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Constantine kept the Byzantine Empire protected and secure during periods where Germanic invaders were migrating and looking for new territory to settle and start their own civilization. He issued reforms that were intended to strengthen his regime during these stressful times. One such reform was the reorganization of the army which would help the Byzantine Empire maintain its security and protection. During the time of Constantine's reign the Visigoths and Sarmatians, which were nomadic invasive tribes, were migrating heavily in search of new territory to conquer and then develop a civilization that could flourish and expand. During the third century, "german mercenary soldiers were used in Roman legions" (Pg. 134 Jennifer Lawler). These legions were used to protect the borders of the empire to keep these potential threats from causing war inside the empire. Threats made by the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Alamanni, and the Franks had been increasing during this period and they had been putting stress and pressure on the frontier and border areas of the empire. Under Diocletian and Constantine 1 the great, this pressure ceased. This shows how Constantine was a strong military supporter which helped keep these Germanic tribes out of the Byzantine territory. Also Constantine displays his civic virtue because he took the lives of his citizens before anything else by reorganizing the army so that the people were kept safe inside protected borders. This allowed him to gain even more legitimacy because the people gave him respect for being a man of the people and revealing how they are important influences of his decision making as a leader. The fact people liked Constantine was a reason why no serious revolts occurred during his reign because the people knew a good leader was governing them and that they could have confidence he would allow for the proper development of the civilization.

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Between AD284 and AD337 - the era of emperors Diocletian and Constantine, and the setting of the "Twilight of Empire" novels - the Roman army not only fought a series of bloody civil wars, but defeated every known enemy on the frontier and expanded the empire for the first time in a century. Clearly the legions of the later empire, when properly led, were a formidable force indeed. But this army appears in many ways quite different to the more familiar force of the earlier empire, portrayed on monuments like Trajan's Column in Rome, and (albeit without a great degree of authenticity!) in films like Gladiator, Centurion and The Eagle. How did this change happen, and why?

As with most large and complex organisations over long periods of time, the development of the Roman army from the 2nd to the 4th centuries shows signs of both evolution and revolution, besides continuity. Nevertheless, by looking back at the army of an earlier era, we can perhaps identify the seeds of future developments.

During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the Roman army transformed itself from a strategically and tactically aggressive force of conquest and expansion, into a microcosmic military society based in permanent fortresses on the frontiers, adapted for small-scale local defence and periodic large-scale punitive campaigns. Already, though, emperors like Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius were calling on smaller detachments of troops - called vexillations - to make up or reinforce field armies in more wide-ranging campaigns across the empire.

It was during the Marcomannic wars of the later 2nd century, when the empire for the first time was invaded by large numbers of Germanic barbarians, that this use of mobile detachments really seems to have gained primacy. By combining smaller bodies of men from different legions, Roman commanders could create strong and flexible 'offensive' field armies without depleting the 'defensive' strength of the legions on the borders, maintaining security over a wide stretch of frontier while allowing for rapid reaction against incursions and reprisal strikes into barbarian territory.

But this system would be tested to breaking point in the years that followed. The 'crisis of the third century' saw the Roman empire beset by barbarian invasions, civil wars, plague and economic upheaval. At Abrittus in AD251, the emperor Decius was slain and his entire army destroyed by invading Goths. Less than a decade later, the emperor Valerian was defeated and taken captive by the Persians, and his troops annihilated or enslaved. These disasters could have been catastrophic for the security of the empire, and it is a testament to the strength and flexibility of the Roman military system that the army maintained itself through the decades that followed, before emerging in a new and quite different form by the century's end.

It was the emperor Diocletian (AD284-305) who, building on the reforms of his predecessors, established this new-style army. At its core was the comitatus, or imperial retinue, made up of select bodyguard troops. One of these accompanied each of the four emperors of the Tetrarchic system. The comitatus was reinforced on campaign by detachments from the frontier legions - often drawn from the heavily militarised Danubian provinces of Pannonia and Moesia - and new cavalry units called equites. These regular troops were frequently supported by large bodies of barbarian 'allies', serving under their own chiefs or kings, perhaps as part of a treaty arrangement with Rome. Galerius had a Gothic contingent during his Persian campaign, while Constantine would later make use of Frankish and Alamannic auxiliaries.

