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Kids learn about air pollution and how it effects the environment and health. Study causes, pollutants, and facts including acid rain and smog.

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Kids learn about land pollution and how it effects the environment and health. Study causes, pollutants, garbage, landfills, trash, and facts.

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Kids learn about water pollution and how it effects the environment and health. Study causes, pollutants, sources, and facts including acid rain.

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Roads are increasingly common in today's world as human development expands and people increasingly rely on cars for transportation on a daily basis. The United States contains over 4 million miles of roadways and an estimated 20% of land in the country is impacted by the presence of roads. This large network of roads has dramatically altered the landscape and can impact wildlife in a number of deleterious ways. In addition to causing mortality, roads can also shift population demographics and be a source of pollution into the environment. Studying the ecological impacts of roads is an important area of study in conservation biology and environmental science, as the impacts often extend far beyond the surface of the road itself.

Mortality & Population Declines

When animals cross roads, mortality is often the result. In fact, road mortality is the leading source of mortality to many wildlife populations and an estimated 1 million vertebrates die on roads every day in the United States. This rate of mortality can severely threaten animals and has been identified as a leading cause of decline in some populations.

Some animals are prone to road mortality due to their natural defense mechanisms, which although effective when dealing with natural predation, are often poorly equipped to handle the dangers posed by cars. Turtles often perceive cars as a threat and draw into their shell to protect themselves, which can put them at risk for getting struck by a car because they stay on the road longer. Snakes may also become immobilized when approached by a car and may remain immobilized for a minute after a car passes. Venomous snakes may be less inclined to flee from a perceived threat because they typically use venom for defense. Turkey vultures that normally fly away from predators may be unable to initiate flight quickly enough when approached by a fast-moving vehicle. The way in which animals naturally respond to threats may increase their risk of being stuck by cars.

Animals may also be attracted to the road surface. Reptiles like snakes and turtles sometimes bask on the warm asphalt of the road to regulate their body temperatures. Many scavengers prey on the carcasses of animals that have been killed on the road. These kinds of behavior increase the risk of mortality as they cause animals to spend more time around the road.

Rates of mortality are closely linked with movement patterns, as more movement generally incurs a greater chance of coming into contact with a road. Animals with large home ranges, such as Florida panthers with ranges of up to 630 km ², have a high chance of encountering roads as they traverse such large distances. Movement during particular life stages can also result in peaks in mortality. These patterns are often associated with reproduction, as when gravid turtles undergo migrations to seek out a site to nest. In some snake species, the male can increase its home range up to 6 times as it searches for a mate. Many reptiles begin dispersing immediately after hatching, which also results in mortality peaks. In red foxes, the female repeatedly visits cubs at breeding sites, sometimes up to 10 times in a single night, which increases the chance for mortality. Some studies have reported movement rates as the single greatest factor influencing the risk of road mortality.

Habitat Fragmentation & Alteration

Pollution

Roads can also be a conduit for pollutants into the environment. The debris from tires on the road can decrease the time to metamorphosis of wood frogs. Deicing salts that run off from roads into adjacent ponds can decrease survivorship of wood frogs and spotted salamanders. Frogs have been shown to have higher skeletal abnormalities closer to roads, possibly as a result of contamination. In addition to causing mortality, deicing salts can alter the behavior of frogs and decrease locomotor performance. This can impact fitness, as they may be less adept at catching prey or eluding predators. Roads also carry oils from cars that travel across them, which have the potential to harm wildlife when they enter the environment.

Mitigation

A number of mitigation strategies have been developed to decrease the harmful impacts of roads on wildlife. In cases where patterns of mortality are predictable during certain times of the year, road closures or speed limit reductions during these times may decrease mortality rates. Road closures during breeding migrations have been used to successfully decrease mortality of the Jefferson's salamander in Ontario. Since many gravid reptiles are killed while trying to find a nesting site, the construction of artificial nesting sites may prohibit them from needing to cross the road. For snakes, artificial hibernacula can also be constructed to reduce distance traveled and the chances of road mortality.

