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Take a look at the videos, radio shows or articles on this padlet. Add  comments, other items or start your own padlet as a research journal for this course (you get three padlets free). 

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Take a look at the videos, radio shows or articles on this padlet. Add  comments, other items or start your own padlet as a research journal for this course (you get three padlets free). 

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Watch feminist theorist Judith Butler talk about how gender is performative. Read what Butler says about visual representations of masculinity in the link below.

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Watch feminist theorist Judith Butler talk about how gender is performative. Read what Butler says about visual representations of masculinity in the link below.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bo7o2LYATDc

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1010146124652

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Judith Butler: Your Behavior Creates Your Gender | Big Think

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The field of queer intercultural communication is an expanding discipline. Read this article as an introduction alongside the many links posted in the journal.

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The field of queer intercultural communication is an expanding discipline. Read this article as an introduction alongside the many links posted in the journal.

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https://oxfordre.com/communication/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228613-e-170

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Watch the interview with Grayson Perry to see what he says about being a cross dressing man in the public eye. Check out Grayson's work on the future of masculinity (google it!)

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Watch the interview with Grayson Perry to see what he says about being a cross dressing man in the public eye. Check out Grayson's work on the future of masculinity (google it!)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssHUgE29vy8

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Grayson Perry discusses his gender identity | BORN RISKY

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What is Mansplaining? Have you experienced this? Are you guilty of doing it? Read about it in the article below.

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What is Mansplaining? Have you experienced this? Are you guilty of doing it? Read about it in the article below.

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https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20180727-mansplaining-explained-in-one-chart

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Two male colleagues recently asked me, unprompted, "How do I know if I'm mansplaining?" Both are experts who are often asked to explain concepts to colleagues outside their fields. Both were concerned about those explanations being taken the wrong way. I wondered: Is it really so hard to tell the difference between condescending or simply explaining-while-male?

When people (almost always men) explain the product design methods in my own book to me, I say I'm well-acquainted with them, mentally roll my eyes, and move on. I hadn't developed a succinct explanation for what distinguishes mansplaining, so I spent a few minutes drafting a diagram, as I often do to examine or explain ideas in my work. I realised the "-splaining" part comes down to three factors:

Do they want the explanation? If someone asks you a question, explain away! Unsolicited explanations may be fine (within reason) if you're someone's teacher or manager. Explaining after they've declined your help is almost always disrespectful. Conversation is a good place to start building the habit of consent.

Are you making bad assumptions about competence? Explaining things to knowledgeable people isn't just wasting everyone's time. You may, regardless of your intent, undermine them by implying you don't trust their competence or intelligence. You also run the risk of undermining yourself by looking like you have an inflated opinion of your own knowledge.

How does bias affect your interpretation of the above? Both questions are complicated by sexism and other kinds of bias. We're all taught gender bias in behavior and communication from an early age, with boys and girls being criticised and praised for different behaviors in school. We all like to think we treat people fairly, but men often assume women are less competent, and white people are likely to assume darker skin equals lower intelligence.

When yet another colleague brought up his mansplaining worries, I decided to post the diagram on Twitter, where my professional community often discusses communication issues. I was not quite prepared for the viral response-3,300 comments, 50,000 retweets, and 120,000 likes, as of Friday morning. I've seen stories on several blogs, and someone even translated it into Serbian.

Thousands of female-appearing Twitter users started sharing the post, asking to print it on business cards or staple it to the foreheads of men. (Some added: asking first is polite behaviour for any gender.)

Responses from male-appearing Tweeters were more mixed. Some responded with mansplaining, either explaining sexism to women or asking how women would learn if men didn't share their knowledge. Many said the diagram was helpful. Others wondered whether this is really a gendered behaviour; a few argued (fairly, I think) that fathers are frequently mum-splained.

Quite a few responses said: men do this to other men too - it's annoying, but women should just respond as men do. In other words: men agree that men do this a lot, but men aren't going to change, so women should adopt the "masculine" norm. Interesting assumption.

There was much angst about the m-word: is it sexism in reverse? Sorry, but no.

Some women use this gendered term to express frustration with sexist communication norms, but that doesn't invalidate the message. A snarky word is also not the equivalent of systemic sexism, which primarily targets women while also limiting the lives of men. And isn't it odd that nobody gets offended when "mother-henning" behaviour is described as gendered?

Plenty of evidence supports the idea that communication behaviours are often gendered in multiple ways. In school, boys are encouraged to take more air time. Adult men then talk much more in groups, which adds to their perceived influence. Women are interrupted more than men, by both men and women, but women rarely interrupt men. Women in senior positions may learn to interrupt, but are likely to be seen as both more rude and less intelligent. Assertive women are called " abrasive " in performance reviews.

Goodwin's viral Tweet (left) left such an impression, some people even printed it out for reference (Credit: Twitter/Kim Goodwin; Twitter/Geoff Bills)

Although there may be consequences for women who adopt stereotypically masculine communication behaviours, studies show men are rewarded more when they adopt certain "female" behaviors at work. Given that, I think it is fair to ask: if men also find mansplaining counterproductive, why, exactly, should any of us accept it as the norm?

Mansplaining may seem like a trivial issue in isolation, but how we communicate tells other people how much or little they are valued. And in my experience, humans feel better, work more effectively, and behave better when we feel valued ourselves.

To comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Capital, please head over to our Facebook page or message us on Twitter.
If you liked this story, sign up for the weekly bbc.com features newsletter called "If You Only Read 6 Things This Week". A handpicked selection of stories from BBC Future, Culture, Capital and Travel, delivered to your inbox every Friday.

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Mansplaining, explained in one simple chart

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Kim Goodwin was asked to help some colleagues tell if they were being helpful or condescending. So she created a simple chart - which went unexpectedly viral.

