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1. Bambusa spinosa (Kawayan)
2. Calamus caesus (Rattan)
3. Dipterocarpus grandiflorus (Apitong)
4. Xanthostemon verdugonianus (Mangkono)
5. Sterculia foetida (Bobog)
6. Toona calantas (Kalantas)
7. Terminalia catappa (Talisay)
8. Antidesma bunius (Bignay)
9. Citrus hystrix (Kabugaw)
10. Nypa fruticans (Nipa)

Reference:
Fernandez J, Fernandez F, & Legaspi, EI. (2002). Palawan Flora and Fauna. Palawan: Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme.

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Seeds. Seeds are the starting stage of plants and would undergo metamorphosis under specific conditions.

Both gymnosperms (cone-bearers) and angiosperms (flowering plants) have seeds.

References:
Mauseth, J.D. (2017). Botany: An introduction to plant biology. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

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Epicotyl - the seed embryo.
Hypocotyl - the portion between the cotyledons and radicle of an embryo axis.
Radicle - main roof of the seed & the direct continuation of the stem of the embryo.
Seed coat - protective layer developed from integuments.
Cotyledon - leaf-like structure in the embryo involved in nutrient storage and transfer.

References:
Mauseth, J.D. (2017). Botany: An introduction to plant biology. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

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The formation of the seed starts when fertilization has occurred by both matured male and female gametophytes. It is when the stigma sends out a pollen tube when it is germinated by the pollen grain, growing it into the embryo sac wherein two pollen sperm cell is in there and the degeneration of the nucleus tube takes place. The zygote elongates that would eventually divide asymmetrically where the apical and basal cell arises which would form the suspensor cells, hypophysis, radicle, cotyledons, etc.

References:
Copeland, L. O., & Mcdonald, M. B. (1999). Seed Formation and Development. Principles of Seed Science and Technology, 17-39.
Seeds - Plant Reproduction and Growth - Plant Life - THE LIVING WORLD. (n.d.).

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Bambusa spinosa Roxb.

Significance:
The kawayan or spiny bamboo is one of the most useful plants in the country as it is sturdy and durable.

Stems - used to build bridges, a complete house with furnitures, bicycles, baskets, hats, mugs, toothbrushes, among others

Ends - used as trellises

Basal portion - used in hammers, mallets, hatches, etc.

Description:

Native in the country

Perennial

Rhizomes

Culm

Height: 25m

Diameter: 20cm

Erect & empty

Propagation:

It produces seeds with intervals of about 30 years.

Although propagation from seeds is limited for bamboos, in a genetic and economic point of view, it is the best way.

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D I C O T

The following embryogenesis stages are after the fertilization.

1) Pro-embryo stage
This stage give rise to the apical and basal cell formed by a transverse cell division. A suspensor is formed in the basal cell in single or multiple columns of cell functioning as push the pro-embryo to the embryo sac cavity and to absorb and give nutrients to it. while the apical cell forms the embryo.

2) Globular Stage
The hypophysis is derived from the basal cell and eventually develop into the radicle.

3) Cotyledon Stage
The heart-stage embryogenesis of the cotyledon primordium are evident which will give rise to the torpedo stage embryo as it elongates.
The embryo is organized forming the apical meristem, cotyledons, hypocotyl, and the radicle.

4) Mature Stage
The bunny ear-looking stage is where the embryo is fully forms and the separated cotyledons are distinguishable along with the root meristem and shoot. The disappearance of the suspensor and basal cell will take place.

References:
Embryogenesis. (n.d.).
Seeds - Plant Reproduction and Growth - Plant Life - THE LIVING WORLD. (n.d.).

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M O N O C O T

After the zygote maturation follows the succeeding steps:

1) Pro-embryo Stage
The apical and basal cell arises from the asymmetrical division of the first cell. The embryo is formed by the basal cell and apical cell which divides rapidly.

2) Globular Stage
The hypophysis develops into the radicle but suspensor is less differentiated and the outer epidermal layer is evident. This stage gives rise to the

3) Scutellar Stage
Cotyledon remnant is visible and are modified to a scutellum or a single altered cotyledon acting as a conductive tissue between the embryo axis and the endosperm.

4) Coleoptilar Stage
Plumule and radicle arises from the embryo axis and specialized tissue called coleoptile and coleorhiza surrounding the shoot and root during germination.

References:
Embryogenesis. (n.d.).
Seeds - Plant Reproduction and Growth - Plant Life - THE LIVING WORLD. (n.d.).

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Calamus caesius Blume

Significance:
The rattan is ideally used for binding and weaving such as in handicrafts.

Stems - its central portion is split

Used to make wicker or reed furniture, baskets, hats, mats, other handicrafts, parts of bed, chair, table, among many others

Used to tie together posts, beams, rafters, roofing, and flooring

Description:

Native in the country

Mostly found in low and medium altitudes in virgin forests.

Never found in open areas

Dioecious

High climbing

Seed - approx. 12 mm×7 mm, with an outer fleshy seedcoat (sarcotesta)

germinate within 34 wks

Stems - 100-200m in length with consistent diameter

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Dipterocarpus grandiflorus

Significance:
Apitong is used to control erosion and in constructions.