Decreasing traffic volume is not likely to be effective when animals avoid the physical surface of the road. In such cases, constructing alternative ways of crossing the road can be more successful. For smaller animals, culverts that pass under roads can allow for safe passage. Barriers along the road are also constructed to guide animals to the culverts. This has shown to be extremely effective in reducing road mortality in some cases. A drawback of culverts is that they primarily facilitate crossing by smaller animals. For larger animals, wildlife overpasses have been used to allow crossing. They sometimes have vegetation planted over them to mimic the natural habitat. Studies have shown that red deer and wild boar will use such structures to cross the road and usage may increase over time as animals become accustomed to them.
Sources

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5. Gooley, A.C., Testing the behavioral responses of West Virginia Turtles to roads and vehicles. 2010.

6. Andrews, K.M., J.W. Gibbons, and T. Reeder, How do highways influence snake movement? Behavioral responses to roads and vehicles. Copeia, 2005. 2005(4): p. 772-782.

7. DeVault, T.L., et al., Effects of vehicle speed on flight initiation by turkey vultures: implications for bird-vehicle collisions. PloS one, 2014. 9(2): p. e87944.

8. Schwab, A.C. and P.A. Zandbergen, Vehicle-related mortality and road crossing behavior of the Florida panther. Applied Geography, 2011. 31(2): p. 859-870.

9. Gibbs, J.P. and D.A. Steen, Trends in sex ratios of turtles in the United States: implications of road mortality. Conservation Biology, 2005. 19(2): p. 552-556.

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12. Clark, R.W., et al., Roads, interrupted dispersal, and genetic diversity in timber rattlesnakes. Conservation Biology, 2010. 24(4): p. 1059-1069.

13. Laurance, S.G., P.C. Stouffer, and W.F. Laurance, Effects of road clearings on movement patterns of understory rainforest birds in central Amazonia. Conservation Biology, 2004. 18(4): p. 1099-1109.

14. Shine, R., et al., Why Did the Snake Cross the Road? Effects of Roads on Movement and Location of Mates by Garter Snakes(Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis). Ecology and Society, 2004. 9(1): p. 9.

15. Aresco, M.J., Highway mortality of turtles and other herpetofauna at Lake Jackson, Florida, USA, and the efficacy of a temporary fence/culvert system to reduce roadkills. Road Ecology Center, 2003.

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22. Denoël, M., et al., Cumulative effects of road de-icing salt on amphibian behavior. Aquatic Toxicology, 2010. 99(2): p. 275-280.

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27. Wise, S., Studying the ecological impacts of light pollution on wildlife: amphibians as models. StarLight: a Common Heritage, C. Marın and J. Jafari, eds.(Canary Islands, Spain: StarLight Initiative La Palma Biosphere Reserve, Instituto De Astrofısica De Canarias, Government of The Canary Islands, Spanish Ministry of The Environment, UNESCO-MaB.), 2007: p. 107-116.

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Introduction to Ornithology

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Roads: Their Environmental Impact | EnvironmentalScience.org

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Roads are increasingly common in today's world as human development expands and people increasingly rely on cars for transportation on a daily basis. The United States contains over 4 million miles of roadways and an estimated 20% of land in the country is impacted by the presence of roads.

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Animal overpopulation occurs when an ecosystem is unable to support the existing wildlife because there are too many of a given species. The environment suffers due to the strain from the natural activities of the overpopulated species. The results can be devastating as animals scrape for food and wander into unnatural habitats in search of something to eat. Disease is also a factor as the ecosystem makes a final attempt to regain a natural balance and order. Overpopulated animal species lead difficult lives with limited resources.

Lack of food occurs when there is a breakdown in the food chain due to overpopulation. This is typically a cause-and-effect relationship. For example, in ecosystems where carnivores die out or become extinct, herbivores begin to grow in numbers. Without the balance achieved from the predator-prey relationship, overpopulated herbivores will compete for the same plant species, causing scarcity, or wiping out the plant species entirely. This unnatural balance damages the ecosystem and food chain. When too many of the same animal compete for a similar food source, many die from starvation. Others are forced to leave their natural habitats in search of food.

When overpopulated animals are starving, their innate survival instincts cause them to wander into unnatural places in search of food. In many cases, overpopulated animals will wander into areas populated by humans. The outcome is animals killed on the highway, property damage and human injury. More than 1 million animals are killed each as they wander onto roads and highways, according to One Animal Family, a website that gathers data from animal organizations. Animals are forced to go through garbage and kill farm animals because their natural ecosystem can no longer support them.