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Read about the revolutionary story of the Women's Lib Movement and iconic magazine Spare Rib. Browse the British Library for copies of the publication. 

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Read about the revolutionary story of the Women's Lib Movement and iconic magazine Spare Rib. Browse the British Library for copies of the publication. 

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https://www.bl.uk/spare-rib

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The reading this week was Beckie Mulvaney. “Gender differences in Communication : an intercultural experience” in Jandt, Fred E. ed. Intercultural Communication: A Global Reader. London: Sage, 2004 (linked below). Read through this and ask yourself the questions in the section below.

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The reading this week was Beckie Mulvaney. “Gender differences in Communication : an intercultural experience” in Jandt, Fred E. ed. Intercultural Communication: A Global Reader. London: Sage, 2004 (linked below). Read through this and ask yourself the questions in the section below.

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http://cpsr.org/issues/womenintech/mulvaney/

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+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ***** Copyright 1994 by Becky Mulvaney ***** |
| This document may be freely reproduced and circulated for |
| non-commercial purposes *as long as a statement |
| containing the full title, author's name, and this |
| copyright statement is included* |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

Gender Differences in Communication: An Intercultural Experience
by
Becky Michele Mulvaney
Department of Communication
Florida Atlantic University

Introduction
A catalog which recently arrived at my house advertises T-
shirts and bumperstickers popularizing the words of feminist
scholars Cheris Kramarae & Paula Treichler: "Feminism is the
radical notion that women are people."(1) Indeed, sometimes I
think we've spent the last two millennia making that notion
acceptable. Now, as the 20th century ends, we may be at the
point of completing a first step for women--that first step has
been a difficult, long-term struggle toward acceptance of women
as people.
Yet history demonstrates that legal personhood does not
necessarily result in comparable/equal treatment. That is,
women, like so many other groups, have gained legal rights only
to face less institutional, perhaps more subtle but insidious
forms of discrimination. In this time when political,
educational, and social discussions center on issues of diversity
and of creating a constructive, multi-cultural society, it may
be helpful to examine problems in communication between the
genders as a cultural issue. This is not the only, the right,
or the best way of examining gender and communication, but it
does offer an alternative framework for analysis, one that
perhaps defuses the potential for offensive and/or defensive
posturing when discussing gender.

Hence, in this presentation I argue that it is both useful
and appropriate to view gender communication as a form of
intercultural communication. First, I offer a brief primer on
gender differences in communication with primary emphasis on
examples that illustrate how gender is both an influence on and a
product of communication. In short, this discussion highlights
the primary role played by communication in gender issues.
Second, I offer descriptions of some salient elements of
intercultural communication and I illustrate how gender
communication is a form of intercultural communication. Finally,
I will apply advice on how to develop effective intercultural
communication skills to the situation of gender communication.
During our discussion period, I hope that you, the audience (the
true experts on gender communication issues and the librarian)
will provide examples of problems and/or possible solutions
related directly to the practicing librarian.
Overview on Gender and Communication
Two assumptions from communication theory (both classical
and contemporary theories) help situate my overview on gender and
communication. First, communication is epistemic. That is,
communication is the medium by which we come to know things
(Protagoras argued that absolute truth was inaccessible to
humans; hence, truth had to be established by human standards
[doxa]. Similarly, contemporary rhetorical theorists argue that
truth is socially constructed through language and other symbol
systems).(2) For example, it was through scientific discourse
(rhetoric) that people came to view the universe as earth-
centered. Human acceptance of this narrative was so strong that
Galileo, in positing that the universe is sun-centered, was
placed under house arrest.
My second assumption about communication is that it is
axiological. That is, communication is value-laden. Virtually
all communication theorists agree that language is subjective.
All communication makes claims and takes stances. And some
theorists, such as Weaver, Eubanks, and Winterowd would argue
that no language is neutral.(3) Indeed, any use of
communication exhibits an attitude, and an attitude implies an
act, and all human actions have moral consequences. Hence,
communication entails moral repsonsibility.
The significance of communication practices in shaping our
lives is no less important in the arena of gender and
communication. In fact, Laurie Arliss argues that "communication
is thought to be, at once, the process by which we learn to be
male or female, and the product of our attempts to behave sex
appropriately."(4) In describing feminist criticism,
rhetorical critic Sonja Foss posits that "Its focus is on a
fundamental element of human life--gender--and it is dramatically
changing the form and content of knowledge about rhetoric."(5)
That is, gender is both an influence on and a product of
communication. Let me provide a few illustrations.
From a very early age, males and females are taught
different linguistic practices. Communicative behaviors that are
acceptable for boys, for example, may be considered completely
inappropriate for girls. Hence, the body of research on women
and language reveals that women experience linguistic
discrimination in two ways: in the way they are taught to use
language, and in the way general language usage treats them.(6)
So, for example, women reflect their role in the social order by
adopting linguistic practices such as using tag questions,
qualifiers, and fillers to soften their messages. Likewise,
traditionally women were identified by their association with
men, and we know that occupational titles indicated which jobs
were "for men" and which were "for women." While much of this
has changed today, our society retains a tendency to imply that
maleness, after all, is the standard for normalcy (a female
physician may still be referred to as a "woman doctor," and while
a female committee chair may be called the "chair" or the
"chairperson," a male in that role will more likely be called
"chairman").(7) What we are taught about gender, then, is
reflected in our language usage.
Communicative practices not only reflect notions about
gender, but they also create cultural concepts of gender.
Message sources privileged by society as legitimate knowledge
generators create a web of socially compelling discourses. Thus,
religious, mythic, philosophic, and scientific discourses teach
us, among other things, about society's values and rules related
to gender. It is no accident, then, that American myths focus on
the active male and the supporting female, or that Plato defined
women as "lesser men," or that Aristotle described women as "a
deformity, a misbegotten male," or that St. Thomas Aquinas argued
that god should not have created women, or that craniologists of
the nineteenth century argued that women's smaller heads
justified their subordinate position in society (thus initiating
all the "pretty little head" rhetoric about women), or that Freud
believed women had "little sense of justice," and so on.(8)
The rhetorical force of myths in constructing powerful
worldviews is, frankly, awesome. As Eward Said explained:
There are no innocent, no unideological myths, just as there
are no "natural" myths. Every myth is a manufactured
object, and it is the inherent bad faith of a myth to seem,
or rather to pretend, to be a fact.(9)
Similarly, religious myths seem to be especially potent narrative
forms of rhetoric. Religion "legitimates so effectively because
it relates the precarious reality constructions of empirical
societies with ultimate reality."(10) All these privileged
discourses, I would argue, create a web of meaning, a socially
constructed worldview that historically has excluded or made
secondary the experience of certain groups of people.
In addition, mass mediated messages offer the most
contemporary, powerful, technologically and rhetorically
sophisticated strategies for shaping cultural reality.
The beauty, diet, and advertising industries are the most
obvious, best researched examples of contemporary, self-conscious
myth-makers who control cultural concepts (and acceptable images)
of gender (of what it takes and means to be male or female,
masculine or feminine).(11) Consider the myriad of mass
mediated communication forms available now, as we enter the
twenty-first century--from the now simplistic printing press to
the information superhighway and beyond. The opportunities for
generating (and receiving) mass mediated messages is staggering.
So too is the opportunity for abuse.
Communication, then, is of central concern when addressing
gender issues. Rhetorical messages in large part determine what
we consider knowledge, what knowledge we privilege, and what
values we espouse. Furthermore, the role of culture in
communication practices directs us to an intercultural
perspective on gender and communication.

Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication, defined by Richard Porter and
Larry Samovar as occurring "whenever a message producer is a
member of one culture and a message receiver is a member of
another," has been of interest to communication scholars since
the 1960s.(12) Literature on intercultural communication
often includes discussion of subcultures ("a racial, ethnic,
regional, economic, or social community exhibiting characteristic
patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish it from others
within an embracing culture or society") or cocultures (an
alternative term for subcultures adopted by Judy Pearson so as
not to imply inferiority in relation to the dominant
society).(13) Pearson defines co-cultures as "groups of persons
united by a common element who live in a culture operating within
a dominant culture."(14) Communication practices by and about
women clearly fit definitions of both subcultures and co-
cultures. Furthermore, communication between the sub or co-
culture and the dominant culture represents a form of
intercultural communication. Scholars in this area often
begin their discussions by identifying the main characteristics
of intercultural communication. For example, Samovar and Porter
identify what they call the "constituent parts of intercultural
communication." (15) Dorothy Penington calls such elements
"significant cultural components."(16) For the purposes of
illustration, I will describe three elements of intercultural
communication common to most discussions. Then, I will provide
examples from gender communication to demonstrate how the
intercultural communication framework is useful to us.
Worldview, language, and nonverbal communication
(particularly the use of space and/or time) are often identified
as important elements of intercultural communication. Worldview
refers to a "culture's orientation toward such things as God,
humanity, nature, the universe, and the other philosophical
issues that are concerned with the concept of being."(17) An
example often used is a comparison between Euro-American and
Native American relationships to nature. While the Native
American views the human relationship to nature as one of unity
(being at one with nature), the Euro-American views the world as
human-centered. Rhetorical forms such as religious,
philosophical, and scientific discourses work to create a
coherent world view for a culture.
Language is another significant element of intercultural
communication.
Language is the medium through which a culture expresses its
world view. . . . Like culture in general, language is learned
and it serves to convey thoughts; in additionit transmits values,
beliefs, perceptions, norms, and so on.(18)

The importance of language to intercultural communication is most
obvious when cultures speak different languages. Yet,
differences in meaning across culture can be just as significant
when each culture uses the same language. If a British native
tells her American friend to put the bags in the boot, the
American may not know to place them in the trunk of the car.
While this is an obvious example, Porter and Samovar point out
that

Objects, events, experiences, and feelings have a particular
label or name solely because a community of people have
arbitrarily decided to so name them.

Language serves both as a mechanism for communication and as
a guide to social reality.(19)