A papyrus from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt gives details of Diocletian's field force, c.AD298; it included troops from two Moesian legions, IV Flavia and VII Claudia, commanded by an officer ( praepositus) called Julianus, together with another paired detachment from legions XI Claudia and I Italica. An inscription from Mauretania, meanwhile, probably dating from the emperor Maximian's campaign of the same year against a rebel group called the Quinquegentiani, records a dedication to 'Deo Invicto Mithras' (the invincible god Mithras) constructed by men of the seventh and tenth cohorts of II Herculia.

Some of these legion detachments must have covered vast distances in the service of their emperors. While the two cohorts of II Herculia were on campaign in north Africa, other men of the same legion are recorded in the Crimea, while others seem to have accompanied the junior emperor Galerius on his Persian campaign of AD298. The inscription of a soldier called Aurelius Gaius records a lengthy military career that spanned the empire, from the Rhine frontier to Mauretania and from Mesopotamia and Egypt to the Danube. Gaius even claims to have served in 'India' - probably the region of Berenice on the Red Sea, entrepot for the Indian Ocean trade.

In time, these mobile detachments acquired a semi-independent status, losing their connection with the parent legion. They became referred to as 'legions' in their own right, some of them using variations on the old legion name: II Italica Divitensis, which seems to have formed part of Constantine's army in Italy in AD312, were probably formed from a detachment of legion II Italica based at Divitia on the Rhine. Tombstones from Aquileia in Italy mention a unit called the Moesiaci, also known as prima italicae moesiacae, clearly formed by men of I Italica from Moesia. By the later fourth century both the 'Moesiaci' and 'Divitenses' appear in army lists as regular legions.

The appearance of the Roman soldier, on both imperial monuments and individual tombstones, changes radically during this period. A mobile force would perhaps be a more lightly equipped force, but it was also cut off from the traditional legion armoury at home base. This might explain the shift from segmented armour, for example, which required skilled craftsmen to repair, to the more versatile mail, scale and even musculata (breastplate) type armours. The institution of state-run armouries ( fabricae) at centralised locations by Diocletian may have been an attempt to give these mobile new armies the supply of armour and weapons previously provided by the legion fortresses. A different type of armour too, perhaps - the 'ridge' helmet may have been more cost-effective to build on a production line; constructed of several plates riveted together, they could also have been stronger and more durable than the traditional helmets, which were hammered from single sheets of metal.

Changed equipment suggests a change in battlefield tactics too - the late Roman 'fulcum', or shield-wall, may have developed from the old testudo ('tortoise'), but appears to have been largely a defensive formation. Longer swords and round or oval shields may have been a response to the need for a more flexible combat style. Rather than the destructive javelin-volley followed by fast aggressive sword-charge that typifies (perhaps even defines) the military style of the earlier empire, we have a variety of considerably more static tactics, coupled with increased and sustained missile potential - a tactic of endurance and attrition, rather than the delivery of a sudden killer blow, perhaps reflecting both the increased sophistication of Rome's enemies and the increased frequency of civil wars.

But amid all this change, there was continuity, and perhaps more than appears immediately obvious. Equipment probably didn't alter suddenly - the traditional pilum (heavy javelin) was still in use into the late 3rd century and perhaps, under a different name, later. The familiar rectangular shield seems to have survived in some places into the 260s, and even the distinctive 'lorica segmentata' may not have died out as rapidly as once thought - fragments found at Leon in Spain and Caerleon in Britain date from the later 3rd, perhaps even 4th centuries, so perhaps it was still in use in the era of the tetrarchs.

All armies are responses to the particular military needs of their era. The Roman army repeatedly proved itself able to adapt and to survive - in doing so, it demonstrated a flexible response to military and political necessity. Just as the Roman empire, and the world surrounding it, changed almost beyond recognition over the centuries, so did its army.

In Part Two of this article, I will go on to discuss the changes to the command structure in the legions of Constantine's era.

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The Roman Army of Constantine - Part One

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Between AD284 and AD337 - the era of emperors Diocletian and Constantine, and the setting of the "Twilight of Empire" novels - the Roman army not only fought a series of bloody civil wars, but defeated every known enemy on the frontier and expanded the empire for the first time in a century.

