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https://thenarcissisticlife.com/famous-people-with-narcissism/

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Famous Narcissists with Narcissistic Personality Disorder

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Other likely suspects are Madonna, Margaret Thatcher, Paris Hilton and O.J. Simpson. Here are just a few of the many famous narcissists: Jim Jones,..

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1048984311001135

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Abstract

Many of the world's leaders appear to possess narcissistic characteristics (e.g., Deluga, 1997). This begs a question as to whether and why narcissistic individuals are chosen as leaders and how they perform. Prior research has suggested that leadership emergence and performance of narcissistic personalities may depend on contextual factors. Of particular interests are those contextual factors that pertain to the interdependence of work relationships, because narcissists typically tend to "shine" in social settings where they can influence others. Therefore, the present study investigated the leadership emergence and performance of narcissistic individuals in low versus high reward interdependent teams that participated in an interactive team simulation task. We found that narcissists emerged as leaders irrespective of the team's level of reward interdependence and their individual performance. Yet, high narcissists performed better in the high reward interdependent condition than in the low reward interdependent condition.

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All I need is a stage to shine: Narcissists' leader emergence and performance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many of the world's leaders appear to possess narcissistic characteristics (e.g., Deluga, 1997). This begs a question as to whether and why narcissistic individuals are chosen as leaders and how they perform. Prior research has suggested that leadership emergence and performance of narcissistic personalities may depend on contextual factors.

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Narcissism, Mania and Analysts’ Envy - ProQuest

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Explore millions of resources from scholarly journals, books, newspapers, videos and more, on the ProQuest Platform.

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https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258609

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Abstract

Extant research has shown that grandiose narcissism predicts a wide range of work-related outcomes. However, despite differentiating in the social-personality literature besides grandiose narcissism also its vulnerable form, there is little organizational research that would include both expressions of narcissism, in particular with regard to positive organizational behaviors, including strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. In addition, the role of dark-side personality traits, such as narcissism, in predicting strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, in particular in regard to motivational factors, seems understudied. Accordingly, this study adds to the literature on narcissism in the organizational context by investigating the direct effects of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and motivational orientation in the form of regulatory focus at work on strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. Based on a sample of 446 working adults from the Polish population, it was found that grandiose narcissism positively predicted both strengths use and deficit correction. In turn, vulnerable narcissism was unrelated to strengths use and deficit correction. Furthermore, drawing on the distal-proximal model of work-specific regulatory focus, it also tested whether regulatory focus at work has the incremental validity over grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in predicting strengths use and deficit correction. The hierarchical regression analyses indicated that both promotion and prevention focus were positively associated with strengths use and deficit correction, predicting them beyond grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. The theoretical and practical implications of this study in the context of narcissism in the workplace and positive organizational scholarship are discussed.

Citation: Sanecka E (2021) Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and regulatory focus at work in relation to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. PLoS ONE 16(10): e0258609. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258609

Editor: Frantisek Sudzina, Aalborg University, DENMARK

Received: June 4, 2021; Accepted: September 30, 2021; Published: October 22, 2021

Copyright: © 2021 Elżbieta Sanecka. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The dataset for this study is publicly available via the Open Science Framework (OSF): https://osf.io/nk6a5/.

Funding: Publication financed by the funds granted under the Research Excellence Initiative of the University of Silesia in Katowice. The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or the preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace encompass two forms of positive organizational behaviors, which are derived from the strengths-based approach in the positive organizational scholarship. These two separate forms of proactive behavior in the workplace reflect a self-starting and active approach to work goals and tasks. More specifically, strengths use behavior involves the employee taking a personal initiative aimed at using his/her own strengths in the working context, for example by choosing strengths-relevant tasks at work. In contrast, deficit correction behavior entails taking personal initiative as a way to correct own deficiencies, for instance through training or self-development [ 1].

As prior research demonstrated, both types of proactive organizational behaviors predicted a wide range of positive work-related outcomes, including employee well-being, perception of meaningfulness at work, work engagement, and job performance [ 1, 2]. However, their relations with personality antecedents are less studied. To date, strengths use and deficit correction behaviors were found to be positively predicted by socially desirable, bright-side individual difference variables, such as proactive personality [ 1], self-efficacy, psychological capital [ 3], and core self-evaluations [ 4]. In turn, the relationships between strengths use and deficit correction and dark personality traits have not yet been examined, despite the well-established, negative associations between socially aversive dispositional constructs and positive organizational behaviors [ 5- 7]. Moreover, it is little known whether some personality traits traditionally termed as "dark", but demonstrating some brighter sides, such as narcissism [ 8], might positively predict strengths use and/or deficit correction in the workplace. Indeed, grandiose narcissism, which is widely studied in the organizational context and demonstrated linkages with various behavioral organizational outcomes [ 9], seems to be particularly important in predicting strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace due to accompanying it tendency to enhance self-image through engaging in positive organizational behaviors [ 10]. In contrast, as previous research on narcissism, treated as a heterogeneous personality construct, encompassing both grandiosity and vulnerability, and positive organizational behaviors is limited [ 9, 11- 13], the associations between vulnerable expression of narcissism and strengths use and deficit correction seems more unclear and needs additional studies. Therefore, the present study investigated how two major forms of narcissism (i.e., grandiose and vulnerable narcissism) are related to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace to address these issues, understudied in the literature. In addition, to further extend the nomological network of strengths use and deficit correction at work, the motivational foundations of these organizational behaviors in terms of regulatory focus at work were also examined. In particular, considering the motivational sources of strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace [ 1, 14] and the role of general regulatory focus in predicting different behavioral outcomes of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism outside the organizational sphere [ 15, 16], the incremental validity of regulatory focus at work over grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in predicting strengths use and deficit correction was tested.

Theoretical background

Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism.

Narcissism is a personality construct rooted in clinical psychology, which successfully penetrated into the subclinical sphere [ 17, 18]. As a result, in the social-personality and organizational literature, it is generally treated as a continuous variable (a dimensional personality trait) and studied in nonclinical populations, including working adults [ 9, 19]. In most of these studies, the term narcissism is identified with its grandiose form [ 20], albeit narcissism, considered as a trait, is recognized as a complex, multidimensional construct on a theoretical level [ 21, 22].

Reflecting the heterogeneity of the construct, its two main expressions or forms might be distinguished, i.e., grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. In general, grandiose narcissism is mainly characterized by exhibitionism, self-confidence, sense of superiority, dominance, aggression, and social exploitativeness. In turn, vulnerable narcissism is marked by self-inhibition, defensiveness, feeling of inadequacy, anxiety, and negative affect [ 23- 26]. Both dimensions of narcissism share some key characteristics of the construct, among which interpersonal antagonism, entitlement, self-importance, egocentrism, and social selfishness are most often indicated [ 8, 21, 22, 27]. However, they simultaneously display significant differences in many areas (including their etiology, the self-regulatory mechanisms utilized, and the tendency to be studied in various populations) and have distinct nomological networks [ 22, 25, 22, 28].

