith was an american religious leader and founder of mormonism.

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he was an american presbyterian minister and leader in the second great awakening.

# data[].attributes.body
it was a protestant religious revival in the early 19th century.

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an american suffragist, social activist, abolitionist and leading figure of the early women's rights movement.

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she was a quaker, women's rights activist and social reformer.

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the first woman's rights convention

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a man that made a public school.

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a woman who created human environments for mentally ill people.

# data[].attributes.body
a movement to outlaw people drinking alcohol.

# data[].attributes.body
people with the money and means began to create their own perfect little communities.

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a bunch of landscape painters who were influenced by romanticism.

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divinity pervades all nature and humanity.

# data[].attributes.body
he was a famous scientist, politician and historian.

# data[].attributes.body
it was the transcontinental treaty between the united states and spain.

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a united states policy of opposing european colonialism in america.

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its a canal in new york .

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the place in america with all the textile factories.

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the man that invented the cotton gin.

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he was an american attorney who represented kentucky.

# data[].attributes.body
it was an economic plan that played an important role in american policy during the 19th century.

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a drastic change in the american economy.

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the transition in america where we began to manufacture products at a rapid pace

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it made missouri a slave state to please the south but made the south a free state.

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a major american peace time financial crisis.

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it marked a period in us history that reflected a sense of purpose and desire of unity

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a series of meetings to discuss the ongoing war of 1812.

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a peace treaty that ended the war of 1812 between the united kingdom and Ireland.

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fought on january 8th between british troops and american forces.

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taking men into military or naval course by compulsion.

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a term used in politics for someone who favors war in a debate.

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an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and speaks on its behalf.

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he was a native american warrior and chief who became the leader of a confederacy.

# data[].attributes.body
an act that life’s all embargoes on american shipping except for those bound for british or french imports.

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a law passed in the united states that prohibited trading within all foreign imports.

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an expedition to explore louisiana.

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a land deal between the united states and france.

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it established the principle of judicial views.

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the wife and advisor of john adams.

# data[].attributes.body
all male and female adults can vote at the age of 21.

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the unspoken war between america and france.

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a diplomatic incident that accident caused an unspoken war.

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the final battle of the northwest indian wars.

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a treaty that established a friendship between spain and the united states.

# data[].attributes.body
a treaty of amity that averted war with great britain.

# data[].attributes.headline
Washington’s proclamation of neutrality  

# data[].attributes.subject
Washington’s proclamation of neutrality  

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an announcement from george washington that declared the nation neutral in the conflict between France and great britian.

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they oppose the anti-administration party.

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an american political party formed by Thomas jefferson and James madison to oppose the federalists.

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a theory that a state has the right to invalidate any federal law that is unconstitutional.

# data[].attributes.body
Kentucky and virginia thought the alien and sedation acts were unconstitutional..

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a series of laws that allowed the govt. to deport foreigners and make it hard for people to immigrate into the united states.

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Colonial Williamsburg | The World's Largest Living History Museum

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Experience the largest outdoor educational living museum in the country, through immersive and authentic 18th-century programming for our guests.

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it was a tax protest in the united states beginning in 1794.

# data[].attributes.body
he proposed that the government assume the entire debt of the federal government and the states.

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“an act to establish judicial courts of the united states of america”

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large and small states work together as a whole government.

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it was a gathering of the generals and federalists discussing their rights as americans.

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people who wanted to keep the colonies just colonies.

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self government for the united states party.

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85 papers arguing to give the united states ratification.

# data[].attributes.body
adds the first ten amendments to the us constitution.

# data[].attributes.body
this document challenged the authority of the british authority.

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an uprising because of massachusetts debt crisis

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made it so that new states could be part of the union.

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people could go to the undeveloped west and claim land.

# data[].attributes.body
it was the first us constitution.

# data[].attributes.body
after the 7 year war, the british taxed the colonies for a war they didn't cause.

# data[].attributes.body
it was a religious revival.

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a man who was also quite influential in the 18th century for his ideas on methods and ways of thinking.