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Constantine's religious beliefs and how that influenced the way he governed the Byzantine Empire

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Constantine's religious beliefs and how that influenced the way he governed the Byzantine Empire

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Constantine used Christianity as a foundation to build upon the values of the Byzantine empire. This brought peace and prosperity to the civilization and through the influence of God, Constantine learned his purpose for being a leader and what actions he was going to need to take to full-fill the needs of his people. This would allow the empire to maintain stability and prevent corruption. Throughout his life, Constantine ascribed his success to his conversion to Christianity and the support of Jesus (the Christian god). After Christianity and its fundamental beliefs were implemented into the philosophy in which the way Romans live, it allowed the Empire under Constantine to flourish. After Constantine’s victory over licinius (former augustus of the entire eastern half of the empire) in 324, (came to the throne in 312 as western leader), he wrote that he had come from “the farthest shores of Britain as God’s chosen instrument for the suppression of impiety” and that he was the one to bring peace and a sense of unity to the land (Encyclopedia Britannica). With Christianity being the new religion in the Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) Constantine made sure to eliminate any other such persecutions made by discriminative people. For example he issued laws “abolishing the penalty of crucifixion and the practice of branding certain criminals” (Encyclopedia Britannica). Also he suppressed some offensive pagan practices (pagans are people who don't believe in Christ and didn’t follow Christianity). Constantine made certain days that were allocated to worshiping the elements and supreme beings of the Christian religion as well.This shows his connection to Christianity and his strong belief that Jesus was a man full of good character and that his followers should know full well about what he did for his supporters many years before the time of the Byzantine Empire. Lastly, after Constantine died internal strife (disagreement) and civil war followed. Much of this civil war most likely was the result of conflict and disagreement that Constantine was not alive to properly deal with. Considering that the implementation of Christianity brought peace and prosperity during Constantine's reign which can lead someone to the conclusion that the leader who filled the void left by Constantine didn't believe as strongly in Christianity.This reinforces how Constantine's presence in the imperial court of the empire was valued by many and his reforms kept the state of the Empire free of corruption and instability.

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The reign of Constantine the Great marked the transition from the ancient Roman Empire to medieval Europe and a decisive step in the establishment of the Christian Church as the official religion for the Greek and Latin civilizations.

His view of church-state relations affected the way that European governments were constituted for centuries, and his influence had direct repercussions on the administration of such countries as Russia, ruled by czars, even until the 20th century.

Constantine was the son of Constantius and Helena. His father was appointed in 293 c.e. as one of four co-emperors in the Tetrarchy set up by Diocletian. Diocletian chose to keep Constantius's son under surveillance as his tribune. When Diocletian retired in 305, Constantine was allowed to join his father on campaign in Scotland. His father died in Britain, and his troops proclaimed Constantine as their new Caesar .

Between 305 and 312 Constantine marshaled propaganda, troops, and resources toward taking sole power in the Western Roman Empire. He won a string of battles against the Franks and others and then marched into the Italian Peninsula with an eye on defeating his Roman rival. The key to his success was a risky battle fought outside Rome in 312.

Constantine claims to have seen a celestial vision there that revealed his fortune and steeled his courage. At first he said that it was the appearance of his protector god Apollo who promised him 30 years of success, with the Roman numeral XXX appearing in the sky. As Constantine grew older, he decided that this visitation was of a Christian nature and that he saw a single cross with the words in hoc signo vince ("in this sign conquer").

The later Christian version of the story finishes with Constantine's army marching to victory, the cross emblazoned on their shields. The place of the vision was the Milvian Bridge, now associated with the turning point of his life, his career, and the destiny of the Christian religion. Constantine thought the hand of the divine was on him, and eventually he identified the god as Christian.

As a result, he began to be proactive in his support of the heretofore-persecuted faith. He restored properties to churches in the West and especially showed favor to the clergy. He met his Eastern Roman Empire counterpart and forged an agreement called the Edict of Milan in 313 c.e., in which the Christian faith was officially permitted.