In organizational science, the distinction between grandiose and vulnerable narcissism has been rarely applied, as most studies on narcissism in the work domain examine its grandiose variant [ 9]. Within these studies, grandiose narcissism is traditionally depicted as a part of the dark-side spectrum of personality in the workplace [ 7]. As a result of recognizing grandiose narcissism as a prototypical dark personality trait, most previous research on narcissism in the organizational context has sought to identify its negative consequences for the organization itself or for other people in the organization, including a wide range of undesirable, socially maladaptive work-related behaviors and attitudes [ 29- 34]. However, despite the prevalence of studies emphasizing the negative role of narcissism in the workplace, organizational researchers have recently tried to adopt a more nuanced perspective on narcissism in the organizational context. Similarly to the social-personality perspective on narcissism, they tend to describe narcissism in its grandiose form as a "mixed blessing" or "trade-off" [ 19, 24], stressing not only its negative consequences, but also indicating potential adaptability in the work environment by bringing also some positive implications for the individual and the organization [ 35- 39]. In contrast to the grandiose variant of narcissism, vulnerable narcissism, mainly due to accompanying it increased levels of psychological distress and negative emotionality [ 25], appears to have less advantageous behavioral and attitudinal manifestations in work settings, including higher emotional exhaustion and lower work engagement [ 11]. However, single empirical evidence suggests that vulnerable narcissism might also lead to some less detrimental consequences in the organizational context, such as being less prone to gain social attention and boost ego by telling others about own helping behaviors at work [ 12].

To sum up, although previous studies bring some interesting results in the context of searching for negative and potentially beneficial behavioral consequences of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in the work environment, this area of organizational research seems still understudied. Therefore, the present study aims to fill this gap in the organizational literature by adopting the above-mentioned prominent perspectives utilized in the studies on narcissism in nonclinical populations. Firstly, in response to the call [ 9, 11, 29] to address the heterogeneity of narcissism in the studies of the latter in organizational settings, two major forms of narcissism (i.e., grandiose and vulnerable) were included to highlight their unique associations with distinct positive work outcomes. Moreover, in line with the research trend focused on investigating the potentially advantageous aspects of the dark-side personality traits [ 6, 40], it was examined how both variants of narcissism are related to the constructs derived from the positive organizational scholarship, such as strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in relation to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

Based on the theoretical and empirical underpinnings, in particular grandiose narcissism was expected to be positively associated with strengths use and deficit correction at work. Theoretically, in terms of the extended agency model of narcissism [ 41], strengths use and deficit correction behaviors seem to represent self-regulatory strategies used by those high in grandiose narcissism in the workplace in order to manifest and maintain positive, inflated self-beliefs in agentic domains, which-in turn-generate positive feelings about themselves and their abilities. Similarly, as according to the narcissism spectrum model [ 21], narcissistic grandiosity manifests itself in a bold, exhibitionistic self-regulatory style marked by a self-confident pursuit of agentic goals, such as status, power, and admiration, focusing on using personal strengths and diminishing weaknesses seems to help attain these goals by demonstrating own competence and creating a positive social image among other people in the organization. As a result, those high in grandiose narcissism might apply strengths use and deficit correction both as a way to boost their own positive, inflated self-view by demonstrating that they are the best at their work and-similarly to others forms of positive work behaviors [ 10]-as an impression management strategy aimed to facilitate their career development in the organization. In addition, their approach orientation and the general pursuit of rewards [ 21] might lead to finding more opportunities to use strengths and to correct deficits in the workplace. For example, those high in grandiose narcissism might more actively search for professional challenges enabling them to demonstrate their own strong points or participate in additional training and mentoring to show their ability to overcome weaknesses. Prior empirical investigations seem to partially support the assumption that grandiose narcissism might serve as a positive predictor of strengths use and deficit correction at work. In particular, grandiose narcissism was found to be related to proactive organizational behaviors in the form of voice and taking charge [ 42], subjective career success, engagement in proactive career behaviors and self-reported occupational efficacy [ 37], suggesting that individuals high in grandiose narcissism are career-oriented, convinced about their high abilities in the vocational sphere, and tend to gain recognition and status in the workplace through different active organizational behaviors.

In contrast, the relations between vulnerable narcissism and strengths use and deficit correction might exhibit different patterns. As vulnerable narcissism manifests itself in reactive orientation linked to avoidance and sensitivity to punishment rather than rewards on the theoretical level [ 21], it is plausible that in the work setting individuals high in this personality trait would be focused mainly on combating potential threats and obstacles inhibiting career development. Therefore, they might be prone to take action to improve their own deficiencies in the work domain to a greater extent resulting in higher levels of deficit correction. Simultaneously, such employees could be uninterested in actively searching for new vocational opportunities enabling them to use their individual strengths in the workplace. Furthermore, as previous research on narcissism in the workplace showed, individuals with higher vulnerable narcissism are less likely to publicly show off their past positive organizational behaviors [ 12], which might also translate into decreased strengths use motivated by self-serving, impression management purposes.

Regulatory focus at work.

In organizational research, the regulatory focus theory (RFT) [ 43, 44] has gained increased attention in the last two decades as a theoretical framework used to describe self-regulatory mechanisms in the workplace [ 45- 47]. In general, RFT posits two independent, orthogonal self-regulatory or motivational systems, which enable the individual to fulfill different survival needs in the course of goal pursuit: promotion focus and prevention focus. Promotion focus serves growth and development needs, as those high in promotion focus are oriented to desired end-states (aspirations and accomplishments) aligned with their ideal selves. Conversely, prevention focus is derived from security and safety needs, and high prevention-focused people tend to avoid incongruities with the desired end-states, acting in accordance with their ought selves in the pursuit of fulfilling duties and responsibilities [ 45, 48, 49]. At the behavioral level, both regulatory foci display divergent manifestations in various life domains. For instance, promotion focus is expressed in taking into account different alternatives and openness to change, whereas prevention focus manifests itself in meticulously verifying all available options, accepting rules and maintaining the status quo [ 50].

In the organizational context, both self-regulatory strategies have distinct nomological networks with different antecedents and work-related outcomes [ 46, 49]. Meta-analytic research by Gorman and colleagues [ 46] has shown that promotion focus is positively associated with bright-side dispositional variables and positive work attitudes and behaviors. In contrast, prevention focus is linked to negatively evaluated individual difference variables and bring negative consequences in the workplace. Further studies showed a more complex view of the relationships between regulatory foci and workplace outcomes, indicating the importance of both self-regulatory strategies in the organizational context [ 45, 47], as prevention focus demonstrated positive relations with positive organizational behaviors, stemming from the tendency to avoid potential errors and costs in the workplace [ 49, 51- 54]. In line with this approach, in the present study, promotion and prevention foci were treated as complementary motivational orientations that might lead to positive workplace outcomes, such as strengths use and deficit correction.

Regulatory focus at work in relation to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

To date, the relationships between promotion and prevention focus and strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace have not been investigated. However, previous empirical evidence indicates that both regulatory foci affect different forms of proactive behavior in the work environment. In particular, Petrou and Demerouti [ 55], in the study on motivational foundations of job crafting, found that promotion focus had a positive relation with expansive job crafting in terms of seeking resources and challenges, whereas prevention focus was positively related to job crafting manifested in self-protection through reducing demands. Similarly, Waterwall [ 56] recently found positive relations between work promotion focus and taking charge, and between work prevention focus and problem prevention. In accordance with these results, given the conceptual underpinnings of the RFT, it was expected that both regulatory foci would exhibit positive associations with the positive organizational behaviors in the form of strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

Given that promotion-focused individuals are growth-oriented and concentrated on accomplishments, aspirations, and rewards, tend to meet maximal standards of performance, and approach the realization of their ideals through goal pursuit [ 44, 49], they seem to be more prone to focus on their strong points in the workplace which could be seen by them as an opportunity to achieve positive work outcomes. Thus, promotion focus might manifest itself in the workplace in behaviors aimed at using strengths in organizational settings to a greater extent when striving to fulfill vocational aspirations. Simultaneously, those who are promotion-focused could tend to improve their deficits, inhibiting them from achieving the highest possible results in the workplace. Consequently, they are likely to engage in activities such as overcoming personal weaknesses, which could help them to achieve high standards of performance.