Finally, nonverbal communicative behavior, such as concepts
of time or the use of space, differ widely from culture to
culture. For example, proxemics, the study of "the way in which
people use space as a part of interpersonal communication,"
recognizes that "people of different cultures do have different
ways in which they relate to one another spatially."(20)
Furthermore, the use of space helps define social relationships
and social hierarchies.(21) A father traditionally sits at the
head of the table in Western cultures, thus signifying his
primary role in patriarchal societies. Similarly, we all know
that a supervisor will exhibit a more relaxed posture than a
subordinate, or that Arabs stand very close when conversing.
Worldview, language usage, and proxemics are three
constituents of intercultural communication which we can easily
apply to communication between the genders (I believe other
constituents could easily be applied as well, but I will focus on
three typical elements due to time constraints).
Gender Communication as Intercultural Communication
The constituents of intercultural communication as
identified by scholars such as Porter, Samovar, and Penington are
points at which significant differences may occur in
communication patterns, habits, and traditions across cultures.
Occurrences of differences at these points suggest we are dealing
with intercultural communication. Differences in worldview,
language usage, and proxemics between the genders are three
points of difference which suggest that gender communication is a
form of intercultural communication.
Although explanations vary widely, many feminist scholars
have described the female worldview as significantly different
from the male worldview. Carol Gilligan, arguing from a
psychological perspective, states that "female identity revolves
around interconnectedness and relationship." Conversely, she
argues that male identity "stresses separation and
independence."(22) And many feminist scholars, in examining
the current and historical roles of women in religion, have
resurrected religious practices which predate Judeo-Christian
traditions and which better speak to notions of spirituality that
reflect female experiences. Hence, in describing ancient goddess
religions as well as contemporary practices of them, scholars
note that in goddess mythology the goddess is the world (instead
of a mythology which places god above or apart from the
world).(23) Goddess metaphysics, if you will, creates a
worldview in which the earth and nature are respected, not
dominated. So, differences between female and male worldviews,
like differences between Asian and American worldviews or
European and Native American worldviews, may significantly affect
communication.
In fact, it is difficult to discuss differences in
worldviews without talking about language, since our view of the
world is expressed through language and other symbol systems.
Deborah Tannen, in her book You Just Don't Understand: Women and
Men in Communication, argues that "communication between men and
women can be like cross cultural communication, prey to a clash
of conversational styles."(24) This is due, at least in part, to
differences in the way men and women generally look at the world.
Therefore, it is no coincidence that women see talk as the
essence of a relationship while men use talk to exert
control, preserve independence, and enhance status.(25) The
ways in which concepts of social relationships (and their
accompanying communication patterns) differ between genders are
parallel to gender differences in worldview.
Language also reflects differences in social status between
genders. Research on gender and language reveals that female
language strategies invariably emulate the subordinate,
nonaggressive role of women in Western society. And, language
about women does no better, as suggested earlier in this paper.
Differences in language usage and worldview are woven
together and difficult to separate. And, nonverbal behavior is
another form of "language" which demonstrates differences between
men and women. Our earlier example of proxemics offers
considerable evidence that gender communication is a form of
intercultural communication.
"Space is a primary means by which a culture designates who
is important, who has privilege."(26) Differences in the amount
of space given to and taken by women and men reflect societal
gender roles. So, women are less likely than men to have their
own private space within the family home. And, in the workplace,
employees in the traditionally female role, secretary, generally
have a smaller space than the employee in the traditionally male
role, executive.(27) Responses to invasion of space also differ
between men and women. While men may respond aggressively, women
tend to yield space rather than challenge the intruder.(28)
These are but a few examples of the ways in which
differences in communication between the genders fit categories
of primary elements in intercultural communication. The point is
that these differences can create problems in communication.
Julia Wood devotes a whole chapter of her book Gendered Lives to
the ways in which these problems are manifest in the educational
system. We might assume too that the same problems are likely to
visit the university library as well. An abridged list of the
concerns Woods discusses includes issues familiar to us all:
lack of female role models, curricular content which
misrepresents white men as standard and renders women invisible,
biased communication in the classroom (in both student-faculty
and student-counselor communication women are not taken
seriously).(29)
Woods, at the end of her chapter on gender and communication
in the school setting, calls for programs which would increase
sensitivity to gender.(30) But she fails to provide specific
advice. By looking at these problems via the intercultural
communication perspective, we can outline specific behaviors
which may improve communication between genders.
Guidelines for Improving Communication Between the Genders
In intercultural communication, identifying problem areas
can also help us learn to avoid them. These problem areas can be
applied to gender communication as well. Laray Barna identifies
six stumbling blocks in intercultural communication: (1) assumed
similarity, (2) language, (3) nonverbal misinterpretations, (4)
preconceptions and stereotypes, (5) tendency to evaluate, and (6)
high anxiety.(31)
This last stumbling block, high anxiety, occurs when people
are completely separated from their own culture, and usually does
not apply to gender communication (except, perhaps, in overtly
abusive situations or highly sex-segregated societies).
Awareness of the other five stumbling blocks, however, can be
useful in improving our gender communication.
By learning not to assume that men and women are the same,
we can become more sensitive to the fact that men and women's
values and goals may differ, and generally their verbal and
nonverbal language will vary as well. Conversely, awareness of
societal preconceptions and stereotypes which portray the other
sex as "different," or "opposite," can help us avoid such
stereotypes. That is, although there may be cultural differences
between the sexes, it is not productive to assume that all men
love sports anymore than it is contructive to assume that all
Irish consume extraordinary amounts of alcohol.
The tendency to evaluate another's culture as inferior to
our own is perhaps the most difficult stumbling block to avoid,
especially when applying it to gender communication. So, instead
of becoming annoyed by a male's aggressive communication style,
we should recognize that it is a style which is as much a part of
his identity as an ethnic cuisine or a religious tradition is
part of a culture. The task in improving intercultural
communication is awareness and respect rather than evaluation.
Conclusion
In this presentation, I hope to have offered an overview of
the signicant role communication plays in contemporary gender
issues. Furthermore, the communication perspective allows us to
examine gender communication as a form of intercultural
communication. Guidelines from the discipline of intercultural
communication, I believe, may be useful in improving gender
communication in the library setting. I hope that in our
discussion period we may explore some of the ways in which the
librarian may apply these guidelines.

(1) _Northern Sun Merchandising: Products For The Progressive_
(Minneapolis, Minn., Spring/Summer, 1994). Kramarae and
Treichler are communication scholars best known for writing _A
Feminist Dictionary_ (London: Pandora Press, 1985).

(2) See Ann Gill, _Rhetoric and Human Understanding_ (Prospect
Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1994), pp. 45, 95-99; 109-201.

(3) Gill, pp. 51-52; Ross W. Winterowd, _Rhetoric: A Synthesis_
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1968), p. 1; Richard
Weaver, "Language is Sermonic," in _The Rhetoric of Western
Thought_, eds. James Golden, et al (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt,
1976), pp. 147-154.