Though Constantine is portrayed as the matchless defender of the Christian faith by popularized histories, this interpretation must be taken with a grain of salt. For example, in his decrees he avoided citing specific religions or religious terms, thus he said "Supreme Sovereign" or "Highest God." He did not require that his subjects do "superstitious" (i.e., Christian) practices to show their allegiance to the empire. He kept a specialist in Neoplatonism as a personal adviser.

He did not officially persecute the Greco-Roman cults, apart from a few police actions. He warned Christians against taking law into their own hands in their zeal to shut down pagan shrines. He dedicated his capital city with both pagan and Christian rites and imported into the city many works of art from pagan temples.

He continued the pagan Roman tradition that the emperor was the divinely appointed mediator between the divine and the empire, thus he intervened infrequently in church disputes. In fact, he did not formally enter the church through baptism until on his deathbed, reflecting his own anxieties about the impossibilities of living a life of holiness while serving as emperor.

The concord with the eastern emperor did not last. In the East there was widespread mistrust of Constantine and continued harassment of Christians. War broke out, and Constantine again showed his military prowess. By 324 he became sole emperor of the whole Roman Empire.

At once Constantine began to make arrangements to set up his capital in a safer part of the empire, in Byzantium (in modern-day Turkey) on the European side of the Bosporus. It was called New Rome, lower in rank than Italian Rome, but destined by Constantine to be upgraded over time.

When he made the city his home and named it after himself, Constantinople

, it was the sign that the safety and prestige once the possession of the Latin world had permanently migrated eastward. The light of the Roman civilization moved east, and the West began its descent into darker times.

Constantine restored many of Diocletian's reforms and renounced others. For example, he not only recognized the need for regionalized government; he set up armies to fight in the various European and Asian theaters of war. Germans and Franks entered into the higher ranks of imperial military service.

These concepts paved the way for medieval society, with local lords who controlled smaller territories and personal armies. Yet, he did not accept Diocletian's idea of the college of emperors, or Tetrarchy, and replaced it with a dynastic emperorship.

He separated the military from the civil in terms of services and duties. He set up a new currency and standardized its units, a system that lasted for 700 years. He held serfs and peasants to their social positions so that food production and imperial projects such as army campaigns, road maintenance, and city building could continue with ample supplies of food and labor.

At the same time he made a conscious effort to bring Christian values into public policies so that the downtrodden would be helped and especially the clergy could be promoted to a higher public status.

The results for the Christian Church were that bishops were welcomed into his courts, Christianity spread even more rapidly, and churches were reconstructed and given proprietary rights. He took an active interest in such church-building projects as St. Peter's in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem.

At the same time, since Constantine saw himself as the mediator between God and his empire, he often took on the role of referee in church controversies, a role for which he was not educated. He summoned the Council of Nicaea (325) and proposed the formula to be accepted to bring unity to all the Christians in his realm. Effectively speaking, Christianity achieved a prestige in the empire that future emperors such as Julian the Apostate could not reverse.

Benefactor of The Church

The last few years of Constantine's life were spent in the East, either in his capital or on campaign, although he occasionally traveled to Rome or the Rhine to secure his domain there. His military activities were confined to controlling the "barbarian" tribes along the frontier and not fighting Rome's nemesis, the Sassanid Empire. Later emperors were not so fortunate. Though a civil war broke out after his death, his influence was enough to give imperial prerogatives to his descendants for the next century.

Later Christians lionized such a benefactor of the church. It did not hurt that Constantine was buried next to the Church of the Apostles and de facto numbered among them as the "13th apostle." His friend, Eusebius, revered by later generations of Christians as the historian of the early church, also added luster to the image of Constantine through his biography of the man. Other intervening and contemporary sources and evaluations of Constantine were less enthusiastic.

Around the ninth or 10th century, however, the reputation of Constantine soared to new heights as stories and legends abounded concerning his sanctity and supernatural acts. About 25 "lives" of Constantine have been recovered, both from the East and the West, which sing his praises beyond what was celebrated by earlier generations. As a saint in the Eastern Christian Church, his feast day is May 21.

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The reign of Constantine the Great marked the transition from the ancient Roman Empire to medieval Europe and a decisive step in the establishment of the Christian Church as the official religion for the Greek and Latin civilizations.