In turn, prevention-focused employees are security-oriented, focused on duties, obligations, and responsibilities, and tend to prevent mistakes and avoid negative outcomes [ 44, 47, 49]. As a result, they might, in particular, engage in deficit correction behavior in the workplace as a way to secure meeting the minimally accepted standards of performance and avert undesirable results when performing in-role tasks. However, they might also try to emphasize their own abilities and draw the attention of others to the areas in which they feel competent, represented by their strong points. Consequently, they could treat strengths use as a more secure behavioral strategy and engage in it more frequently.

The current study.

Taking into account the above conceptual and empirical considerations, the goal of the present study was twofold. Firstly, this study aimed to examine how grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and work-specific promotion and prevention focus would be related to strength use and deficit correction in the organizational context. Accordingly, the following hypotheses were formulated: (H1) grandiose narcissism would be positively related to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, (H2) vulnerable narcissism would be negatively related to strengths use and positively to deficit correction, (H3) promotion and prevention focus would be positively related to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. Secondly, when predicting strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, the current study investigated the incremental predictive validity of regulatory focus at work above and beyond two forms of narcissism.

It is also worth noting that in line with the distal-proximal conceptual framework of regulatory focus at work, which indicates that work-specific regulatory focus better predicts work-related outcomes than general regulatory focus [ 49], the construct of work-specific regulatory focus was utilized in the present study. In addition, similarly to previous studies on narcissism and regulatory focus [ 15, 16] and the majority of studies on regulatory focus in the workplace describing it in terms of moderately stable, chronic disposition reflecting individual differences in employees' needs and values [ 47, 49, 57, 58], regulatory focus at work was treated as a trait-like (dispositional) variable. It was expected that such an approach would help highlight the relationships between regulatory foci and positive work outcomes in the form of strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

Materials and methods

Participants and procedure

The current research procedure was approved by the local institutional review board (decision No. KEUS.69/01.2021 of the Ethics Committee of the University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland). All participants completed written informed consent before starting the study.

The survey was preceded by an a priori power analysis performed using the G*Power 3.1.9.4 software [ 59]. Its results showed that the minimum sample size of 160 individuals was required for the multiple linear regression model with 8 predictors to ensure an error probability of .05, the statistical power of .95, and medium effect size of .15.

The hypotheses were tested on a sample from the general population collected through a web-based survey. To ensure the sample's representativeness, the study was conducted via an online questionnaire placed on the Polish national research panel ( https://www.badanie-opinii.pl/). Research data were collected using the CAWI (computer-assisted web interviewing) methodology between 2 and 4 April 2021. Stratified sampling was applied in order to obtain a representative sample in terms of age and gender from the Polish population of working adults. The individuals registered on the research panel received an invitation to participate in the study on psychological determinants of strengths use in the workplace through e-mail or PUSH notification on their mobile phones. The study was anonymous and voluntary, and those who completed the online research questionnaire received bonus points as compensation for their participation in the study, added to their individual accounts on the research panel; after exceeding the set limit, they could be exchanged into money.

In order to provide high-quality data, the questionnaire started with a short introduction explaining the purpose of the study, stressing its anonymous and voluntary nature, and indicating the practical utility of the obtained results for future strength-based interventions in the organizational context. The participants were also asked to carefully read each question and were informed that there were no wrong or right answers in the study, and only responses reflecting their true feelings or opinions were valuable. Then, they gave informed consent, provided sociodemographic data, and filled in a set of self-reported questionnaires. Of 450 respondents, who completed the survey in a fixed time period and answered to the control questions correctly, one person was excluded due to invalid data (i.e., providing the same answers for different items in each questionnaire). In addition, three influential outliners, identified on the basis of values of Cook`s distance measure, centered leverage values and the Mahalanobis distance measure, were removed from the further analyses.

The final sample was composed of 446 participants, including 251 (56.3%) men and 195 (43.7%) women with age ranging from 18 to 64 (M = 40.24; SD = .60). With regard to education, the majority of respondents had secondary (46.6%, n = 208) or higher (42.6%, n = 190) education, followed by 9.2% (n = 41) with vocational education and 1.6% (n = 7) with elementary education. On average, the participants spent 38.67 hours (SD = .43) working per week, and their organizational tenure varied from less than a year to 48 years (M = 9.10; SD = .40). Most of them were only performing their professional work (88.3%, n = 394), while 9.4% (n = 43) were studying and working, and 2.2.% (n = 10) were retired and working. In terms of the form of employment, employees working under an employment contract for an unspecified (72.2%, n = 322) or a specified (13.9%, n = 69) period predominated, whereas 9.2% (n = 41) were working under a civil law contract of employment, and the remaining 4.7% (n = 21) declared working under other forms of employment. The respondents were working in different organizations varying in size. With regard to the number of employees working for the organization, 28.7% (n = 128) of the respondents were working in large enterprises (having more than 250 employees), 27.8% (n = 124) in medium-sized enterprises (having up to 250 employees), 23.8% (n = 106) in small enterprises (with up to 50 employees), and 19.7% (n = 88) in micro-enterprises (having up to 10 employees). The dataset used in this study is publicly available at the OSF data repository: https://osf.io/nk6a5/.

Measures

Grandiose narcissism.

To measure grandiose narcissism, the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) was used [ 60, 61]. The Polish validated version of the scale includes 34 items with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 -"it's not me" to 5 -"it's me". Exemplary items are: "I have a natural talent for influencing people" and "I will be a success". The Polish version of the scale demonstrated good psychometric properties both in the adaptation study [ 60] and in the previous studies on grandiose narcissism in a nonclinical population [ 20, 62]. In the present study, Cronbach`s alpha was .94.

Vulnerable narcissism.

To assess vulnerable narcissism, the Polish version of the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS) was applied [ 63, 64]. The scale comprises 10 items with a 5-point response format from 1 ("strongly agree") to 5 ("strongly disagree"). The sample item is "My feelings are easily hurt by ridicule or the slighting remarks of others." Cronbach's alpha for the scale was .75.

Strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

To measure strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, two 6-item subscales form the Strengths Use and Deficit COrrection (SUDCO) questionnaire were used [ 1]. Participants responded using a 7-point Likert scale from 0 (never) to 6 (almost always). Sample items include: "In my job, I make the most of my strong points" (for strengths use behavior) and "I engage in activities to develop my weak points at work" (for deficit correction behavior). The full instrument, including also the two additional scales (i.e., perceived organizational support for strengths use and perceived organizational support for deficit correction), was translated from English into Polish using the procedure of back-translation. Firstly, three independent forward translations were developed by the three Polish native speakers fluent in English, of whom one was a researcher specializing in work and organizational psychology, and the two others were professional translators, knowing the concept of strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace and the accompanying terminology. Then, the panel of experts, including four work and organizational psychologists (among them the first forward translator), reconciled the final version of the forward translation. In the next step, based on this version of the scale, the independent back translation was carried out by the next professional translator. The comparison of the back-translated scale with the original instrument showed that both versions of the measure are linguistically equivalent. A subsequent principal component analysis conducted for two subscales (i.e., strengths use and deficit correction) indicated two factors, reflecting respectively strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, which cumulatively accounted for 71.27% of the total variance in the data. The initial eigenvalues amounted to 7.32 for the first factor, and 1.23 for the second factor. The parallel analysis with the oblimin rotation, which was subsequently carried out in Jasp 0.14.1.0. software, confirmed the two-factor solution with both factors after rotation accounting for 66% of the total variance (including 37% for the first factor, and 29% for the second factor). The corrected item-total correlations were satisfactory, ranging from 0.64 to 0.8. Cronbach's alpha for strengths use behavior was .94, and for deficit correction behavior .89, indicating very good reliability.

Regulatory focus in the workplace.

