# data[].attributes.body
-Depth cues available to either eye alone
-Relative (Comparative) Size: assuming that two objects are similar size

perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image as farther away

-Interposition: if one object partially blocks your view of another, it is perceived as closer
-Relative Clarity: light from different objects passes through more atmosphere, so we perceive hazy objects as farther away than clear, sharp objects
-Texture Gradient: course distinct texture to fine indistinct texture indicates increasing distance
objects farther away appear smaller and more densely packed
-Relative Height: perceive objects higher in field of vision as farther away
-Relative Motion (motion parallax): as we move, stable objects may appear to move

objects closer to the fixation point appear to move backward

the nearer the object, the faster it seems to move

-Linear Perspective: the more two parallel lines converge, the greater the perceived distance
-Light and Shadow: dimmer objects seem farther away bc closer objects reflect more light to our eyes

# data[].attributes.body
-Depth cues that depend on use of two eyes
-Retinal Disparity: difference between what each eye sees

provides important cue for relative distance of different objects

-Convergence: neuromuscular cue caused by eyes' greater inward turn when they view a near object

greater inward strain for closer objects

# data[].attributes.body
-Our thresholds for detecting differences are roughly constantly proportional to the size of the original stimulus

# data[].attributes.body
-Absolute Threshold: minimum intensity of physical energy required to produce any sensation

any stimulus below this threshold will not be experienced

threshold increases with age

point at which stimulus can be detected 50% of the time

adaptation = increasing or decreasing the absolute threshold

-Difference Threshold (JND)

smallest amount of change that can be detected 50% of the time

varies according to strength of original stimulus; the greater the original stimulus, the greater the change needed in order to be detected

# data[].attributes.body
-Kinesthesis: sense of our body parts' position and movement
-Vestibular Sense: monitors head and body's position, movement,  and balance

maintained by semicircular canals and vestibular sacs of the inner ear

# data[].attributes.body
-Molecules of a substance carried in air reach olfactory receptor cells at top of each nasal cavity
-We recognize odors individually

an odor cannot be separated into more elemental odors

some odors trigger a combination of receptors

-Identification of scents peaks in early adulthood then declines

# data[].attributes.body
-Spinal cord contains neurological gate that either blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain
-Small nerve fibers conduct most other sensory signals

when tissue is injured, small fibers open the gate and you feel pain

-Large fiber activity opens the gate
-People report less pain if intensity is decreased and prolonged

pain can be managed with placebo or meditation

# data[].attributes.body
-4 distinct skin senses

pressure

warmth/ cold

pain

-Brain is most sensitive to unexpected stimulation

# data[].attributes.body
-Study of behavior and mental processes

# data[].attributes.body
-Believed consciousness lay in heart rather than brain

# data[].attributes.body
-Nerve Deafness
-More common than conduction hearing loss
-Damage to cochlea's hair receptors and/ or their nerves

disease (sometimes)

biological changes linked with heredity and aging

prolonged exposure to loud noise

-Cochlear Implant: the only way to restore hearing from nerve deafness is to thread electrodes through cochlea

convert sounds into electrical signals to stimulate auditory nerve

# data[].attributes.body
-Caused by mechanical problems with conducting sound to the cochlea

punctured eardrum

ossicle bones lose ability to vibrate

# data[].attributes.body
-Rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of tone, enabling us to sense pitch
-Perception of low-pitched sounds
-Whole membrane vibrates
-By firing in rapid succession (volleys), neural cells can achieve a more powerful combined frequency

# data[].attributes.body
-Links the pitch we hear with a stimulated place on the cochlear membrane
-Explains how we perceive high-pitched sounds
-A pitch is recognized by the place on the membrane that it activates
-Hermann von Helmholtz

# data[].attributes.body
-Hering
-After leaving receptor cells, opposing retinal processes enable color vision
-Some cells are stimulated by green, others by red
-Explains afterimages

# data[].attributes.body
-Retina has three types of color receptors, each especially sensitive to red, blue, or green light
-Additive color mixing

# data[].attributes.headline
Chapters 5 and 6: Sensation and Perception

# data[].attributes.subject
Chapters 5 and 6: Sensation and Perception

# data[].attributes.body
-William James
-How mental and behavioral processes function and how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
-Questioned the function of consciousness and intricate thought processes

Why do we behave certain ways?