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Constantine's social and cultural changes 

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Constantine's social and cultural changes 

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Constantine developed a culture in Constantinople based upon Christian beliefs and Greek values. The society inside the Byzantine empire was stable and most importantly the formerly persecuted Christians were no longer discriminated against. Christianity was a growing religion in the Roman Empire and it was important that the religion and it's followers were accepted in society or else inner conflict would have stirred up and the empire could have crumbled from the inside. It was the Christianized imperial governing class developed by Constantine that, along with his dynastic success, “most firmly entrenched the position of Christianity" (Encyclopedia Britannica). So essentially a big reason why people respected Constantine’s proposal for integrating the Christian religion to build the foundation for society, was because of Constantine’s legitimacy given by his rich family heritage. If it wasn’t for Constantine having a reputation that of a leader who is reliable and respectable, Christianity would have most likely been disapproved of in Roman society. If this were to happen, considering the pace at which the religion was growing and expanding, the number of Christians who would have been persecuted would have increased drastically and eventually after they found out they had numbers to rise up against the persecutors, a rebellion could have taken place which could have prevented the contribution the Byzantine Empire made to a period of renaissance in the Middle Ages.

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BY: Mason Hatfield

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From: Roosh Valizadeh, the publisher
Re: Permanent closure of Return Of Kings

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Biography.com. “Constantine 1 Biography.” Biography.com, A&E Television Networks, www.biography.com/people/constantine-i-39496. Accessed 4 Mar. 2018.

“Constantine I.” Britannica School, Encyclopædia Britannica, 15 Nov. 2017. school.eb.com/levels/high/article/Constantine-I/109633. Accessed 1 Mar. 2018.

Lawler, Jennifer. Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. Jefferson, McFarland, 2004.

Wasson, Donald L. “Constantine 1.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, 19 Apr. 2013, www.ancient.eu/Constantine_I/. Accessed 6 Mar. 2018.

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Constantine moved the capitol of the Roman Empire to Byzantium in the eastern part of the Roman Empire because he foresaw the decline and destruction of the western part of the civilization. The military was weak in the west and Goths, Franks, Vandals, and the Huns threatened the protection and security of the citizens of old Rome. The prestigious city simply could not provide the needs of the empire, so in 330 AD, Constantine left the city in splendid isolation and they would have little political contributions to the empire despite their wealth and the fact they were still the focal point of the region. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the eastern civilization had flourished and the Byzantine empire was able to contribute heavily to the arts, literature, philosophy, theology, and scientific knowledge in the middle ages. This reveals how under Constantine the Byzantine empire achieved much success and was highly advanced. Although Constantine extinguished other political leaders that threatened his absolute power within the Roman Empire, he was a leader who dedicated his time to developing a strong army to protect the people as well as integrating Christian beliefs to bring social stability and peace to his civilization. Constantine should definitely be elected into the hall of fame as a way to reward him for advancing the Byzantine civilization and to acknowledge his successful reign.

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Constantine gets a bad rap. He's Saint Constantine in the Eastern Churches, but just plain ol' "Constantine" in the West. Is he an apostolic saint or an opportunistic sinner?

In the last few years, I've spent a lot of time reading up on Constantine. I've taught a course three times in Rome called "History and Theology of Rome," which touches on Constantine and his legacy. I've written a book The Eternal City which also explores his impact on Christianity (I was much more pessimistic about him in the book than I am now). Moreover, Constantine is a major literary character in my historical fiction Trilogy: Sword and Serpent: Trilogy.

[PS: Book III in the Sword and Serpent Trilogy is now complete and in the final editing stages - and young Constantine heavily present in the final novel.]

Since we live in times of political and ecclesiastical ambiguity, here are 11 facts about Constantine to help you see that God can use imperfect politicians (and imperfect bishops) to bring about great good:

1. He was divorced and remarried. His first wife was Minervina, and he divorced her to marry his second wife was Fausta.

2. Constantine killed his second wife. In AD 326, he had his first son Crispus (from his first marriage) killed. He also had his second wife Fausta killed. Both names were removed from public documentation. After Constantine had his second wife killed, he never married again until his death at age 65. (It was rumored that his son Crispus had an affair with his stepmother Fausta and that this revelation and their ordered deaths haunted Constantine to the grave.)