(4) Laurie P. Arliss, _Gender Communication_ (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991), p. 10.

(5) Sonja K. Foss, _Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and
Practice_ (Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1989), p. 151.

(6) See Robin Lakoff's groundbreaking book _Language and Women's
Place_ (New York: Harper & Row, 1975). See also a review of more
recent research in Arliss, pp. 12-26.

(7) Arliss, pp. 32-33.

(8) Plato, _Republic_, Book V, quoted in Martha Lee Osborne, ed.,
_Women in Western Thought_ (New York: Random House, 1979), pp.
15-16. Aristotle, _Metaphysics_, quoted in Rosalind Miles, _The
Women's History of the World_ (Topsfield, MA: Salem House, 1989),
p. 57. Aquinas, _Summa Theologica_, quoted in Osborne, p. 68.
Carol Tavris and Carol Wade, _The Longest War: Sex Differences in
Perspective_ (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984), p. 14.
Excerpt from Freud's letter to Martha Bernays, quoted in Miles,
p. 222.

(9) Edward Said, "Orientalism and The October War: The Shattered
Myths," in _Arabs in America, Myths and Realities_, eds. Baha
abu-Laban & Faith T. Zeadey (Illinois: The Medina University
Press, 1986), p. 83.

(10) Peter Berger and Hansfried Kellner, _Sociology
Reinterpreted: An Essay on Method and Vocation_ (New York: Anchor
Books, 1981), pp. 84-90.

(11) See, for example, Naomi Wolf, _The Beauty Myth_ (New York:
William Morrow, 1991), and Jean Kilbourne, _Killing Us Softly:
Advertising's Image of Women_ (Cambridge Documentary Films, Inc.,
1979).

(12) Richard Porter and Larry Samovar, "Approaching
Intercultural Communication," in _Intercultural Communication: A
Reader_, 4th ed., eds. Samovar and Porter (Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1985), p. 15.

(13) Porter and Samovar, p. 20.

(14) Judy Cornelia Pearson and Paul Edward Nelson _Understanding
and Sharing: An Introduction to Speech Communication_, 6th ed.
(WCB Brown & Benchmark, 1994), p. 192.

(15) Porter and Samovar (p. 24) identify the following
"constituent parts": perception (including beliefs, values,
attitudes, worldview, and social organization), verbal processes
(including verbal language and patterns of thought), and
nonverbal processes (including nonverbal behavior in general as
well as concepts of time and use of space).

(16) Dorothy L. Penington, "Intercultural Communication," in
Larry A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter, eds., _Intercultural
Communication: A Reader_, 4th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985),
pp. 31-36. Penington includes in her list of components the
following: existential worldview, cosmology, ontology, language,
symbol systems, schemas, beliefs, attitudes, values, temporality,
space (proxemics), religion, myths, expressive forms, social
relationships, communication networks, and interpolative
patterns.

(17) Porter and Samovar, p. 26.

(18) Penington, p. 33.

(19) Porter and Samovar, p. 27.

(20) Porter and Samovar, p. 29.

(21) Porter and Samovar, p. 29.

(22) Diana K. Ivy and Phil Backlund, _Exploring GenderSpeak:
Personal Effectiveness in Gender Communication_ (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1994), p. 57.

(23) Starhawk, _The Spiral Dance: The Rebirth of the Ancient
Religion of the Great Goddess_ (San Francisco: Harper & Row,
1979), pp. 1-16. See also, Carol P. Christ, "Why Women Need the
Goddess: Phenomenological, Psychological, and Political
Reflections," in _Women and Values: Readings in Recent Feminist
Philosophy_, ed. Marilyn Pearsall (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986),
pp. 211-219.

(24) Deborah Tannen, _You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men
in Communication_ (New York: William Morrow, 1990), p. 42.

(25) Julia T. Wood, _Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and
Culture_ (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994), pp. 141-143.

(26) Wood, p. 160.

(27) Wood, p. 161.

(28) Wood, p. 162.

(29) Wood, pp. 206-229.

(30) Wood, pp. 227-228.

(31) Laray M. Barna, "Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural
Communication," in _Intercultural Communication: A Reader_, 4th
ed., eds. Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter (Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1985), pp. 330-338.

List of Works Consulted Consulted

Arliss, Laurie P. _Gender Communication_. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1991.

Barna, LaRay M. "Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural
Communication." In _Intercultural Communication: A Reader_.
4th Ed. Eds. Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985, pp. 330-338.

Berger, Peter, and Hansfried Kellner. _Sociology Reinterpreted:
An Essay on Method and Vocation_. New York: Anchor Books, 1981.

Christ, Carol P. "Why Women Need the Goddess: Phenomenological,
Psychological, and Political Reflections." In _Women and Values:
Readings in Recent Feminist Philosophy_. Ed. Marilyn Pearsall.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1986, pp. 211-219.

Daly, Mary. _Beyond God The Father: Toward a Philosophy of
Women's Liberation_. Boston: Beacon Press, 1973.

Eakins, Barbara, and Gene Eakins. _Sex Differences in Human
Communication_. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978.

Foss, Sonja K. _Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice_.
Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1989.

Gill, Ann. _Rhetoric and Human Understanding_. Prospect
Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1994.

Gilligan, Carol. _In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and
Women's Development_. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1982.

Hall, Edward T. _Beyond Culture_. New York: Doubleday, 1976.

Ivy, Diana K., and Phil Backlund. _Exploring GenderSpeak:
Personal Effectiveness in Gender Communication_. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1994.

Key, Mary Ritchie. _Male/Female Language_. Metuchen, NJ:
Scarecrow Press, 1975.

Kilbourne, Jean. _Killing Us Softly: Advertising's Image of
Women_. Cambridge Documentary Films, Inc., 1979.