# data[].attributes.body
he was one of the more influential enlightenment thinkers of the mid 18th century.

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a idea that people must give away some of their rights for freedom and protection.

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the idea that you as a human were born with entitled rights

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it made people question the catholic church and the pope.

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the british sent people to look after the land of quebec.

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the british had a tax on sugar, molasses and rum and people did not like it.

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3. Molasses Act, Sugar Act, and the Stamp Act.mov

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it entitled the british to all the profit made on the shipping boats from europe to the 13 colonies.

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the trade between africa, europe and north america.

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push more of your nations product out and have less product come in.

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it was when the british neglected their duties to regulate the 13 colonies which gave them more freedom.

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she saved john smith by placing her head on his during an execution.

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a native who communicated from the natives to the english.

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it was an exchange from the african, cuba and europe and it brought quick africans.

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founder of the pennsylvania colony

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a name for the northern colonies because they produced a lot of grains.

# data[].attributes.body
he founded massachusetts colony

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the path african slaves were taken down from africa the west indies

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growing enough crops to keep yourself alive.

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indians were chased away by virginia so they raided the village.

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a crop grown for the money.

# data[].attributes.body
catholics tried to derive natives of their religious culture

# data[].attributes.body
labor system by the Spanish royals.

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Francisco Hernández Girón was a Spanish encomendero in the Viceroyalty of Peru who protested the New Laws in 1553. These laws, passed in 1542, gave certain rights to indigenous peoples and protected them against abuses. Drawing by Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala.

The encomienda ( Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda] ) was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military protection and education. The encomienda was first established in Spain following the Christian reconquest of Moorish territories (known to Christians as the Reconquista), and it was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Spanish East Indies. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch. The Crown awarded an encomienda as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the early sixteenth century, the grants were considered to be a monopoly on the labour of particular groups of indigenous peoples, held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the encomendero; following the New Laws of 1542, upon the death of the encomendero, the encomienda ended and was replaced by the repartimiento.

Encomiendas devolved from their original Iberian form into a form of "communal" slavery. In the encomienda, the Spanish Crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a specific community but did not dictate which individuals in the community would have to provide their labour. Indigenous leaders were charged with mobilising the assessed tribute and labour. In turn, encomenderos were to ensure that the encomienda natives were given instruction in Catholicism and the Spanish language, to protect them from warring tribes or pirates; to suppress rebellion against Spaniards, and maintain infrastructure. The natives provided tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, pork, and other agricultural products.

With the ousting of Christopher Columbus in 1500, the Spanish Crown had him replaced with Francisco de Bobadilla. Bobadilla was succeeded by a royal governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando, who established the formal encomienda system. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labour and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted. However, Queen Isabella I of Castile forbade slavery of the native population and deemed the indigenous to be "free vassals of the crown". Various versions of the Laws of the Indies from 1512 onwards attempted to regulate the interactions between the settlers and natives. Both natives and Spaniards appealed to the Real Audiencias for relief under the encomienda system.

Encomiendas have often been characterized by the geographical displacement of the enslaved and breakup of communities and family units, but in New Spain, the encomienda ruled the free vassals of the crown through existing community hierarchies, and the natives remained in their settlements with their families.[page needed ]

The heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, "to entrust". The encomienda was based on the reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled.

The encomienda system traveled to America as the result of the implantation of Castilian law over the territory. The system was created in the Middle Ages and was pivotal to allow for the repopulation and protection of frontier land during the reconquista. This system originated in the Catholic south of Spain to extract labour and tribute from Muslims (Moors) before they were exiled in 1492 after the Moorish defeat in the Granada War. It was a method of rewarding soldiers and moneymen who defeated the Moors. The encomienda established a system similar to a feudal relationship, in which military protection was traded for certain tributes or specific work. It was especially prevalent among military orders that were entrusted with the protection of frontier areas. The king usually intervened directly or indirectly in the bond, by guaranteeing the fairness of the agreement and intervening militarily in case of abuse.