3. During his early life, the Roman Empire was divided into a Tetrarchy of four emperors: two senior emperors with the title "Augustus" and two junior emperors with the title "Caesar." Constantine's father Constantius was the "junior emperor" or "Caesar" of the Western half of the Empire.

4. Constantine spent his early life held captive in the East (away from his father in the West) by the senior emperor Augustus Diocletian (a great persecutor of Christians). Constantine escaped the Eastern emperors by night and fled to his father. It is said that he hamstrung every horse along the way so that he would not be caught! Constantine joined his father Constantius in York in Britain. His father died in 306 and his son Constantine was acclaimed "Augustus" or senior emperor of the Western Roman Empire by his soldiers.

5. But Constantine needed to prove his title. Before defeating Maxentius in AD 312, Constantine saw the cross in the sky above the sun with the words "in touto nika" or, "In this sign, conquer." Lactantius (who tutored his sons) says Constantine was instructed to conquer under the sign of the cross during a dream. Eusebius records that it happened during the day at noon and that all the troops saw it. Either way, Constantine is said to have placed the sign of the cross or a Chi Rho on the shields of his men. Scholar Peter Weiss suggests the public "sun miracle" happened in Gaul in AD 310 and the dream happened in AD 312 before the Battle at the Milvian Bridge. That in AD 310, Constantine began to shift to monotheism based on "Sol Invictus" and that by AD 312, this monotheism had become (or was becoming) Christian monotheism.

6. Constantine legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan in AD 313, but he began to remove pagan symbols from imperial coins beginning around the year AD 318. He gave the Lateran Palace to the bishop of Rome in AD 324. His conversion seems gradual and is in full display after about 10-12 years of rule.

7. Constantine didn't likely convert for political reasons as most high school history teachers will tell you. The demographics were against him. It is estimated that in AD 312, Christians composed only 10-15% of the Roman Empire's population and fell into the lowest levels of education, wealth, and political power. The influence, wealth, and political power were still held by those checking the box labeled: "Jupiter, et al. Give me that old school Roman religion."

8. In AD 325, he called the first Catholic and Ecumenical Council of Nicea, which condemned the heresy of Arius falsely teaching that the Son of God was created and not eternally begotten of the Father.

9. Constantine left three living sons (each born from Fausta):
Constantine II (Catholic and anti-Arian). The first born.
Constantius II (Semi-Arian). The most powerful and through his influence, Semi-Arian theology spread.
Constans (Catholic and anti-Arian and anti-Donatist). Constans was rumored to be a man of unnatural vices.

10. Constantine did not divide the Roman Empire into "East and West." That had already been accomplished fully by Diocletian. Constantine, in a sense, re-united the entire Roman Empire under himself as one household or oecoumenos.

11. Constantine fell ill and personally selected the Semi-Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia to baptize him just days before his death. He died on Pentecost AD 337.

Whatever your opinion of Constantine, it's a historical fact that Christianity was spread to more souls by Constantine than by Saint Paul himself. This is why the Eastern Churches hail him as the "Thirteenth Apostle." I'll admit that this title is overly ambitious, but my opinion is that he was genuinely apostolic despite him being obviously imperfect.

Depending on your perspective: pray for Constantine's soul or ask him to pray for you!

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11 Unusual Facts about Constantine the First Christian Roman Emperor

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Constantine gets a bad rap. He's Saint Constantine in the Eastern Churches, but just plain ol' "Constantine" in the West. Is he an apostolic saint or an opportunistic sinner? In the last few years, I've spent a lot of time reading up on Constantine.

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Constantine (Gaius Flavis Valerius Constantinus) was born at Naissus in present day Serbia as early as 272 CE or as late as 285 CE. There is still intense speculation amongst historians on when exactly Constantine was born because the data is somewhat skewed. His father was Constantius and he was known as a military commander as well as a political leader in the Roman Empire. As a matter of fact his father was Caesar of the western Roman Empire (after the divide made by Diocletian) and because of this Constantine spent his entire early life in the imperial court. Under his fathers tutelage, Constantine learned that a ruler's job is to protect the empire from any external forces that oppose a threat and to the empire and also it his responsibility to create a just and ordered society. This philosophy was then ingrained into the mindset of Constantine and he would later demonstrate the belief in these values during his reign.