# data[].attributes.body
-Edward Bradford Titchener
-Used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
-Ruled too subjective

# data[].attributes.body
-Began the first psychological laboratory
-Published forst scientific textbook of psychology
-Used Mary Cover Jones's discoveries to come up with systematic desenstization

# data[].attributes.body
-Mind is a blank slate at birth
-Empiricism: knowledge originates in experience

science should be based on experimentation and observation

# data[].attributes.body
-Believed mind was separable from the body
-Logic-based principles
-Descartes agreed

believed animal spirits in brain flowed through hollow nerves to incite reflexes

# data[].attributes.body
-Jean Piaget: came up with stage model (same sequence but not necessarily same time) for cognitive development

how kids think, not what they think

-Sensorimotor Stage: 0-2 years

try to take in all info through all senses

associate thought with movement

lack object permanence at start, gain it by end

-Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years

use of language and symbols

classify objects based on one characteristic

egocentric: lack ability to see the world from another's perspective

begin to develop theory of mind: ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs different from one's own

-Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 years

can classify objects according to several features

logical thinking

concrete story-telling in writing; only report facts

-Formal Operational Stage: 12-adulthood

some may never be great at thid kind of thinking

able to formulate and test hypotheses mentally

able to think about what could be rather than what is

# data[].attributes.body
-Orientation: baby turns its head in direction of sound or fixes eyes on something
-Preference: gaze longer at shapes that have characteristics of human faces

look at human faces bc they are more likely to reward them

like some colors better than others

measured speed and strength of suck

active learners and want to get as much out of the environment as they can

# data[].attributes.body
-Established developmental norms allow us to make predictions and notice when there may be a problem
-Proximodistal Development: motor development moves out from central core

# data[].attributes.body
-Most development in frontal lobe ages 3-6

muscle movement, personality, sequence of events

-Maturation: biologically determined process that enables orderly changes in behavior and cognitive abilities

generally not impacted by development

severe circumstances can slow development, but it cannot be sped up

-Lack of neural connections results in infantile amnesia around age 3-3.5
-Identical twins are similar almost to the exact day
-Babies can recognize voices from womb and distinguish their mother's scent from others

# data[].attributes.body
-Rooting Reflex: turning head toward touch for feeding

-Sucking reflex
-Grasping Reflex: fingers close on any object that touches palm
-Stepping: looks like walking as feet reach for lower boundary
-Righting: baby keeps its head vertical when rocked to side
-Startle
-Babinski Reflex: feet curl and fan (CNS)
-Babies sleep a lot bc most brain development happens during REM
-Temperament: aspects of a personality that are regarded as innate rather than learned such as introversion and extraversion

easy: good-natured and adaptable, easy to please

difficult: moody and intense, strong negative reactions

slow: inactive and slow to respond, mild reactions

remains stable through age eight years; many argue it remains stable throughout life

# data[].attributes.body
-Zygote = the fertilized egg
-Embryo = after fertilization when organ development begins
-Fetus = organ systems begin to interact; sex and sense organs become refined

# data[].attributes.body
-Cross-Sectional Study: examines developmental changes by observing or testing people of different ages at the same point in time

cohorts: groups born during the same period in history that may exhibit characteristics due to a major life experience that leads to abnormal development

very common; backbone of research

-Longitudinal Study: examines changes by testing the same people two or more times as they grow

assessment of techniques may not be the same over time

participants die, move, or drop out

costs large amount of time and money

-Biographical or Retrospective Study: asking an older person to recall something from an earlier point in their life

inaccurate recall can lead to inaccurate data

# data[].attributes.body
-Between overwhelmed/ stressed and underwhelmed/ bored (Mihaly Csikszentmihaly)

# data[].attributes.body
-Predictors of Sexual Restraint

high intelligence

religion

father presence

participation in service learning programs

-Reasons for Teen Pregnancy

ignorance

guilt related to sexual activity

minimal communication about birth control

alcohol use

mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

# data[].attributes.body
-More activity in left frontal lobe
-Feel Good, Do Good Syndrome
-Losing wealth or happiness hurts more than gaining it helped
-Those who value intimacy, personal growth, and community contribution have highest quality of life
-Adaptation Level Phenomenon: satisfaction and dissatisfaction are relative to recent experience