Overpopulated animals wreak havoc on the ecosystem and surrounding landscape. The overpopulation of deer throughout areas of the United States is destroying the forest and hindering the diversity of tree species. Deer have an appetite for saplings, which puts the forest in danger of becoming pastureland because overpopulated deer consume young trees. Deer grazing promotes the spread of ferns, which block sunlight from other plants, thereby hindering growth in the forest. Overpopulation is a vicious cycle for the ecosystem as the food chain, waterways and land are affected. Animal overpopulation threatens to change the entire make-up of an ecosystem.

As Mother Nature makes a desperate attempt to restore balance, diseases related to overpopulation of animals are imminent. However, diseases may also spread to other populations of animals that are not overpopulated, upsetting the balance and potentially harming fragile species. Due to overcrowding in animal shelters, the overabundant pet population is forced to live on the streets. Because these animals are not spayed or neutered, they continue to reproduce, promoting the spread of rabies and other diseases that can affect farm animals and other domesticated animals.

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Animal overpopulation occurs when an ecosystem is unable to support the existing wildlife because there are too many of a given species. The environment suffers due to the strain from the natural activities of the overpopulated species. The results can be devastating as animals scrape for food and wander into unnatural habitats in search of something to eat.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Uax5FRWnvs

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6rglsLy1Ys

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6xlNyWPpB8

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IrmasExj8v8

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tST7xEJ41i4&t=10s

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One consequence of globalization is that in addition to people and products moving across the globe, wildlife has been transported as well. This practice of transporting animals from their native regions to new areas dates back thousands of years. The Roman Empire frequently brought back animals from foreign lands to use for entertainment in the Colosseum or used them for military purposes. The practice was also a common part of European explorations of the New World, as explorers would bring back novel specimens to their home countries for zoological examinations or to arouse interest in future expeditions.

In many cases, the transplanted animal or plant does not thrive in its new environment. A lack of proper food sources combined with the wrong climate can make for a short lifespan for the animal in its new home. In other cases, however, the specimen thrives and is able to successfully reproduce and spread throughout its new habitat. When this happens, the plant or animal can wreak havoc on the new area and become an invasive species.

What Makes a Species Invasive?

Introducing a species into a new environment may have a variety of outcomes. An exotic or alien species is one that has been introduced to a new place, but does not necessarily have negative consequences. For example, many fish species have been introduced into the Great Lakes for sport fishing. They have no documented negative impacts and provide recreational opportunities and a food source. However, when these alien species begin to have negative consequences in the new habitat, they are called invasive species. Invasive species may cause environmental harm, economic harm, or impact human health.

A key factor that makes many species invasive is a lack of predators in the new environment. This is complex and results from thousands of years of evolution in a different place. Predators and prey often co-evolve in a phenomenon called the co-evolutionary arms race. What this means is that as prey evolve better defenses, predators in turn evolve better ways of exploiting prey. The classic example of this comes from the cheetah and antelope. Faster antelope survive better because they can better escape cheetahs. The fastest cheetahs then survive better because they can better catch the faster antelope. Neither species ultimately gains an advantage because they continually evolve in response to one another.

However, when a plant or animal enters a new environment, they will likely encounter predators who have not been evolving with them, which makes these predators unable to successfully exploit the prey. Defense mechanisms like venom, size or speed that have been matched by adaptation in predators are suddenly without match in the new environment. This can allow the species to proliferate rapidly as it no longer faces any predators. Many insect or fungi that are invasive in the United States come from regions where native trees have evolved resistance to their effects. When these species enter the US, they find trees that have no resistance and they can decimate forests quickly.

Invasive species may also be able to exploit a resource that native species cannot use, which allows them to take hold in the new environment. Introduced into the Western United States, barbed goatgrass thrives in serpentine soils, whereas native plants do not normally grow in them. This has given them a solid stronghold in the area. Combined with the fact that grazing animals do not like the taste of them, the grass has spread rapidly throughout California.

Some species also alter the environment in a manner that makes it more favorable for them, but less favorable for natives, which is called ecological facilitation. Yellow starthistle has also been introduced to the West Coast and secretes the chemical compound 8-hydroxyquinoline from the root. This chemical harms native plants, which allows starthistle to increase its range as its chemicals wipe out native competitors.