The Polish validated version of the Work Regulatory Focus (WRF) Scale was applied to measure work-specific regulatory focus [ 65, 66]. The scale consists of 18 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The items are grouped into two subscales, reflecting prevention and promotion focus at work, respectively. Example items included "I concentrate on completing my work tasks correctly to increase my job security" (for prevention focus) and "I tend to take risks at work in order to achieve success" (for promotion focus). Cronbach's alpha for prevention focus was .88, and for promotion focus .82.

Controls

Following previous studies on narcissism in the organizational context [ 11, 32, 67, 68] and strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace [ 3, 69], age (in years), gender (1 = female, 2 = male), and organizational tenure (in years) were included as control variables. In addition to controlling for the sociodemographic characteristics of participants, given that perceived workload might affect strengths use [ 70], this job stressor was also incorporated in the present study as a control variable. Workload was assessed by the 5-item Quantitative Workload Inventory (QWI) [ 71, 72], which is a 5-item instrument developed to measure amount of work. Participants assessed questions referring to perceived quantitative workload (e.g., "How often does your job leave you with little time to get things done?") on a 5-point Likert-type frequency response scale, ranging from 1 ("less than once per month or never") to 5 ("several times per day").

Statistical analyses

All analyses were performed using the SPSS Statistics package (version 25.0). Firstly, descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations were calculated. To test the hypotheses concerning the direct effects, correlational and multiple hierarchical linear regression analyses were performed.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations (Pearson) for all the variables are presented in Table 1.

The results of correlation analysis provided some initial support for hypotheses H1 and H3. There are several significant intercorrelations among the study variables, whose magnitude ranges from small to moderate. As predicted, grandiose narcissism was positively and significantly correlated with strengths use and deficit correction behaviors, but the magnitude of correlations was small. In turn, vulnerable narcissism was not significantly associated with strengths use and deficit correction at the workplace. In line with the expectations, both promotion and prevention foci were moderately positively associated with strengths use and deficit correction. Finally, promotion focus was moderately positively correlated with grandiose, and weakly positively with vulnerable narcissism, while prevention focus was weakly positively correlated with grandiose narcissism.

Hierarchical regression analyses

Subsequently, two separate three-step hierarchical regression analyses were carried out with strengths use and deficit correction as outcome variables. Control variables (age, gender, organizational tenure, and workload) were entered into the regression models in the first step, grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in the second step, and promotion and prevention focus in the third step. The results of the regression analyses are presented in Table 2.

For strengths use, the first step with sociodemographic factors and workload entered as control variables were nonsignificant. When the personality variables were included in the regression equation, the regression model became significant. In this model, grandiose narcissism emerged as the only significant predictor of strengths use, explaining a small but significant 5% of additional variance in strengths use. Including regulatory foci in the third step significantly improved the model, accounting for an additional 26% of the unique variance in strength use, and gender, promotion and prevention foci were found as the only significant predictors of strengths use.

For deficit correction, all three steps were significant. In the first step, workload positively predicted deficit correction, accounting for a small, but significant 2% of variance in deficit correction. Results for the second step showed that workload remained a positive predictor of deficit correction, and narcissism was found as a new positive predictor, accounting for an additional 7% of the variance. After the inclusion of regulatory foci in the third step, workload and grandiose narcissism became insignificant. In the final model, only promotion and prevention foci were significant positive predictors, explaining an additional 23% of variance in deficit correction.

In general, results of hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that only the grandiose form of narcissism significantly positively predicted strengths use and deficit correction, thus fully supporting H1. In contrast, as vulnerable narcissism did not exhibit significant associations with strengths use and deficit correction, H2 was not confirmed. In turn, H3 was fully supported, as both promotion and prevention foci were positively associated with strengths use and deficit correction. The findings also exhibited the incremental predictive validity of regulatory foci of personality traits in the form of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in relation to the strengths use and deficit correction behaviors. The positive effects of narcissism on both strengths use and deficit correction became nonsignificant after entering two forms of regulatory foci into the regression models, suggesting the mediation role of promotion and prevention focus on the relationship between grandiose narcissism and strengths use and deficit correction.

Discussion

Narcissistic personality has aroused a lot of interest among organizational researchers in the last two decades, mainly due to its negative consequences at the individual, team, and organizational levels [ 9, 29, 73]. However, a vast majority of prior studies focused on grandiose narcissism, paying little attention to its vulnerable counterpart. Moreover, there is relatively little research in the organizational literature on the potentially adaptive aspects of narcissism in the workplace. The current study aims at extending this research perspective by investigating how two major forms of narcissism (i.e., grandiose and vulnerable) are associated with positive organizational behaviors represented by strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. In addition, to broaden the research perspective on individual difference predictors of strengths use and deficit correction, both types of these proactive behaviors at work were examined in relation to motivational orientation in terms of promotion and prevention focus at work. Finally, it was tested whether work-specific regulatory foci predict strengths use and deficit correction behaviors at work over grandiose and vulnerable narcissism.

Supporting the first hypothesis, the results showed that grandiose narcissism was positively associated with both strengths use and deficit correction at work. These findings are in line with previous empirical evidence, demonstrating that grandiose narcissism positively predicted proactive behaviors at work [ 42]. It is possible that increased levels of self-reported proactive work behaviors among those high in grandiose narcissism might stem from their careerist orientation. Thus, striving for status and power in organizations, they might try to excel in agentic domains by exhibiting strengths use and deficit correction behaviors. Alternatively, such employees are likely to emphasize individual strengths and make additional efforts aimed at diminishing own weaknesses to achieve the impression-management purposes or to nurture grandiose self-view.

Contrary to the predictions, vulnerable narcissism was, in turn, unrelated to strengths use and deficit correction. These results might be explained with regard to behavioral inhibition accompanying narcissistic vulnerability [ 21]. Highly neurotic, anxiety-driven and shy individuals with high levels of vulnerable narcissism [ 21, 23] are likely to monitor the work environment searching for potential threats and simultaneously tend to ignore the opportunities to develop own potential through strengths use and deficit correction. As a result, to avoid potential embarrassment or negative evaluation by others at work, they might display the behavioral tendency to passively react to organizational factors rather than take personal initiative in the organization.

The results of this study also indicated that self-regulatory processes play an important role in explaining strengths use and deficit correction behaviors in the workplace, as both types of the analyzed positive work behaviors were positively predicted by work regulatory foci. However, promotion and prevention foci differed in their relationships with strengths use and deficit correction, suggesting that both proactive organizational behaviors might have distinct motivational sources. More specifically, prevention focus was the stronger predictor of strengths use than prevention focus. The inverse pattern of relationships was observed when predicting deficit correction, with prevention focus emerging as the strongest predictor. In addition, as hierarchical regression analyses revealed, promotion and prevention foci predicted strengths use and deficit correction behaviors beyond and above narcissistic grandiosity and vulnerability. More importantly, in predicting promotion strengths use and deficit correction, grandiose narcissism became insignificant after entering them in the regression models in the last step of hierarchical regression analyses. These results suggest that regulatory foci might pose a self-regulatory mechanism underlying strengths use and deficit correction among people with elevated grandiose narcissism. However, in line with the recommendations of Maxwell et al. [ 74], as the present study relied on a cross-sectional design, to avoid biased results, the mediation effect of regulatory foci on the relationships between grandiose narcissism and two forms of proactive behaviors at work was not tested.

Several strengths of the present study could be delineated. Firstly, this study offers a broader research perspective on organizational narcissism by including its two primary variants, namely grandiose and vulnerable narcissism. Thanks to going beyond the dominant trend in organizational science identifying narcissism only with its grandiose form, the present study might help to better elucidate the differences in behavioral manifestations of distinct expressions of narcissism in the working environment. Moreover, the current study contributes to the organizational literature by utilizing the strength-based approach arising from positive psychology to study narcissism in the work domain. By taking into account the constructs of strengths use and deficit correction, which originate from positive organizational scholarship and are considered as representing positive organizational behaviors, this study highlighted the potentially beneficial, bright-side aspects of narcissism at work. Another strength of this study is the use of data from a representative sample of Polish employees.