# data[].attributes.body
-Emotions have physical and cognitive components
-Experience of emotion grows out of awareness of body's arousal

takes conscious interpretation of arousal to experience emotion

people who are already aroused will feel more intense emotions

arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it

# data[].attributes.body
-Environment gives us clues as to how we are supposed to feel and respond
-We engage in social cuing and social comparison

a person who panics can spread panic

# data[].attributes.body
-Processing of emotions and environmental stimuli occurs simultaneously
-Emotions accompany bodily response but are not produced by it
-Problem- sometimes we do react before we feel

# data[].attributes.body
-Environmental stimuli cause physiological changes in the body and our emotions arise from these

therefore, people with spinal injuries do not feel emotions as intensely (Hohmann)

-Supported by behavioral and neurological science

# data[].attributes.body
-Fear, Sadness, Anger, Joy, Surprise, Disgust, Anticipation, Acceptance

bolded are universally recognized in facial expressions

# data[].attributes.body
-Self-Actualization: self initiated striving to become whatever we are capable of

morality, creativity, spontaneity, acceptance, experience, purpose, meaning, inner potential

Self-Esteem: confidence, achievement, respect for others, need to be a unique individual

Love and Belonging: friendship, family, intimacy, sense of connection

Safety and Security: health, employment, property, family, social stability

Physiological Needs: breathing, food, water, shelter, clothing, sleep

# data[].attributes.body
-Projective test in which the questions are neutral but the test taker projects their mentality onto them, revealing their motivations

# data[].attributes.body
-Motivation for contact

Harry Harlow and Kangaroo Care

sets body temperature, lowers blood pressure, decreases pain responses

-Aggression: behavior intended to inflict physical harm

males are more likely to be aggressive, across all cultures and age groups

caused by heightened testosterone and/ or estrogen levels

-Achievement Motive: desire to achieve for its own sake

Work Orientation: desire to work hard to do a good job

Mastery: preference for difficult or challenging feats with the desire to improve upon past performance

Competitiveness: enjoyment of putting one's skills up against those of another

# data[].attributes.body
-2.8% of males and 1.4% of females report being gay

overall 4-6% of the population

rates of reported homosexuality differ among cultures

-Genetic Influence

know at early age

larger corpus callosum in men; gay men have neuroanatomy more similar to women

certain neural cell cluster larger in heterosexual males than in women or gay men

women have more changeable/ fluid sexual orientation and are more likely to be bisexual

family trait, as evidenced by twin studies

elevated testosterone levels during pregnancy

# data[].attributes.body
-Lower testosterone leads to lower sex drive (hormones)
-Pheromones
-Limbic system influences sexual excitement
-Men= visual and quick to arouse
-Women= tactile and slow to arouse

# data[].attributes.body
-Primary drive vital to the survival of the species
-Masters and Johnson: first scientific study of sexual behavior

subjects' age ranged from 18-80s

results describes sex response cycle: excitement --> plateau--> orgasm--> resolution

# data[].attributes.body
-Recurrent episodes of binge eating and inappropriate behaviors to control weight gain

binge eating and compensatory behaviors occur at least two times a week for three months

-Body shape and weight excessively influenced by self-image
-Physical Effects

rupture in stomach lining

irregular heartbeat

kidney damage

damage to tooth enamel

acid reflux (heart burn)

# data[].attributes.body
-Person perceives themselves as overweight and strives to lose weight by limiting food intake and or increasing calorie burn through exercise

intense fear of being fat which does not diminish as weight loss progresses

disturbance of body image

refusal to maintain weight above minimum

-Environment

disturbed family relationships

high value based on appearance

low self-esteem

feeling powerless

high achiever

-Physical Effects

hair loss

cessation of ovulation; absence of three consecutive cycles

damage to heart and vital organs

osteoporosis

# data[].attributes.body
-Homeostatic mechanism in the body that regulated metabolism, fat storage, and food intake so as to maintain a pre-programmed weight

your body's metabolism adjusts to maintain the set point

Basal Metabolic Rate

# data[].attributes.body
-90% of white teens dissatisfied
-30% of black teens dissatisfied

# data[].attributes.body
-Primary Drive: psychologically based and unlearned motive
-Hunger and need for food are different things

emotions, learning, and social situations impact hunger

humans= grazers

# data[].attributes.body
-Lateral Hypothalamus has two regions related to hunger

hunger center: stimulates eating, monitors blood, glucose, and leptin levels

satiety center (ventromedial hypothalamus): signals you to stop eating; knows how many calories are in your stomach thirty minutes after you finish eating