The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution. The encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero; native lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the Catholic monarchs as a whole.

Hernán Cortés, conqueror of the Aztecs and premier encomendero of New Spain

The first grantees of the encomienda system, called encomenderos, were usually conquerors who received these grants of labour by virtue of participation in a successful conquest. Later, some receiving encomiendas in New Spain (Mexico) were not conquerors themselves but were sufficiently well connected that they received grants.

In his study of the encomenderos of early colonial Mexico, Robert Himmerich y Valencia divides conquerors into those who were part of Hernán Cortés' original expedition, calling them "first conquerors", and those who were members of the later Narváez expedition, calling them "conquerors". The latter were incorporated into Cortes' contingent. Himmerich designated as pobladores antiguos (old settlers) a group of undetermined number of encomenderos in New Spain, men who had resided in the Caribbean region prior to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

In the New World, the Crown granted conquistadores as encomendero, which is the right to extract labour and tribute from natives who were under Spanish rule. Columbus established the encomienda system after his arrival and settlement on the island of Hispaniola requiring the natives to pay tributes or face brutal punishments. Tributes were required to be paid in gold. However, during this time gold was scarce.

Some women and some indigenous elites were also encomenderos. Maria Jaramillo, the daughter of Marina and conqueror Juan Jaramillo, received income from her deceased father's encomiendas. Two of Moctezuma's daughters, Isabel Moctezuma and her younger sister, Leonor Moctezuma, were granted extensive encomiendas in perpetuity by Hernán Cortés. Leonor Moctezuma married in succession two Spaniards, and left the encomiendas to her daughter by her second husband. Vassal Inca rulers appointed after the conquest also sought and were granted encomiendas.

The encomienda was essential to the Spanish crown's sustaining its control over North, Central and South America in the first decades after the colonization. It was the first major organizational law instituted on the continent, which was affected by war, widespread disease epidemics caused by Eurasian diseases, and resulting turmoil. Initially, the encomienda system was devised to meet the needs of the early agricultural economies in the Caribbean. Later it was adopted to the mining economy of Peru and Upper Peru. The encomienda lasted from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the seventeenth century.

Philip II enacted a law on 11 June 1594 to establish the encomienda in the Philippines, where he made grants to the local nobles (principalía). They used the encomienda to gain ownership of large expanses of land, many of which (such as Makati) continue to be owned by affluent families.

In 1501 Isabella I of Castile declared Native Americans as subjects to the Crown, and so, as Castilians and legal equals to Spanish Castilians. This implied that enslaving them was illegal except under very specific conditions. It also allowed the establishment of encomiendas, since the encomienda bond was a right reserved to full subjects to the crown. In 1503, the crown began to formally grant encomiendas to conquistadors and officials as rewards for service to the crown. The system of encomiendas was aided by the crown's organizing the indigenous into small harbors known as reducciones, with the intent of establishing new towns and populations.

Each reducción had a native chief responsible for keeping track of the labourers in his community. The encomienda system did not grant people land, but it indirectly aided in the settlers' acquisition of land. As initially defined, the encomendero and his heirs expected to hold these grants in perpetuity. After a major Crown reform in 1542, known as the New Laws, encomendero families were restricted to holding the grant for two generations. When the Crown attempted to implement the policy in Peru, shortly after the 1535 Spanish conquest, Spanish recipients rebelled against the Crown, killing the viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela.

In Mexico, viceroy Antonio de Mendoza decided against implementing the reform, citing local circumstances and the potential for a similar conqueror rebellion. To the crown he said, "I obey crown authority but do not comply with this order." The encomienda system was ended legally in 1720, when the crown attempted to abolish the institution. The encomenderos were then required to pay remaining encomienda labourers for their work.