Kim, Y.Y., and W.B. Gudykunst, eds. _Theories in Intercultural
Communication_. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988.

Lakoff, Robin. _Language and Woman's Place_. New York: Harper &
Row, 1975.

Miles, Rosalind. _The Women's History of The World_.
Topsfield,MA: Salem House, 1989.

_Northern Sun Merchandising: Products For Progressives_.
Minneapolis, MN., Spring/Summer, 1994.

Osborne, Martha Lee, ed. _Women in Western Thought_. New York:
Random House, 1979.

Pearson, Judy Cornelia. _Gender and Communication_. Dubuque,
IA: William C. Brown, 1985.

Pearson, Judy Cornelia, and Paul Edward Nelson. _Understanding &
Sharing: An Introduction to Speech Communication_. 6th Ed.
Madison, WS: WCB Brown & Benchmark, 1994.

Penington, Dorothy L. "Intercultural Communication." In
_Intercultural Communication: A Reader_. 4th ed. Eds. Larry A.
Samovar & Richard E. Porter. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985, pp.
30-39.

Porter, Richard E., and Larry A. Samovar. "Approaching
Intercultural Communication." In _Intercultural Communication: A
Reader_. 4th ed. Eds. Larry A. Samovar & Richard E. Porter.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985, pp. 15-30.

Said, Edward W. "Orientalism and The October War: The Shattered
Myths." In _Arabs in America, Myths and Realities_. Eds. Baha
abu-Laban & Faith T. Zeadey. Illinois: Medina University Press,
1986, pp. 83-112.

Samovar, Larry A., and Richard E. Porter. _Intercultural
Communication: A Reader_. 4th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985.

Spender, Dale. _Man Made Language_. Boston: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1980.

Starhawk. _The Spiral Dance: The Rebirth of the Ancient Religion
of the Great Goddess_. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1979.

Tannen, Deborah. _You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in
Conversation_. New York: William Morrow, 1990.

Tavris, Carol, and Carol Wade. _The Longest War: Sex Differences
in Perspective_. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1983.

Thorne, Barrie, and Nancy Henley, eds. _Language and Sex:
Difference and Dominance_. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 1975.

Weaver, Richard. "Language is Sermonic." In The Rhetoric of
Western Thought_. Eds. James Golden, et al. Dubuque, IA:
Kendall/Hunt, 1976, pp. 147-154.

Winterowd, Ross W. _Rhetoric: A Synthesis_. New York: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston, 1968.

Wolf, Naomi. _The Beauty Myth_. New York: William Morrow, 1991.

Wood, Julia T. _Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and
Culture_. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994.

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CPSR - Gender Differences in Communication: An Intercultural Experience

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Gender Bias and Artificial Intelligence. After our examination of AI and bias last week read about how this surfaces in gender relations.

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Gender Bias and Artificial Intelligence. After our examination of AI and bias last week read about how this surfaces in gender relations.

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https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/asia-pacific/a-conversation-on-artificial-intelligence-and-gender-bias

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A conversation on artificial intelligence and gender bias

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Humans and machine interaction have opened up new opportunities for companies to fight bias in the workplace. Here’s how artificial intelligence can help.

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Learn about the continuing work the #metoo movement are doing. Join the movement and amplify the message #BeyondTheHashtag

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Learn about the continuing work the #metoo movement are doing. Join the movement and amplify the message #BeyondTheHashtag

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https://metoomvmt.org/bth/

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1lYttMRnT9yOvgGpreZVd8P9qX0MQnV9rUeyG7ZdbnHI/edit

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We are here to help. Find resources to support your healing, learn about our work, and when you’re ready, join the fight.

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https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/feb/23/truth-world-built-for-men-car-crashes

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https://www.bricefoundation.org/single-post/2015/12/29/Gender-Appropriate-and-Inappropriate-Behaviors

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Commonly we all agree to this point that biological differences between male and females are resolute gender classifications through which we can identify capabilities and nature and these differences refer for each person as masculine and feminine which means to what society called them as male and female.

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Read about the origin of the term "glass ceiling" and why Marilyn Loden coined the term.

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Read about the origin of the term "glass ceiling" and why Marilyn Loden coined the term.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-42026266

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The term "glass ceiling" refers to the sometimes-invisible barrier to success that many women come up against in their careers. Management consultant Marilyn Loden coined the phrase almost 40 years ago but says it is still as relevant as ever.

I first used the phrase "glass ceiling" in 1978 during a panel discussion about women's aspirations. As I listened, I noted how the (female) panellists focused on the deficiencies in women's socialisation, the self-deprecating ways in which women behaved, and the poor self-image that many women allegedly carried.

It was a struggle to sit quietly and listen to the criticisms.

True, women did seem unable to climb the career ladder beyond the lowest rung of middle management, but I argued that the "invisible glass ceiling" - the barriers to advancement that were cultural not personal - was doing the bulk of the damage to women's career aspirations and opportunities.

I was an experienced HR professional in the telecoms industry, and yet was often told by my male boss to "smile more". He made a point of commenting on my appearance at literally every meeting.

On the occasions when there was more than one woman manager at a meeting, there were usually comments made if the two sat together. On several occasions, I was told that the advancement of women within middle management was "degrading the importance" of these positions.

Once I was told that despite my better performance record, a promotion I was hoping for was going to a male peer. The reason given was that he was a "family man" - that he was the main breadwinner and so needed the money more.

During the 1970s and into the 1980s, there were no laws in place in the US to protect women from workplace harassment or assault. There was also no awareness in organisations about the severity of the problem and zero interest in hearing about or resolving it.

On 24 May 2018, the "glass ceiling" will be 40 years old.