Besides bringing the above-mentioned theoretical contributions, the present study offers some practical implications. In particular, examining the motivational foundations of strengths use and deficit correction might help to determine how to encourage employees to engage in positive, pro-organizational behaviors. These findings can be of particular importance for managers and organizational practitioners, planning and introducing positive interventions in organizations. More specifically, the results of this study suggest that future positive psychology interventions at work could benefit from taking into account the motivational factors affecting strengths use and deficit correction among organization members.

Limitations and future directions

Although this study extends previous literature on narcissism in the organizational context on the one hand, and on strengths use and deficit correction at work on the other, it also has some limitations that warrant discussion. First, the obtained results were based on a single cross-sectional study. As the present study investigates the understudied phenomena in the organizational context, mainly by concentrating on how grandiose and vulnerable narcissism differ in their relationships of with strengths use and deficit correction at work, it was primarily designed to emphasize these differences in the correlation patterns for both expressions of narcissism, and to ascertain the basic relationships between the study variables which have not been examined earlier. Therefore, given the first research phase on the relationships between the study variables, the cross-sectional study design was chosen. However, the replication study using different methods and sources of data and examining the boundary conditions is needed in the future. The reliance on cross-sectional data in the present study prevents from drawing firm conclusions concerning causality. Thus, to better understand how strength use and deficit correction behaviors shape and change over time among those high in narcissism, it is worth to apply a longitudinal study design in the future. As applying the cross-sectional study design excludes the possibility to ascertain the indirect effects [ 74], collecting the data in two waves in subsequent studies would also help to determine if regulatory foci at work mediate the relationships between grandiose narcissism and strengths use and deficit correction. Furthermore, the exclusive usage of self-report measures might result in a common method bias. To minimalize this concern, the study was designed in such a way as to maximize the participants' motivation to respond accurately and to reduce task difficulty [ 75]. For instance, a clear invitation and instruction emphasizing the practical implications and the anonymity of the survey were developed, measures with different response rates were used, and the survey was conducted online to guarantee anonymity for the respondents. However, future research should include more objective organizational criteria (e.g., performance appraisals) or external measures of strengths use and deficit correction at work (e.g., manager- or coworker-ratings) to delineate better the extent of strengths use and deficit correction behaviors. Another possible limitation of this study is that the self-reported levels of strengths use and deficit correction seem to be particularly susceptible to the social desirability bias, in particular in the case of employees high in grandiose narcissism. As grandiose narcissism-especially combined with power-manifests itself in overconfidence [ 76], highly narcissistic individuals and employees might overestimate their strong points and belittle weaknesses. To avoid overreporting strengths use and underreporting deficit correction by those high in narcissism, subsequent studies should include behavioral measures or other-ratings of these two types of positive organizational behaviors. Alternatively, to ensure greater objectivity of the results, the external job performance indicators could be utilized in the future.

An additional limitation stems from the research period, which might have affected the results concerning the declared strengths use and deficit correction. The present research was carried out during the third wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland in April 2021. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic is considered in the work and organizational literature as a career shock, which had significant short- and long-term consequences for individuals' work and careers, mainly by generating higher job insecurity [ 77]. As a result, due to the predominance of contextual factors in the vocational sphere during the COVID-19 crisis, employees-regardless of their level of narcissism-might be more motivated to utilize their own strengths and reduce deficits in order to keep their jobs. Thus, to resolve this doubt, it is worth replicating the findings in a subsequent period after the end of the pandemic.

There are several other possible directions of future research on narcissism within the strengths and weaknesses framework. In particular, as those high in grandiose narcissism are career-oriented and focused on self-promotion [ 9, 22], they might overuse their strengths in the workplace, leading to the so-called effect of "too much of a good thing", used to identify the upper limit of beneficial strengths use [ 78]. Given that both the overuse and underuse of character strengths bring negative consequences for the organization and are considered to reflect psychopathology by some researchers [ 78, 79], future work should distinguish between distinct aspects of strengths use, treated as a continuous variable, such as the overuse, underuse, and optimal use of strengths. Furthermore, to provide a more complex picture of strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace among individuals high in narcissism and other socially aversive personality traits, subsequent studies need to examine which specific character strengths and to what extent are used by different dark personalities. Another potential avenue of future research includes investigating the role of situational cues (mainly organizational factors) and of situational regulatory focus on the relationships between narcissism and strengths use and deficit behaviors. Finally, given that strengths use may fluctuate and change depending on the contextual variables [ 80], further studies should apply a diary study or experience sampling method to better understand the dynamic of strengths use and deficit correction in those high in narcissism. Such an approach might help to identify the organizational factors that contribute to activating their proactivity in the workplace.

Conclusion

In summary, the present research incorporated the strength-based approach in the study on narcissism in the organizational context. Its results demonstrated that grandiose and vulnerable narcissism differ in their relationships with strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace. In particular, only grandiose narcissism predicted strengths use and deficit correction, which suggests that employees high in grandiose narcissism might use these two types of positive organizational behaviors to enhance a positive self-view in the working environment. In contrast, vulnerable narcissism was unrelated to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace, suggesting that this expression of narcissism manifests in more inhibited behaviors in the workplace. With regard to regulatory foci at work, both promotion and prevention focus positively predicted strengths use and deficit correction at work. In addition, hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that work-specific regulatory foci accounted for an additional variance above and beyond grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in predicting strengths use and deficit correction. These findings imply that motivational factors might play a decisional role in positive organizational interventions directed towards enhancing proactivity among employees.

References

1. 27. Weiss B, Miller JD. Distinguishing Between Grandiose Narcissism, Vulnerable Narcissism, and Narcissistic Personality Disorder. In: Hermann A, Brunell A, Foster J, editors. Handbook of Trait Narcissism. Springer, Cham; 2018, pp. 3-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_1

2. 41. Campbell WK, Foster JD. The narcissistic self: Background, an extended agency model, and ongoing controversies. In: Sedikides C, Spencer SJ, editors. The self. New York, NY: Psychology Press; 2007. pp. 115-138.

3. 50. Scholer AA, Cornwell JFM, Higgins ET. (2019). Regulatory focus theory and research: Catching up and looking forward after 20 years. In: Ryan RM, editor. 2nd ed. The Oxford handbook of human motivation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2019. pp. 47-66.

4. 60. Raskin R, Terry H. A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1988; 54(5): 890-902. pmid:3379585

5. 61. Bazińska R, Drat-Ruszczak K. The structure of narcissism in the Polish adaptation of Ruskin's and Hall's NPI questionnaire. Psychological Journal. 2000; 6: 171-188.

6. 66. Roczniewska M, Retowski S, Osowiecka M, Wrońska M, Słomska I. Work Regulatory Focus Scale-Polish adaptation. Polish Journal of Applied Psychology. 2013; 12(2): 115-136.

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Grandiose and vulnerable narcissism and regulatory focus at work in relation to strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace

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Extant research has shown that grandiose narcissism predicts a wide range of work-related outcomes. However, despite differentiating in the social-personality literature besides grandiose narcissism also its vulnerable form, there is little organizational research that would include both expressions of narcissism, in particular with regard to positive organizational behaviors, including strengths use and deficit correction in the workplace.

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https://www.choosingtherapy.com/grandiose-narcissism/

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https://www.healthline.com/health/narcissistic-personality-disorder

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Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a personality disorder in which people have an inflated opinion of themselves. They also have an intense need for the admiration and attention of others.