Where Do Invasive Species Come From?

Invasive species may enter new environments through many routes. Some are transported to new places and established intentionally, but with unforeseen consequences. Beach vitex was planted in coastal North Carolina in the 1980's as an ornamental plant for coastal homes. However, the plant began to overtake native species after it became established. The plant also does not have the extensive root system that holds sand in place as native plants do. As it spreads, the plants hasten dune erosion by removing plants that secure the sands of the dunes.

Some invasive species were actually brought in as unsuccessful attempts to control other invasive species. In the 1800's, rats that came to the Virgin Islands on ships infested the sugar cane fields on the islands, causing massive crop damage. Farmers brought in mongoose as a predatory control for the rats. However, the rats are nocturnal and sleep in trees, whereas the mongoose are diurnal and cannot climb trees, so they were not successful at eradicating the rats. As a result, the islands now have two invasive species to contend with.

Other species are brought to different places intentionally but released accidentally, as happens sometimes with animals in zoos and aquariums. Lionfish are thought to have been introduced to the Caribbean when several of them escaped from a broken beachfront aquarium during Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Sometimes people buy exotic pets and release them when they no longer want to care for them. This has been the case with Burmese pythons that are invasive in the Everglades. These were once a popular pet because they are brightly colored and have an easy-going demeanor. However, they can grow up to 6 feet in the first year and live in excess of 20 years. A full-grown Burmese python can be up to 13 feet long and requires a specially-made enclosure and a large amount of food. This quickly becomes too burdensome for many owners, who then release them into the wild. As a result, a large population of these snakes now occupies South Florida.

A large number of invasive species have also been transported incidentally through shipping. The Great Lakes provide a good example of this. For millennia, the Great Lakes remained separated from other major bodies of water. When the St. Lawrence Seaway, a system of canals and dams, was built to connect the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, this waterway provided a conduit for invasive species to enter the area. This mainly happened through the discharge of ballast water. Ballast water is used to weigh down empty ships and then discharged when ships enter a port in order to make weight available for cargo. The water is typically from the previous port where the ship was docked, and often contains living organisms from the area. By discharging ballast water into the Great Lakes when they arrive, ships have introduced more than 56 invasive species into the area.

In the 16 th century, Spanish galleons also transported invasive species, but did so through ballast soil. They would load the ship down with soil instead of water, but this soil also contained fire ants. As ships stopped at various ports along trade routes, dumping out the soil released fire ants into the areas, which were quickly able to colonize new places.

Many other examples exist of invasive species hitching rides on cargo to enter new habitats. For example, the fungus known as chestnut blight came from chestnut trees that were imported from Japan in the late 19 th century. The Asian tiger mosquito was introduced accidentally in tires shipped into the United States from Asia. Naval shipworms entered the San Francisco Bay on cargo ships in the early 20 th century and caused significant damage to piers and harbors.

Once they enter a new place, many different components of the habitat may facilitate their spread. Roads, for example, provide a pathway for invasives to move through new areas. The habitat alongside the road is clear of native vegetation, which makes it easy for fire ants to build mounds in this area. When areas are cleared for grazing, the lack of native vegetation means less competition with existing species and can make it easier for invasives to establish themselves.

What Are the Consequences of Invasive Species?

Invasive species can have a number of negative impacts on the areas that they invade. Perhaps the most significant of these is the widespread loss of habitat. The hemlock woolly adelgid is an invasive insect from Asia that rapidly kills infested hemlock trees. In some parts of the Eastern United States, it is estimated that up to 80% of hemlock trees have been killed. These forests represent important habitat for many animals and with crucial habitat gone, species that rely on them may face extinction. Similarly, the health of many forests is threatened by kudzu vines, introduced from Japan in the 19 th century as an ornamental plant. This plant was widely distributed across the Southeastern United States as a means of erosion control and as a food source for grazing animals. The vine soon became invasive, however, and can completely overgrow entire forests. In the process, it prevents sunlight from reaching the trees, effectively killing the forest. Additionally, the weight of the thick mats of vines on trees can cause trees to break and fall over. Its ability to quickly overgrow and destroy forests has earned it the nickname "the vine that ate the South."