The encomiendas became very corrupt and harsh. In the neighborhood of La Concepción, north of Santo Domingo, the adelantado of Santiago heard rumors of a 15,000-man army planning to stage a rebellion. Upon hearing this, the adelantado captured the involved and had most of them hanged.

Later, a chieftain named Guarionex laid havoc to the countryside before an army of about 3,090 routed the Ciguana people under his leadership. Although expecting Spanish protection from warring tribes, the islanders sought to join the Spanish forces. They helped the Spaniards deal with their ignorance of the surrounding environment.

As noted, the change of requiring the encomendado to be returned to the crown after two generations was frequently overlooked, as the colonists did not want to give up the labour or power. The Codice Osuna, one of many colonial-era Aztec codices (indigenous manuscripts) with native pictorials and alphabetic text in Nahuatl, there is evidence that the indigenous were well aware of the distinction between indigenous communities held by individual encomenderos and those held by the Crown.

The encomienda system was the subject of controversy in Spain and its territories almost from its start. In 1510, an Hispaniola encomendero named Valenzuela murdered a group of Native American leaders who had agreed to meet for peace talks in full confidence. The Taíno cacique Enriquillo rebelled against the Spaniards between 1519 and 1533. In 1538, Emperor Charles V, realizing the seriousness of the Taíno revolt, changed the laws governing the treatment of people labouring in the encomiendas. Conceding to Las Casas's viewpoint, the peace treaty between the Taínos and the was eventually disrupted in four to five years. The crown also actively prosecuted abuses of the encomienda system, through the Laws of Burgos (1512-13) and the New Laws of the Indies (1542).

The priest of Hispaniola and former encomendero Bartolomé de las Casas underwent a profound conversion after seeing the abuse of the native people. He dedicated his life to writing and lobbying to abolish the encomienda system, which he thought systematically enslaved the native people of the New World. Las Casas participated in an important debate, where he pushed for the enactment of the New Laws and an end to the encomienda system. The Laws of Burgos and the New Laws of the Indies failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, the New Laws were postponed in the Viceroyalty of Peru. When Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru, tried to enforce the New Laws, which provided for the gradual abolition of the encomienda, many of the encomenderos were unwilling to comply with them and revolted against him.

When the news of this situation and of the abuse of the institution reached Spain, the New Laws were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in America, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, in 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance of traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery.

The liberation of thousands of Native Americans held in bondage throughout the Spanish empire by the new viceroy, Blasco Núñez Vela, on his journey to Peru, led to his eventual murder and armed conflict between the encomenderos and the Spanish crown which ended with the execution of those encomenderos involved.

In most of the Spanish domains acquired in the 16th century the encomienda phenomenon lasted only a few decades. However, in Peru and New Spain the encomienda institution lasted much longer.

In Chiloé Archipelago in southern Chile, where the encomienda had been abusive enough to unleash a revolt in 1712, the encomienda was abolished in 1782. In the rest of Chile it was abolished in 1789, and in the whole Spanish empire in 1791.

The encomienda system was generally replaced by the crown-managed repartimiento system throughout Spanish America after mid-sixteenth century. Like the encomienda, the new repartimiento did not include the attribution of land to anyone, rather only the allotment of native workers. But they were directly allotted to the Crown, who, through a local Crown official, would assign them to work for settlers for a set period of time, usually several weeks. The repartimiento was an attempt "to reduce the abuses of forced labour". As the number of natives declined and mining activities were replaced by agricultural activities in the seventeenth century, the hacienda, or large landed estates in which labourers were directly employed by the hacienda owners ( hacendados), arose because land ownership became more profitable than acquisition of forced labour.