People with NPD may be generally unhappy and disappointed when they're not given the praise or special favors they believe they deserve. Others may see them as snobbish and conceited, and may not enjoy being around them.

NPD can cause problems in many areas of life, including:

However, the disorder can be managed with talk therapy and certain lifestyle improvements.

People with NPD are usually described as being the following:

They often have high self-esteem and may believe they are superior or special compared to other people. However, they seem to need excessive praise and admiration, and they may react poorly to perceived criticism.

Narcissists also tend to exaggerate their own talents and accomplishments, while downplaying those of others. They are usually preoccupied by power, success, and beauty. They might even engage in impulsive behaviors, such as risky sex and gambling.

Some traits of NPD may appear similar to confidence. However, healthy confidence and NPD aren't the same thing.

People who have healthy self-esteem are usually humble, while people with NPD almost never are. They tend to put themselves on a pedestal and perceive themselves as better than everyone else.

NPD usually appears in early adulthood. People with the disorder may not recognize that they have a problem since it goes against their self-image. You may have NPD if:

you come across as pretentious and boastful, causing others to avoid you

your relationships are unfulfilling

you become unhappy, angry, and confused when things don't go your way

If you believe you have NPD, schedule an appointment with your doctor or a mental health professional. They can determine whether you have this personality disorder and suggest treatments to help manage symptoms.

Doctors and mental health professionals often use the new edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association, to diagnose mental disorders, such as NPD. The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for NPD include the following traits:

having an inflated sense of self-importance and entitlement

needing constant admiration and praise

expecting special treatment due to perceived superiority

exaggerating achievements and talents

reacting negatively to criticism

being preoccupied with fantasies about power, success, and beauty

taking advantage of others

having an inability or unwillingness to recognize the needs and feelings of other people

behaving in an arrogant manner

To determine whether you meet these criteria, your doctor or mental health professional may ask you to fill out a questionnaire. You may also be tested for other mental disorders and health conditions.

The causes of NPD aren't well understood. However, inherited genetic defects are thought to be responsible for many cases of NPD. Contributing environmental factors may include:

childhood abuse or neglect

excessive parental pampering

unrealistic expectations from parents

sexual promiscuity (often accompanies narcissism)

cultural influences

Treatment for NPD primarily consists of talk therapy, also known as psychotherapy. If symptoms of NPD occur alongside depression or another mental health condition, then appropriate medications may be used to treat the other disorder. However, there are no medications to treat NPD.

Talk therapy can help you learn how to relate better to others so your relationships can become more enjoyable, intimate, and rewarding. Developing positive interactions with other people can greatly improve various areas of your life. Talk therapy can also show you how to:

improve your collaboration with co-workers and peers

maintain your personal relationships

recognize your strengths and potential so you can tolerate criticisms or failures

understand and manage your feelings

cope with any self-esteem issues

set realistic goals for yourself

Since personality traits can be difficult to change, it may take several years of therapy before you see an improvement. During this time, you may begin to see therapy as a waste of time and be tempted to quit. However, it's important to stick with treatment. You can connect to a physician in your area using the Healthline FindCare tool.

Attend all your therapy sessions and take any medications as directed. With time, you'll begin to see a difference in yourself and your relationships with others.

The following lifestyle remedies may help you as you go through therapy.

Avoid alcohol, drugs, and other substances that trigger negative behaviors.

Exercise at least three times per week to help boost mood.

Engage in relaxation techniques, such as yoga and meditation, to reduce stress and anxiety.

Recovery from narcissistic personality disorder takes time. Stay motivated by keeping your recovery goals in mind and reminding yourself that you can work to repair damaged relationships to perhaps become more content with your life.

The benefits of treatment may vary depending on the severity of your symptoms and your willingness to commit to treatment.

In general, however, symptoms of NPD usually improve over time. If you stay motived and actively work toward change, you will likely be able to repair damaged relationships and become more satisfied with your everyday life.

While it can be challenging to treat narcissistic personality disorder, you can work through it. Seeing a therapist or psychologist for counseling can be very helpful, as can changing the way you think and interact with others every day.

Remember that you are in charge of your behavior, and you can change it at any time.

There is some debate among professionals about how to handle a person with narcissistic personality disorder. Feel free to praise them when they do something right or well.

Convey empathy when appropriate, and acknowledge when they're disappointed. Conversely, you should also feel free to point out to the person when they are acting haughty or rude.

Be prepared for arguments based on your "calling them out," but recall that if the individual with NPD does not realize that their behaviors are causing problems, they are less motivated to seek help.

Even if the person with NPD doesn't see the problem, or chooses not to seek therapy to modify their behavior, calling them out on their behavior may cause them to self-regulate their behavior in your presence, knowing that you won't put up with their behaviors.

Read this article in Spanish.

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Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a personality disorder in which people have an inflated opinion of themselves. They also have an intense need for the admiration and attention of others. People with NPD may be generally unhappy and disappointed when they're not given the praise or special favors they believe they deserve.

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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Narcissus-Greek-mythology

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https://www.thedrum.com/opinion/2020/02/12/narcissism-nightmare-how-brands-can-reach-the-selfie-consumer

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Narcissism appears to be on the rise in modern societies. It is present on all levels, leading some scientific researchers to refer to it as " socially toxic ". An ongoing study of narcissism by researchers at Queen's University Belfast has found that narcissists are likely to "engage in risky behaviour, hold an unrealistic, superior view of themselves, are overconfident, show little empathy for others, and have little shame or guilt".

Try selling something to people who think everything is all about them. Nothing in the world, not a single product, service or experience is ever totally perfect, so how can you ever hope to please them? And should you accidentally succeed in doing so, how can you ever hope to keep them happy enough to continue as loyal customers?

Brands struggle to follow them, mentally if not physically. Where traditional consumers could at least be handled as a sort of homogenous mass, today's consumers are like strands of quicksilver, slithering this way and that. The moment you think you understand them, the moment you start a campaign that you think will hit the spot - well, the day your campaign is launched you're likely to miss the mark because they are already obsessed with something else entirely. All it takes is a single new influencer blogger-vlogger type to swing people against a brand en masse, or convince them to go for a product that promises to make them shine more than anything on earth.

Unbelievable? Gwyneth Paltrow and her lifestyle platform Goop recently launched a candle called This Candle Smells Like My Vagina. The candle retails for $75 and sold out within an hour; there is currently a waiting list for new orders. Now there is a product that sums up what is happening inside people's heads around the world. A candle that reflects the smell of Ms Paltrow's vagina: how narcissistic can a product be?

Everyone's a narcissist sometimes

What makes matters much, much worse is it's not a "us vs them" story here. There is a narcissist in all of us. The way we have become accustomed to our current high standard of living - at least in the west - has spoiled us all to some extent. People have developed a huge sense of entitlement as a matter of course: to be treated like a royal in a shop, or to have the doctor in ER drop everything to have a look at that throbbing finger.

We have all come to think that everything is possible right now, or should be possible in the shortest possible time if not right away ("What, we've landed on Mars but you're telling me you can't deliver this washing machine tonight, mate?"). There are tens of millions of us behaving as if we were unique, and we feel the need to be treated accordingly. Yet the level of narcissism that informs so many consumer choices seems to have escaped the notice of many brands. They are still at the stage of "engaging," trying to find a bridge between their brand and products and their target audience.

The irony here is that this form of narcissism is also known as marketing narcissism. Which is the old-fashioned kind of marketing we all know so well: "talking about yourself." Self-centred positioning and propositions are still taking centre stage in many marketing communication endeavours, resulting in something that still radiates a "buy, buy, buy" attitude. Too many brands are still in love with themselves; not surprisingly, they run up against a wall of people who happen to love themselves even more.