What has changed for working women in that time? The sheer number of female managers has increased dramatically across most industries and yet the metaphor continues to symbolise an enduring barrier to gender equality - one that has been normalised in many organisations where there is now a sense of complacency about the lack of women at the top.

I advise clients like the US military and Fortune 500 corporations to encourage employees - both men and women - to step up when they observe things happening in the workplace that are unfair, disrespectful or exclusionary.

It means saying to employees: "You have a part to play in creating a culture of respect for everyone. You can't be a bystander in this effort. Instead, you have to take action."

What is 100 Women?

BBC 100 Women names 100 influential and inspirational women around the world every year. For our 2017 season we challenged them to tackle four of the biggest problems facing women today - the glass ceiling, female illiteracy, harassment in public spaces and sexism in sport. Find us on Facebook, Instagram and Twitter and use #100Women

Rather than accept the glass ceiling as inevitable, it is time for institutions to acknowledge that the embedded biases in their cultures predisposing many men for career success while diminishing the strengths, styles and capabilities of the majority of talented women must be eradicated.

I am referring to the biases that assume men are "born leaders", that working mothers are not committed to their careers, that women are too emotional, that sexual harassment is not a problem, and that there is no room on the executive floor for people who speak softly, have a high degree of emotional intelligence and favour participative leadership over autocratic management.

Back in 1978, a common lament in organisations was that women "lacked the credentials and experience" required to lead effectively. Today, that criticism can no longer be used to justify their slow climb to the top.

Over the past four decades women have closed the education gap, moved into non-traditional jobs at remarkably high rates, simultaneously managed families and challenging careers, and demonstrated their ability to innovate, inspire and manage effectively in every sector of the global workplace.

We need only remove the blinkers to appreciate and leverage all that they have to offer.

You can watch Marilyn Loden taking part in the 100 Women Challenge: Breaking the Glass Ceiling on BBC iPlayer until 17 November

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100 Women: 'Why I invented the glass ceiling phrase'

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Workplace consultant Marilyn Loden coined the phrase "the glass ceiling" 39 years ago but says it is still as relevant as ever.

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Gender pay gap: what we learned and how to fix it. Read this Guardian article on women's struggle for equal pay and recognition.

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Gender pay gap: what we learned and how to fix it. Read this Guardian article on women's struggle for equal pay and recognition.

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https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2018/apr/05/women-are-paid-less-than-men-heres-how-to-fix-it

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Gender pay gap: what we learned and how to fix it

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The figures are in as Britain becomes the first place in the world to collect comprehensive data about the gender pay gap

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Read this article by Carol Kinsey on how communication is shaped by gender.

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Read this article by Carol Kinsey on how communication is shaped by gender.

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https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolkinseygoman/2016/03/31/is-your-communication-style-dictated-by-your-gender/?sh=6b942d00eb9d

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A few years ago, I conducted research in the United States, Europe and Canada to see how gender differences in communication were displayed in the workplace. The first thing I found was that both men and women identified the same sets of strengths and weaknesses in themselves and each other.
Top Three Communication Strengths For Females:
1. Ability to read body language and pick up nonverbal cues.

2. Good listening skills.

3. Effective display of empathy.
Top Three Communication Weaknesses For Females:
1. Overly emotional.

2. Meandering - won't get to the point.

3. Not authoritative.
Top Three Communication Strengths For Males:
1. Commanding physical presence.

2. Direct and to-the-point interactions.

3. Effective display of power.
Top Three Communication Weaknesses For Males:
1. Overly blunt and direct.

2. Insensitive to audience reactions.

3. Too confident in own opinion.

In the workplace, people are continuously -- and often unconsciously -- assessing your communication style for two sets of qualities: warmth (empathy, likeability, caring) and authority (power, credibility, status).

There is no "best" communication style for all business interactions - and, certainly, there are many exceptions to the generalities I'm presenting - but typically women have the edge in collaborative environments where listening skills, inclusive body language and empathy are more highly valued, and men are thought to "take charge" more readily and viewed as more effective in environments where decisiveness is critical. Men are also judged to be better at monologue - women at dialogue.

Women display more "warm" body language cues. They are more likely to focus on those who are speaking by orienting head and torso to face participants. They lean forward, smile, synchronize their movements with others, nod and tilt their heads (the universal signal of listening, literally "giving someone your ear").

Men send more "status" signals through an array of dominant behaviors, such as side-to-side head shaking, anger and disgust expressions. They stand tall or they sprawl, sitting with their legs spread or widely crossed, their materials spread out on a conference table, and their arms stretched out on the back of a chair.

In all cases, a communication style turns into a weakness when overdone. A female's collaborative approach can come across submissive and a male's directness can be taken as callousness. Men come across as too aggressive when their expansive postures infringe on other people's personal space, when they have a "death grip" handshake, and when they emphasize status cues to the point where look haughty and uncaring. Women are viewed as weak or passive when they are unnecessarily apologetic, when they smile excessively or inappropriately, and when they discount their own ideas and achievements.

Here are a few more examples comparing communication styles at work:

To a woman, good listening skills include making eye contact and reacting visually to the speaker. To a man, listening can take place with a minimum of eye contact and almost no nonverbal feedback. (Women often cite a lack of eye contact as evidence that their male boss "doesn't value my input.")

When a man nods, it means he agrees. When a woman nods, it means she agrees or is listening or is encouraging another to continue speaking.

Men have a greater ability to hold their emotions in check and to "keep a poker face" in business situations. Women are more spontaneously emotionally expressive and have less ability in controlling their emotions displays.

Because they better at accessing the full message (words and body language), women are better at gauging reactions. This allows them to evaluate whether or not they are being understood, and to adjust accordingly. Female superiority in reading nonverbal signals is sometimes thwarted by men's ability to mask their facial expressions.