-Low blood sugar causes lateral hypothalamus to release orexin
-Leptin: hormone produced by fat cells that make you feel full

low levels make you feel hungry

# data[].attributes.body
-Specific, inborn behavior patterns characteristic of an entire species

most significant human behavior is learned through experience

human behavior is flexible

# data[].attributes.body
-Inner directing forces that arouse an organism and direct its behavior towards a goal
-Biological Motives: hunger, thirst, sex
-Stimulus Motives: exploration, curiosity, manipulation
-Learned Motives: aggression, achievement, affiliation, power
-Drive Reduction Theory: motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce an unpleasant state of tension in the body and return it to homeostasis

Homeostasis: state of balance and stability that allows an organism to function effectively

-Incentive: external stimulus that prompts goal-directed behavior
-Intrinsic Motivation: comes from within; behavior is spontaneous
-Extrinsic Motivation: desire to perform comes from reward or punishment avoidance

# data[].attributes.body
-Experience: stimulating environment leads to more neural connections
-Purely cognitive abilities are inheritable
-Maze Bright and Maze Dull Rats

bright parents produce bright offspring

bright raised in impoverished environment became Maze Regular

dull raised in enriched environment become Maze Regular

-Kangaroo Care

handled babies gain weight more quickly

-Skeels Orphanage Study

children raised in orphanages have lower IQ

IQs brought up to average when handicapped adults were brought in to play with them

# data[].attributes.body
-Genetics account for 40-50% of individual personality differences
-Shared environment accounts for less than 10% of differences between siblings' personalities

# data[].attributes.body
-More similar in to biological parents in terms of personality

adopted child will be most like biological mom in terms of IQ

-Child is more similar to adopted parents in terms of behavior and beliefs
-Genetic predispositions come out in times of stress
-Temperament: a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and consistency
-Heritability: degree to which a trait can be passed on through genetic code

extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their different genes

as differences due to environment decrease, differences due to heritability increase (indirectly proportional)

# data[].attributes.body
-Studies allow us to measure how much behavior is impacted by genetics
-Identical twins are more similar in terms of extraversion and neuroticism
-Do report being treated alike

the way identical twins are treated does not impact level of behavioral similarity

-Fraternal twins are only as genetically similar as brothers and sisters with similar prenatal environments

# data[].attributes.body
-Genes and experiences work together to wire our brains
-Has helped humans survive in all types of environments and situations
-When there is a drastic change in the environment, only the strong survive

# data[].attributes.body
-Inherited physical and emotional characteristics
-Can be selected naturally or with help of human intervention

once selected, they have an advantage in reproduction and the traits will be passed on

# data[].attributes.body
-46 chromosomes
-Genes: pieces of DNA with specific instructions
-Genotype: internally coded, inheritable information used a blueprints for building an organism
-Phenotype: outward, physical manifestation of genotype when combined with environment (nurture)

genotype provides a range that the phenotype falls within

-RNA: single strand that carries the message of DNA to the cell body and is made up of sugar and phosphate and is virtually the same in all humans
-Genome: complete set of instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material and chromosomes
-Gene Complexes: genes working together to form traits such as height or facial features

# data[].attributes.body
-PKU: liver does not remove phenylalanine, so person must eat a strict vegetarian diet
-Down Syndrome: moderate (50-30)

Syndrome= all the same characteristics are present in everyone who has it

extra 21st chromosome

oval eyes, straight line on palm, small nose, tongue protrusion, small ears

40-50% have heart defect

-Williams Syndrome: issue with 7th chromosome

mild (70-50)

great verbal, auditory, and musical abilities

friendly

-Gestational Causes (preventable)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