Uniqueness is the word

The true narcissist is still something of a rarity. In general, typical narcissists think themselves better than others, want to impress and be the centre of attention. Using this broader definition of narcissism, around 20% of western consumers are considered narcissists, say Swiss researchers. Consumers in some Eastern cultures (eg urban China or Singapore), however, are rapidly catching up, according to Emanuel de Bellis and Andreas Herrmann from the University of St Gallen's Institute of Consumer Insights. In particular, they have been looking at how narcissism intersects with the expanding field of mass customisation.

Mass customisation is seen as one way to comply with the heightened feeling of "wanting to be unique" that is showing up in consumer behaviour. Buying something that is (sort of) unique or seen as unique by those around the buyer makes the narcissistic consumer feel good; it offers the opportunity to show off his uniqueness on social media, keeping intact his status as an interesting person or even expanding it.

Customisation is something businesses and brands will have to focus on even more in the near future. They will have to work hard on R&D to come up with products and services that are highly individualised and customised. There is a win-win in that: businesses will satisfy people's narcissistic urges while charging more for these products and services. In this way they will also build a reputation for being a business or brand that really and truly understands today's consumer.

Expression of self

Going after narcissist consumers is not easy, and that's an understatement. Supposedly, the obvious way to find them and reach out to them is through social media, or by tempting/engaging them with online content that somehow reflects their interests and lifestyle. It has led brands to spend trillions of dollars worldwide in the hunt for likes. The rationale behind online content development, online advertising and social media communication has generally been little more than that: the more likes we score, the more popular we become; the more traffic to our site, the more people visit our outlets; the more we sell, the more loyal those clients will become.

Sounds great, but as it happens, it hasn't worked out that way. Brand likeability takes more than just a superficial click on a thumb icon. The narcissist will not be touched by flattery alone. Today's narcissistic consumers know the difference between outright flattery and genuine interest in their precious egos and all that feeds them. Even knowing, as a brand, that the choices of your target audience are influenced by this narcissism in some way doesn't make it easier to develop communication that gets the job done.

As a brand you have to delve deeper inside the people you want to touch, otherwise how can you convince them to like, love or buy your brand? Those with a strong narcissistic streak are extremely susceptible to validation, so chances are the moment you help them embrace your brand message as a reflection of what they believe in, you will touch a nerve. Sharing it on social media will show they are indeed the special person they are (or feel themselves to be) and there's nothing they like better than that.

Coca-Cola created something exactly like this in China. The company offered bottles customised with the names or sentiments that customers wished to express. It worked with Sina Weibo, one of China's social media sites, to promote the bottles. The first day they came out with the promotion, Chinese consumers ordered 300 bottles per hour. Four days later, they were ordering 300 bottles per minute. Coca-Cola had succeeded in helping them express their unique feelings and convictions, which hit the spot more than anything designed merely to accumulate likes. The campaign reflected people's uniqueness and played to their feelings of being someone special.

Strong feelings to explore

Playing to the narcissistic traits of today's consumers requires you to take a good, hard look at the emotional content of, well, your content. It is about finding something that shows what your brand is about instead of telling what your brand is about. Starbucks once printed a poem about loneliness and connection by Augustus Burroughs on its cups. It struck a chord with a lot of Starbucks' customers and forged a deeper emotional connection with the brand. They could have just printed something on the order of "We are Starbucks" or some other derivative of the Starbucks mission. But that would never have had as much impact with people as "walking their talk." This was not about promoting the brand, it was about confirming the customer's choice to come into Starbucks and keep coming back to Starbucks.

"Right," I hear you saying, "but if a brand isn't allowed to talk about itself to build its name and image, how can it realise effective marketing strategies? Somehow, surely, you will have to inform people about what you have to offer, right? At some point, you will have to sell what you sell just to stay in business, won't you? Aren't we going overboard with all this touchy-feely stuff just because consumers are turning out to be narcissistic?"

No, you won't be going overboard by looking for ways to touch the narcissistic nerve in consumers. It also doesn't mean you'll have to sit down with a small army of psychologists to develop a creative marketing communication strategy. In fact, the way to go is not that much different from the intuitive way advertising creatives have always tried to appeal to people's egos. That our ego has started suffering from gigantism after the last decade of self-promotion is certain, but ego is still ego. It comes down to the question: How can we make people feel as special as they think they are? How can we help them, through our brand message or our products and experiences, express themselves to the outside world as the special people they want to be?

Invite them to become more influential by sharing their wisdom on a brand platform - this would play to their feeling of being smarter than others. Develop queue-jumping apps like Starbucks did, or Prime Priority Delivery like Amazon, or any other form of VIP service - this would play to their feeling of being superior to or more important than others. Or find a way to improve the pictures, videos or selfies they share on social media - this would play to their vanity and their need to stand out in a crowd.

It's about them, not you

Perhaps we have entered the most difficult age we have ever encountered in branding and advertising. As brand marketers, business leaders and communication professionals, it is ingrained in the very fibre of our being that brand advertising is about the brand being seen and heard. It informs people about itself, presents itself, shows itself, sends out messages about itself into the wide world in the most enticing way we can devise.

That stage is not yet completely behind us, but any brand marketer with common sense will have to acknowledge that here is a ballgame that will have to be played differently. The battle for attention has shifted inward, to the interior monologue of our audiences. It is no longer about making our brands look special in the world; it is about making our customers feel special in the world.
Erik Saelens is the founder and executive strategic director of Brandhome

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Narcissism nightmare: how brands can reach the selfie consumer

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Narcissism appears to be on the rise in modern societies. It is present on all levels, leading some scientific researchers to refer to it as "socially toxic". An ongoing study of narcissism by researchers at Queen's University Belfast has found that narcissists are likely to "engage in risky behaviour, hold an unrealistic, superior view of themselves, are overconfident, show little empathy for others, and have little shame or guilt".

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/4a57bdc5-cbb8-4d68-a58a-f4d1e9626d05

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Kanye West's twitter feed is never anything short of fascinating - a chance for the rap superstar to settle scores and pontificate wildly at the click of a mouse to the 18.5m people who follow him.

His tweets regularly make headlines, as well as causing impassioned debate among his fans. They're amusing, often confounding and potentially very revealing.

So what's actually going on here? Geoff Beattie is Professor of Psychology at Edge Hill University, and also an author and broadcaster, best known for being Big Brother's on-screen psychologist for 10 years. We asked Professor Beattie to analyse a selection of Kanye's tweets:

1. Kanye as self-praiser

"Most people realise that self-praise is not really that interesting, but people who are high on narcissism are experts at complimenting themselves. They're looking for people to tell them how good they are but, failing that, they will use strategies to self-praise. And some people have argued, of course, that the problem with narcissism is that it disguises something - quite considerable self-doubt.

"He later says [on 3 February], 'This new album is ONE of the greatest albums not the greatest just one of...,' and you can read that in different ways. There is an argument that all language is functional - it either does what you want it to do or it doesn't - so he's either having a moment of self-doubt, or, by setting back slightly, he's hoping that more people will concur and then he'll get what he really wants - other people saying how good he is."

2. The philosopher king

"Most people find it difficult to make philosophical, 'all time, all places' statements like that. It's a sign of a self-constructed identity of someone special; someone who believes they can give advice to the masses.

"This tweet reminds me of the elevator tweet [now deleted: 'Sometimes I push the door close button on people running towards the elevator. I just need my own elevator sometimes, my 7 floor sanctuary']. On the one hand, he's talking like an infant; on the other, he's talking like a philosophical genius. The contrast between the two jars. There's certainly something psychologically intriguing going on here."