Women sound more emotional because they use approximately five tones when speaking - and their voices rise under stress. Men only use approximately three tones, and their deeper voices sound more confident. But, because men don't have a wide vocal range, they have a tendency to become monotone.

Men expand into physical space, while women tend to condense their bodies -- keeping their elbows to their sides, tightly crossing their legs, stacking their materials in small, neat piles, and contracting their bodies to take up as little space as possible. Men's expansive posture not only looks more confident, it helps create the corresponding feeling of confidence. By contrast, when a woman's posture makes her look smaller, it also makes her feel less powerful.

Women too often have from a "good student" mentality, believing that people in charge will notice their hard work and positive results and promote them. Men are more aware that they need to promote themselves (and their hard work and positive results) to get ahead.

As women make decisions, they tend to process and think of options out loud. Men process internally and don't speak until they come up with a solution.

Men's relative discomfort dealing with emotion leads them to look for solutions. Women more readily understand that sometimes people just need to be heard.

In business meetings, men talk more than women. One perspective on this verbal disparity comes from former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who - when asked what advice she had for up-and-coming professional women - replied, "Learn to interrupt."

Two men speaking will angle their bodies slightly, while two women will stand in a more "squared up" position - a stance (when exhibited by males) that most men perceive as confrontational.

Men who don't know each other well tend to keep a greater distance between them than women who have just met. This difference in interpersonal distance as determined by gender is even true in online communities that use avatars, where many of the unconscious "rules" governing personal space in the physical world can be found in the virtual world.

Men make direct accusations. Women tend to avoid confrontation and prefer indirect accusations.

When considering how gender affects communication, keep in mind that with any human interaction, rarely is anything exact. Still, it is helpful to know when your personal "default" communication style (whatever it may be) is an asset, and when it becomes a deterrent. Comparing your strengths and weaknesses to these generalized gender differences is one place to start. And enlarging your repertoire of communication skills, so you can employ strategies that are most effective under various circumstances, will definitely give you an advantage. The most effective communicators, male and female, are masters at balancing power and empathy signals, so that they come across as both confident and caring.

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Is Your Communication Style Dictated By Your Gender?

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A few years ago, I conducted research in the United States, Europe and Canada to see how gender differences in communication were displayed in the workplace. The first thing I found was that both men and women identified the same sets of strengths and weaknesses in themselves and each other.

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What does Mulvaney say about intercultural communication amongst genders and how is this constructed through language and symbols?

How is gender an influence on and product of language?

What are the gender differences mentinoed by Mulvaney?

Mulvaney says communcation is axiological. What does this mean?

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‘Girl code’ - what is it and should it ever be broken? Listen to this BBC4 show on the subject.

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‘Girl code’ - what is it and should it ever be broken? Listen to this BBC4 show on the subject.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/5pjPr8dbtMb7ZSLMnlwJSdG/girl-code-what-is-it-and-should-it-ever-be-broken

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"'Girl code' should be broken - you can't control who you fall in love with"

"I think girl code is silly in most cases," argues Ellen Scott. "I understand where it comes from; obviously it really hurts to see your ex with anyone, let alone someone who you consider a friend. But the fact of the matter is you can't control who you fall in love with and who you click with."

"A lot of times, 'girl code' is about regulating what women do and not so much what men do. They're free to date your friend and there's no kind of 'ex code', which I think is unfair."

"It's very possessive. It's about saying, 'I've dated this man or I like this man so he's off limits, he's mine'."

"I think 'girl code' is reductive and not really fair - if I'm your friend, I should support you finding love, even if it's with someone who I was dating. Clearly if we've broken up there was a reason for that and they might not be right for me, but they might be right for you. I should be happy for you for that."

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BBC Radio 4 - Woman's Hour - 'Girl code' - what is it and should it ever be broken?

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"I think girl code is silly in most cases," argues Ellen Scott. "I understand where it comes from; obviously it really hurts to see your ex with anyone, let alone someone who you consider a friend. But the fact of the matter is you can't control who you fall in love with and who you click with."

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Feminism's biggest critics are analysed in this BBC4 show. Take a listen and think about the issues  and concerns this raises.

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Feminism's biggest critics are analysed in this BBC4 show. Take a listen and think about the issues  and concerns this raises.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0009rjr

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Follow men's rights activist Phillip Tanzer on a guided tour of the online community fighting feminism.

Young men are facing a crisis of masculinity. To deal with it, they have options - the manosphere, a mainly online world where the challenges facing 21st century men are exclusively the fault of women, or the anti-manosphere.

Philip Tanzer is a Men Rights Activist (or MRA) and manosphere convert who lives in Scotland. He's already a keyboard warrior, fighting the 'feminist establishment' from the highlands of Scotland and giving motivational talks to the young men who come to his salon and art gallery. He allows producers to follow him as he attends the International Conference on Men's Issues in Chicago where many of the main leaders and thinkers that together form the nebulous community congregate, including a British MP, far-right YouTubers and a surprising number of women. Along the way, he gives a unique insight into the individual stories behind the growing group of men in the UK and US who find their tribe in the online forums dedicated to reversing the feminist agenda.

He also meets and debates with men and women who believe the manosphere is a dangerous and misogynist place and looks at alternative ways to address the growing levels of mental ill health and suicide in young men - could drumming around a campfire be a better way for men to connect?

Produced by Lucy Proctor and Alvaro Alvarez

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Follow men's rights activist Phillip Tanzer on a guided tour of the online community fighting feminism. Young men are facing a crisis of masculinity. To deal with it, they have options - the manosphere, a mainly online world where the challenges facing 21st century men are exclusively the fault of women, or the anti-manosphere.