Deaths, disease, and accusations of ethnocide or genocide

The Codex Kingsborough: also known as the Codex Tepetlaoztoc, is a 16th-century Mesoamerican pictorial manuscript which was part of a lawsuit against the Spanish encomenderos for mistreatment

Raphael Lemkin (coiner of the term genocide) considered Spain's abuses of the native population of the Americas to constitute cultural and even outright genocide, including the abuses of the encomienda system. He described slavery as "cultural genocide par excellence" noting "it is the most effective and thorough method of destroying culture, of desocializing human beings".[citation needed ] Economic historian Timothy J. Yeager argued the encomienda was deadlier than conventional slavery because of an individual labourer's life being disposable in the face of simply being replaced with a labourer from the same plot of land. University of Hawaii historian David Stannard describes the encomienda as a genocidal system which "had driven many millions of native peoples in Central and South America to early and agonizing deaths".

Yale University's genocide studies program supports this view regarding abuses in Hispaniola. The program cites the decline of the Taíno population of Hispaniola in 1492 to 1514 as an example of genocide and notes that the indigenous population declined from a population between 100,000 and 1,000,000 to only 32,000 a decline of 68% to over 96%. Historian Andrés Reséndez contends that enslavement in gold and silver mines was the primary reason why the Native American population of Hispaniola dropped so significantly, as the conditions that native peoples were subjected to under enslavement, from forced relocation to hours of hard labour, contributed to the spread of disease. For example, according to anthropologist Jason Hickel, a third of Arawak workers died every six months from forced labour in the mines.

Skepticism towards accusations of genocide linked to the encomienda and the Spanish conquest and settlement of the Americas typically involve arguments like those of Noble David Cook, wherein scholars posit that accusations of genocide are a continuation of the Spanish Black Legend. Writing about the Black Legend and the conquest of the Americas, Cook wrote, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact" and instead suggests the near total decimation of the indigenous population of Hispaniola as mostly having been caused by diseases like smallpox. He argues that the Spanish unwittingly carried these diseases to the New World.

Austin, Shawn Michael (2015). "Guaraní kinship and the encomienda community in colonial Paraguay, sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries". Colonial Latin American Review. 24 (4): 545-571. doi:10.1080/10609164.2016.1150039. S2CID 163678212.

* Avellaneda, Jose Ignacio (1995). The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-1612-7.

Chamberlain, Robert S. (1954). "Simpson's the Encomienda in New Spain and Recent Encomienda Studies". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 34 (2): 238-250. doi:10.2307/2509348. JSTOR 2509348.

Gibson, Charles, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.

Guitar, Lynne (1997). "Encomienda System". In Junius P. Rodriguez (ed.). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. Vol. 1, A-K. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 250-251. ISBN 978-0-87436-885-7. OCLC 37884790.

Himmerich y Valencia, Robert (1991). The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521-1555. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72068-8.

Keith, Robert G (1971). "Encomienda, Hacienda, and Corregimiento in Spanish America: A Structural Analysis". Hispanic American Historical Review. 52 (3): 431-446. doi:10.1215/00182168-51.3.431.

Lockhart, James, "Encomienda and Hacienda: The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies," Hispanic American Historical Review 49, no. 3 (1969)

McAlister, Lyle N. (1984). Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492-1700. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816612161.

Ramirez, Susan E. (2008). "Encomienda". Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture (2nd ed.). Gale. pp. 107-108. ISBN 978-0684314433.

Simpson, Leslie Byrd Simpson, The Encomienda in New Spain: The Beginning of Spanish Mexico (1950)

Yeager, Timothy J. (1995). "Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown's Choice of Labour Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America". The Journal of Economic History. 55 (4): 842-859. doi:10.1017/S0022050700042182. JSTOR 2123819. S2CID 155030781.

Zavala, Silvio. De Encomienda y Propiedad Territorial en Algunas Regiones de la América Española. Mexico City: Aurrúa 1940.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The encomienda ( Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda] ) was a Spanish labour system that rewarded conquerors with the labour of conquered non-Christian peoples. The labourers, in theory, were provided with benefits by the conquerors for whom they laboured, including military protection and education.

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he was the man that sailed into the hudson river and conquered new amsterdam.

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he settled new france in canada.

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he discovered the atlantic coast of africa.

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powerful northeastern native american confederacy.

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the old age of the north american continent.

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you came from this place.