Some invaders can physically alter the habitat in addition to destruction. 50 beavers from Canada were relocated to Tierra del Fuego, an archipelago at the southern tip of South America, in 1946 to be hunted for their pelts. Since then, they have multiplied and now number in the hundreds of thousands. The trees in the region are not adapted to beaver activity as they are in North America, and most do not grow back after being gnawed by beavers. Portions of the formerly pristine forests now look like a bulldozer has plowed through them. Additionally, beaver activity creates ponds that flood portions of the forest. These bodies of stagnant water alter the nutrient cycle in forests and invasive plants thrive in them. Beavers also build dams in drainage ditches of grasslands and livestock commonly fall into them, where they become stuck and die.

Other invasive species may not destroy habitat but can have an impact by killing large numbers of endemic species. Burmese pythons, for example, are top predators in the Everglades. As such, they have decimated local mammal and bird populations. Capable of consuming deer and even alligators, these creatures eat virtually any animal they encounter in the Everglades. A number of threatened and endangered bird species have also been found in the digestive tracts of pythons, prompting concern that they could drive some species toward extinction. Lampreys in the Great Lake parasitize native fish. Because the native species have not evolved defenses to lampreys, they often die outright from wounds, or wounds become infected and eventually cause mortality. Invasives can also threaten native species by outcompeting them for resources. Asian carp introduced into the United States outcompete native fish for both food and space, leading to large declines in native fish populations. Invasive species are the second largest cause of species extinctions in the United States.

Invasive species can also impact human health. Invasive zebra mussels accumulate toxins in their tissues like PCB's and PAH's. When other organisms prey on these mussels, the toxins are passed up the food chain and can also enter animals consumed by humans. Ballast water from ships also sometimes contains harmful bacteria like cholera. Invasive animals can also be vectors for disease.

In addition to these impacts, invasive species can also have enormous economic costs. Zebra mussels in the Great Lakes can rapidly cover submerged surfaces, clogging up water intakes at water treatment facilities and power plants. Removing this invasive species costs an estimated $500 million annually in the Great Lakes alone. Power companies spend an estimated $1.5 million each year to control kudzu vines growing on power lines. Lampreys in the Great Lakes have decimated many fishery stocks to the point that they are no longer profitable. In the United States, invasive species cost an estimated $120 billion annually in control methods and in loss of environmental resources.

What Can Be Done to Deter Invasive Species for Specific Habitats?

Many strategies have been developed to stop the damage caused by invasive species and to prevention future invasions. An important component is educating people about the dangers of transporting wildlife to new areas. Many laws and regulations have also been passed to combat the future spread of invasives. Ballast water in tankers is required to be decontaminated before it can be released from the boat. Laws have also been passed to restrict the exotic pet trade, such as banning the import of Burmese pythons in the United States.

Promoting the harvest of invasive species is another widely used technique, although it has been employed with limited success. A python hunt in Florida in 2013 provided cash awards to people for killing pythons. In Argentina, officials have tried to promote a market for beaver pelts and hunters were encouraged to hunt them. People have also used the woody vines of kudzu to craft baskets and other items. A problem encountered with this strategy is that often the demand is not nearly high enough to make a discernible impact on invasive populations. In the case of pythons, they are extremely secretive and elusive, which makes them difficult to find them for eradication.

As with many environmental problems, continued research will yield insight into effective control measures. For example, research studies have been conducted to determine how effective traps are in catching pythons. Genetic studies can also yield important information about how invasives have spread in an area and their potential to hybridize with native species. Predicting how the geographic range of an invasive species will increase is important for preparing new areas that may be invaded. Much research has also been devoted to determining the most effective ways of removing invasive plants, whether through herbicides or through mechanical destruction of the plants. Using chemicals to kill sea lampreys in the Great Lakes during their vulnerable larval stages has been shown to effectively kill them without harming other wildlife. While many invasive species may not ever by fully eradicated, increased awareness and research offer methods of preventing their spread and controlling the economic and environmental damage they can incur.
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Invasive Species Effects - Environment Impact & Solutions

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Explore the impact of invasive species on the environment, their negative effects and why they are dangerous. Discover strategies to deter/stop the damage.

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https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/invasive.html