3. Changing his album title, ad nauseum

"What is this tweet effectively about? He can't make up his mind about an album title. I often can't make up my mind about the title of a book, but I don't think anyone in the world would be remotely interested in my process of deciding. But if you have a psychological nature like Kanye, you of course think people will be fascinated by the minutiae of your thinking. That's his belief - that anything he does is interesting to people.

"Now, you might say, 'Hang on, you're missing the point, this guy is significant culturally and people do care.' That may be true, but there are different ways of talking about your thought process. This is feeding something and it also tells us something about the culture we're living in - people follow Kanye, so they can know something about him, and share that, and get credit for it. And as they do, his narcissism grows and grows and grows."

4. The public apologies

"There are a few of these [Kanye also apologised to Bruno Mars on the same day]. Narcissists take offence easily and many of their spats involve anger, leaving them in the position of having to say sorry. And what's interesting here is that it's like he's lining up the apologies to get them out of the way, because this is clearly a recurring feature in his life, questioning whether his apologies are heartfelt.

"With Beck [and, previously, Taylor Swift], he was angry at Beyoncé not winning an award, and that's complicated. He could be saying: 'I'm not saying I should have won, I'm saying someone else should have won it, but definitely not you.' He's imposing his opinion on everyone else, because he doesn't like opinions that are different from his own. Or what he equally might be saying is: 'Beyoncé should have won it, but actually, as you know, I'm more talented than Beyoncé.' It's a stepping stone towards achieving his desired effect, which is getting himself up there. To do that, he needs to bring people down and elevate himself. He's going through the first stage here."

5. The failed designer?

"The classic insecurity of the narcissist. I don't know why he didn't get into Central Saint Martins - he may have not been as good as other people - but what he seems to be hoping for here is for his followers to go, 'Of course you're a designer! Because many people who went there aren't nearly as successful as you as a designer.'

"So, this is a slight admission of insecurity, which has to be covered up immediately by simultaneously pushing for more compliments."

6. Study me closely

"This is a really interesting one. He's saying, 'Study me closely, because when I'm not smiling I may be smiling inside.' Give me all your attention, basically, because there's stuff going on inside me that if you watch me, and attend to me, you may pick up on. It comes across as enigmatic, but there's something else going on here too."

7. The false outsider

"You're an outsider? Really? Well, not from where we're sitting. So this tweet makes you think, 'What degree of success does it require for an extreme narcissist to feel wanted and desired?' And there's something underneath that as well - the need to build up self-esteem, semi-artificially, all of the time."

8. Kanye the dreamer

Related links

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What does a psychologist think of Kanye West's Twitter feed?

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Kanye West's twitter feed is never anything short of fascinating - a chance for the rap superstar to settle scores and pontificate wildly at the click of a mouse to the 18.5m people who follow him. His tweets regularly make headlines, as well as causing impassioned debate among his fans.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-44601198

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By Sean Coughlan
BBC News education and family correspondent

Narcissists might be irritating attention seekers - but they are also annoyingly likely to be successful, according to researchers.

Even though their personality traits might seem negative, psychologists say their sense of superiority gives them a "mental toughness" not to give up.

An international team of researchers says narcissists tend to come out on top in education, work and romance.

Their "heightened sense of self-worth" gives them great self-confidence.

For psychologists, narcissism is one of the "dark triad" of malevolent personality traits, along with psychopathy and Machiavellianism - with narcissists having a tendency to be self-centred, vain, grandiose and to need the admiration of others.

But Dr Kostas Papageorgiou, from Queen's University Belfast, says research shows that narcissists are often socially successful and undeterred by rejection and their craving for attention can make them "charming" and highly motivated.

"If we could abandon conventional social morality - and just focus on what is successful," he says, then narcissism can look like a very "positive" trait.

"If you are a narcissist you believe strongly that you are better than anyone else and that you deserve reward," says the psychologist.

This might be unbearable for everyone else around them, but Dr Papageorgiou says this kind of boundless self-belief is also linked to being "mentally tough" and a readiness to "embrace challenges".

It's all about me

The "power" of narcissism is currently on public view, he says, in the prevalence of narcissistic behaviour in popular culture, whether on social media, reality television or in politics.

Dr Papageorgiou is part of a research team including academics from Goldsmiths, the University of London, King's College London, University of Texas at Austin and Manchester Metropolitan University, which used performance in secondary school exams to show how narcissists could overtake people who had more ability than them.

Using a sample of more than 300 young people identified as narcissists in secondary school in Italy, the researchers found that they tended to score much better in exams than would have been expected from other tests of their intelligence.

Psychologists said that as well as traits such as egotism and the need to dominate, these narcissists had high levels of resilience and determination.

They were not cleverer, but were more confident and assertive and were able to overtake students who otherwise would have more ability.

Charming monsters

Dr Papageorgiou says this pattern of advantage at school carries through to university and work - and also in romance.

He says that narcissists are likely to attract more partners.

"They're quite charismatic. If you spend a lot of time trying to be charming and persuade other people, it might well make you more attractive, says Dr Papageorgiou.

He says there could even be an evolutionary element to what he says is a rise in narcissism, with narcissists having more sexual partners and passing on their genes to more people.

Dr Papageorgiou says about 60% of narcissism is inherited, with the rest shaped by the environment.

Narcissists can be "absolutely destructive for those around them", says the psychologist, but there is nothing inevitable about this and they can limit the impact of these character traits.

"You can control them, rather than let them control you," he says.

Dr Papageorgiou argues that such personality traits should not be seen as "either good or bad" but as "products of evolution" and "expressions of human nature".

More on this story

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By Sean Coughlan BBC News education and family correspondent Narcissists might be irritating attention seekers - but they are also annoyingly likely to be successful, according to researchers. Even though their personality traits might seem negative, psychologists say their sense of superiority gives them a "mental toughness" not to give up.

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I did some reading of articles from other celebrities about Kanye West as well as one where a psychologist analysed Kanye West's tweets, where he seems to be very narcissistic, there are references which show he sees himself as something really great.
I think it could be interesting to look at Kanye West and his narcissism, how it almost compares to the story of Narcissus, as now it seems as though Kanye's life is slowly falling apart.

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Is Social Media Hurting Your Mental Health? | Bailey Parnell | TEDxRyersonU

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Young Women, Narcissism and the Selfie Phenomenon | Mary McGill | TEDxGalway

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There is a story in Greek Mythology about the son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Liriope. He was known for his beauty. He fell in love with his own reflection in the water, and had ended up drowning from staring at himself non stop.
This story may have come from the Ancient Greek superstition that it was unlucky or even fatal to see one's own reflection.
I think that this superstition is interesting to look at since the society today is obsessed with themselves, which can be seen from social media, the countless selfies posted, vlogs on platforms such as YouTube and Tik Tok, as well as the materialistic side, and the amount of money we all spend on ourselves.

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In class we watched this TED talk about identity. I think that it was interesting as the speaking did actually trick you, as in the video the man was speaking Chinese, and it was later revealed that he was repeating the same sentence however it was unnoticeable until he mentioned it. It was also interesting how easily he could change the way he showed himself to the public which is also true in real life.

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When researching a few topics I have started thinking about possibly writing my essay, about narcissism.
A few ideas I thought of exploring:
- Narcissism and social meadia (selfies)
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder
- Many famous and successful people could be described as narcissistic
-Can narcissism be good?
As I am studying advertising and branding I would also like to do some research on how brands target the new generation obsessed with narcissism.

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This is a collage that my group made, the quote we were working from was: "Under the mask, another mask. I will never finish removing all of these faces" Claude Cahun.
To me this quote reflects how as people we have different personalities in different situations, for example you may act really differently around different people.