German Measles

lack of Folic Acid

# data[].attributes.body
-Sub-average general intellectual functioning accompanied by limits in adaptive functioning

70-50 = mild; 90%; may become self-supporting

50-30 = moderate; may contribute to their support

30-20 = severe; may talk and perform simple tasks

20-0 = profound; almost no different from severe; require constant aid and supervision

# data[].attributes.body
-Reliability: test must yield consistent results

Test-Retest Reliability: scores must be similar to the first scores when the test is taken again later

Split-Half Test of Reliability: give half the test in one sitting and give the other half a few days later

-Validity: test must measure what it claims to measure

correlational research studies the relationship between variables but cannot prove cause and effect

+.6 correlation between IQ and school grades

Content Validity: test must adequately assess the skills and knowledge it is supposed to

Criterion-Related Validity: when measuring the same thing, different tests should yield similar scores

-Standardization: process of defining meaningful scores relative to a pretested group

# data[].attributes.body
-For non-readers
-Minimal use of words
-Bayley Scales of Infant Development

# data[].attributes.body
-Used for people aged 16-74, with emphasis on life skills
-WAIS-R

individual test split into two parts: verbal and performance

extra points can be awarded on some tests for creativity

score affected by speed and accuracy

# data[].attributes.body
-Alfred Binet designed first intelligence test for French  public schools that determined "mental age"
-Lewis Terman= Stanford professor who used William Stern's Intelligence Quotient and normed the IQ test at score of 100

mental age/ chronological age x100

biased because it depends on education and cultural familiarity

-Modern test measures verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory

individual test primarily given to young children

# data[].attributes.body
-Sternberg
-Componential Intelligence: ability to think abstractly and process info effectively

our awareness of own processes; we decide what problems to solve and what strategies to use

-Experiential Intelligence: ability to formulate new ideas and combine seemingly unrelated facts and info

relating novel situations to familiar ones

-Contextual Intelligence: ability to adapt to changing environment conditions and shape the environment

capitalizing on your strengths and compensating for your weaknesses

# data[].attributes.body
-Education should fit the profile of each student
-Nine unique abilities make up intelligence
-Logical-mathematical
-Visual/spatial
-Kinesthetic
-Intrapersonal
-Interpersonal
-Musical
-Linguistic
-Naturalistic
-Existential

# data[].attributes.body
-Crystallized Intelligence: reasoning, verbal, and numerical skills

influenced byeducation

-Fluid Intelligence: spatial and visual imagery

decreases with age

# data[].attributes.body
-Abilities are independent of each other. The level of your ability for each of the seven categories indicates your overall intelligence.
- Spatial
-Perceptual Speed
-Numerical
-Verbal
-Memory
-Word Fluency
-Reasoning

# data[].attributes.body
-Savant Syndrome: a person limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

most are males and many have autism

-Analytical Intelligence: assessed by intelligence tests, which present well-defined academic problems having a single right answer
-Creative Intelligence: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas
-Emotional Intelligence: ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

brain damage can diminish emotional intelligence but not general intelligence

# data[].attributes.body
-Spearman: intelligent people are always intelligent
-Factor Analysis: statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors)

# data[].attributes.body
-Reification: viewing an abstract concept as though it were a concrete thing
-Intelligence: abilities involved with learning and adaptive behavior

practical intelligence: ability to select and accomplish goals, both self-aware and aware of the world

verbal intelligence: broad vocabulary, reads with high comprehension, sees many sides to a problem, converses easily about many topics; indicates greater intelligence

-Ability: a skill that a person already has
-Aptitude: a potential ability

# data[].attributes.body
-Features of each choice are compared to each other and each is assigned value
-Attractive features are weighed against unattractive
-Ex. buying a house
-Non-Compensatory Model: Short-comings in one criteria are not offset by strengths in another

"Non-starter" = tossing out certain choices because they do not meet one or two requirements, regardless of how great the other characteristics are

# data[].attributes.body
-Creativity: ability to generate novel combinations of existing elements

creative people show flexibility, fluency, and originality

-Divergent Thinking: starting at a central idea and moving outward

original, inventive, flexible

good when there are many possible solutions

-Convergent Thinking: only one right answer
-Insight: seemingly arbitrary flash that solves the problem; dual consciousness
-Brainstorming: does not reject any possible solutions

numerous ideas are collected and later evaluated

# data[].attributes.body
-Tactic of Elimination: eliminate solutions that you know are not acceptable, allowing you to examine the remaining choices more closely
-Visualizing: create a visual representation of the problem
-Expertise: an expert will see more possible solutions and will be able to process the information more quickly; may cause fixedness

# data[].attributes.body
-Motivation: not caring or not wanting to remain on task
-Emotion: may cause interference
-Set: tendency to perceive or approach problems in a certain way, without thinking outside of the box

Functional Fixedness: using an object only for what it was designed for; function becomes fixed

# data[].attributes.body
-Trial and Error: successful only when you have a limited number of choices
-Information Retrieval: works well if problem involves concrete facts

must take into account limits of memory

-Algorithms: step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution if used correctly

-Heuristic: rule of thumb that simplifies the problem but does not guarantee a solution

speedier but more error-prone

Hill-climbing: always move forward; get started and keep going

Subgoals: break problem into manageable pieces

Means-End: analyze current situation and look at desired goal; reevaluate after each subgoal is met; allows for digression

Working Backwards: start at the solution and see if it reveals the steps that led to it

Representativeness Heuristic: new situation judged on basis of its resemblance to a stereotypical model. How is this like something I have seen before? How close is it to the prototype?

Availability Heuristic: a decision is made based on information that is most easily retrieved from memory

# data[].attributes.body
-Mental representations of a sensory experience
-Can be for any sensory experience, not just vision
-To think, we must be able to visualize and manipulate the images
-Images allow nonverbal thought representations and abstract concepts

# data[].attributes.body
-Believed humans possess a biological basis for language
-7 and 8 month olds can recognize syllable combinations after only two minutes of exposure
-Critical Period- decline in language acquisition after age 7

# data[].attributes.body
-Top Down: creating a sentence

Thought--> word choice--> creation of speech

-Bottom Up: understanding a sentence

Hear basic sounds--> transform sounds to words--> connect words to form sentence--> understand meaning

# data[].attributes.body
-Must be flexible because world is always changing
-Based on phonemes: smallest unit of speech

no individual meanings

45 phonemes in the English language

-Morphemes: smallest meaningful unit of speech; one-syllable words
-Grammar/ syntax: rules for word order and sentence construction
-Semantics: a word's meaning
-Surface Structure: the particular words and the grammar used to construct them; does not take meaning into account
-Deep Structure: underlying meaning of the sentence
-Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: your thoughts are limited and shaped by your language

ideas must exist before the term is created

largely discredited

Benjamin Lee Whorf

also Linguistic Determinism

# data[].attributes.body
-Cognition: all the mental activities associated with processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating; the process whereby we acquire and use info
-Building blocks of thought= language, images, and concepts

# data[].attributes.body
- Specific memories are stored in a variety of places because they are multi-model
-Basal Forebrain: binds the various pieces together while LTM is stored in new neural connections
-Hippocampus: transfers info from STM to LTM

info stored here for about two days

smaller in old people and those with Alzheimer's, but size doesn't really matter

-When learning occurs, more serotonin is produced at certain synapses, making them more efficient at transmitting signals
-Long-Term Potentiation: increase in a LTM synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

neural basis for learning and memory

-Korsakoff's Syndrome: lack of vitamin B and thiamine that produces glucose for the brain, resulting from severe and prolonged alcoholism

thalamus and hippocampus are also smaller due to alcohol destroying parts of the brain

damages person's ability to make new memories, as in anterograde amnesia, although implicit memory is less affected

# data[].attributes.body
-People unknowingly rewrite their own memories of past events to fit their current image of themselves
-Retelling reinforces story, not memory
-Elizabeth Loftus

# data[].attributes.body
-Retrograde Amnesia: brain damage may knock a memory out of the hippocampus before it can be encoded in LTM

may permanently lose memory of the injury as well as some prior events

-Anterograde Amnesia: problem making new memories because they cannot be encoded in LTM

loss of explicit memories

-Hysterical Amnesia: an event may be so emotionally disturbing that it is blocked from recall

memory is still there and can impact conscious world without the victim knowing it

-Psychogenic Fugue: amnesia with travelling; psychotic break leads to losing sense of self

# data[].attributes.body
-Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes
-Concepts: mental representations of related things that may represent physical objects, events, organisms, attributes, and abstractions

Prototype: the most typical example of a certain concept

-Degree of Category Membership: you use the info at hand to determine the most sensible category

# data[].attributes.body
-Framework of expectations for how an event should take place

Assimilation: process by which new info is fitted into this framework

-Script= schema for an event

-Confabulation: when you remember part of an episode and fill in the holes with what makes sense based on your schema

# data[].attributes.body
-Info that seems to be just slightly out of reach
-Happens when you are stressed and becomes more frequent as you age
-Effort increases interference
-Letters that sound alike are most often confused with each other

# data[].attributes.body
-When exposed to a stimulus, you can later complete it if shown a fragment of it
-Activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously

# data[].attributes.body
-Unlimited in quantity and duration
-Retrieval: process of going into LTM and placing info into STM where it can be used
-Explicit Memory: can be intentionally retrieved; facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize

Semantic memory: general facts and word meanings; easier to remember and stored mainly in the frontal and temporal lobes; LTM is composed of mostly semantic memories

Episodic memory: events that have a specific meaning but fewer links and are not as easy to remember as semantic memories

-Spacing Effect: Ebbinghaus discovered that learning is greater when studying is spread out over time, as opposed to studying for the same amount of time but in only one session
-Implicit Memory: memory that we cannot readily express in words and is not intentionally retrieved

Procedural memory: cognitive and motor skills stored in cerebellum as well as classical and operant conditioning effects

Emotional memory that depends on the amygdala

-Flashbulb Memory: vivid memory of emotionally-arousing and significant event
-LTM is stored in multiple places, so damage to parts of the brain may cause a memory to fade but it cannot entirely disappear unless each place where it is located is destroyed

# data[].attributes.body
-Also known as working memory because it includes usable info you are thinking about at a given moment; consciousness
-Capacity: holds as much as can be repeated in 1.5-2 seconds, generally 7+/- 2 pieces of info
-Chunking: helps increase number of pieces of info one can remember
-Duration: STM holds info for about 20 seconds if work is not done to maintain it
-Encoding: active process of sorting info by type and relevance

Automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental info about space, time, and frequency

Effortful processing: requires attention and conscious effort to produce durable and accessible memories; can become automatic

-Decay Theory: passing of time causes strength of a memory to fade

15-20 seconds in STM

Ebbinghaus

-Consolidation: strengthening of a memory for long-term storage

involves creation of new dendrites, strengthening of old connections, and chemical changes that may take years

Rote Rehearsal: mnemonic device that involves repeating information over and over; aka maintenance

Elaborative Rehearsal: tying new information to something we already know in order to make it deeper and more meaning for and therefore easier to remember. Involves work because you must recall relevant past information

-Primacy and Recency: In a free recall activity, a person will more easily recall the first and last pieces of info that they heard when there is no delay

recency does diminish in the event of a delay

-Interference Theory: info gets mixed up with or pushed aside by other info because STM has a limited capacity

Retroactive Interference: recent info gets in way of old

Proactive Interference: prior info gets in way of new

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-Selecting specific information from a variety of possible inputs so that it can be processed and assigned meaning
-Filter Theory of Attention: what makes info important enough to pay attention to and later remember

need, novelty, interest, emotion

we respond to change most quickly

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-Initial processing of which our attention filters out select information for further processing
-Raw information collected by sensory systems

lasts less than a second but may be unlimited

information must pass through the sensory measures before being encoded in short or long-term memory

-Visual Memory

Icon: visual image held in a person's visual register

Masking: new info replaces the old in under .25 of a second

not subject to learning or experience; kids and adults have the same abilities

-Hearing

Echo: auditory memory held in temporal lobe

lasts longer than icon because it takes a person longer to glean meaning from sound

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-Atkinson- Shiffrin
-Includes sensory, short-term, and long term memory