Trunk - where oil (oleo resin) is extracted

oil is used as varnish & illuminant

good source of fuel

Wood - used as post, beam, rafter, flooring, timber, furniture, among others

Description:

Native in the country

Critically endangered

Evergreen tree

Roots - buttress

Bole - straight, 25 to 30m

Height - 40 to 45m

Wood - red to dark brown

Flowers - rose-colored, fragrant, 5cm

Seed - 3 to 5 days viability & ~60% germination

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Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves

Significance:
Mangkono is the hardest wood known in the country.

Wood - used as tool handle, shears, novelties, piling, bowling ball, pulley, roller, post, dumb bell, etc

Description:

Endemic in the country

Medium-sized, evergreen tree

Vulnerable: Heavily exploited

Height - 30 to 50m

Wood - very hard, durable, and shines like metal

yellowish brown to dark bronze

Flowers - bisexual, red

Seed propagation is preferred.

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Sterculia foetida L.

Significance:
Bobog is a multi-purpose tree that is cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Bark - fiber is used to make mats, bags, paper, etc

Wood - used to make doors, boat planks, guitars, & toys

Trunk - gum extracted is used for bookbinding and the like

Fruits, Flowers & Leaves - medicinal purposes

Seed - eaten raw, roasted, fried

oil extracted is used as light and paint

Description:

Native to the country

Deciduous tree

Dioecious

Commonly found in tropical lowlands

Umbrella-shaped, spreading foliage

Bole - straight & cylindrical

Height - 20m to 40m

Diameter - 120cm

Fruits - contain 10 to 15 seeds

large & red, ~10cm long

Flowers - foul-smelling, yellow or purple

Seeds - peanut-like, oily, & edible

~2cm long

need to be sown fresh

95% gemination within 2 weeks

20 to 30 C optimal temp

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Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe

Significance:
Kalantas is known as the local cedar.

Wood - made into chests, boats, boxes, veneers, furniture, etc

Bark & Flowers - medicinal purposes

Description:

Native to the country

Commonly found in low to medium altitudes in primary forests.

Large forest tree

Height - 45m or taller

Wood - soft, durable, light wood

Leaves - 30 to 50cm long

Seeds - unequally winged

Fruit - 3 to 4cm long

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Terminalia catappa

Significance:
Talisay is mostly found in coastal areas and is used as a shade tree.

Seed - substitute for almond

raw or cooked

source of zinc

oil can be extracted to make soap

Fruit - eaten raw

Leaves & Bark - serve medicinal purposes

Wood - quality timber used for construction and others

Description:

Native in the country

Deciduous, semi-evergreen tree

Commonly found in lowland tropics

Height - 25m

Leaves - 10 to 25 sm long

Flowers - small, white, with auxillary spikes

Seed - 3 to 4cm long, 3 to 5mm thick

Fruit - fleshy, fibrous, & palatable

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You may opt to hear the sound of waves crashing to have a feel of Palawan while reading...

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You may opt to hear the sound of waves crashing to have a feel of Palawan while reading...

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Relaxing Sounds of Waves - 2 Hours - Tropical Beach Relaxation

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© NATURE WORLD NEWS

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Video was created by David & Chris.

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Palawan, The Philippines - Highlights from paradise

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Saving the future from extinction: Seed Bank

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Saving the future from extinction: Seed Bank

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Have you ever heard of Seed banks? If not, here's what to know about them!

Seed banks are repositories of plant seeds of either a specific area, country or even plants from all parts of the world.

These repositories are also called
The Doomsday Vaults

Personally, these vaults are the most important place in the world than the ones holding jewelries, and this is because it holds the key for humanity to survive the future wherein it contains copies of seeds from various gene banks of the world to be able to create new plant varieties in the succeeding generations to prevent different species of plants/crops from extinction.

Reference:
Gallagher, R. S. (2014). Seeds: The Ecology of Regeneration In Plant Communities.

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I know what you're thinking, we too, were shocked when we first heard of these seed repositories and we got curious where are they located and how many are there around the globe.

turns out...

There are seed vaults that keeps various seed copies from each country in the world and there are also repositories in the Philippines!

Examples:
International

Svalbard Global Seed Vault

Kew Millennium Seed Bank

Local

National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory (NPGRL)

Philippine Rice Research Institute

Scroll down to the next box entries to see and know some things about them!

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creative map

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This website gives adequate information about Palawan, its history, culture, municipalities, location, and most especially, its nature and environment.

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Known the world over as the Philippine's last ecological frontier and World's Best Island, the province of Palawan harbors vast tracts of tropical rainforests and a huge expanse of marine wilderness. Thick canopies of trees carpet mountain ranges running the length of the mainland. Fringing reefs and coral atolls open a new realm to discover under the clear waters surrounding this archipelago. Ribbons of meandering streams and rivers wind through the mountains, nurturing robust stands of mangrove in the lowlands before flowing out to the sea.

Palawan probably has more protected areas than any other province in the Philippines. The Calauit Safari Park in Busuanga is home to exotic and endemic species of animals that roam freely in its verdant hills and plains. Improvements will be made for the development of the park to enhance its potentials as tourism destination.

In the middle of the Sulu Sea lies the Tubbataha Reefs, a pair of coral atolls that was declared a National Marine Park by virtue of Presidential Proclamation No. 306 issued in August 1988. In 1993, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named it a World Heritage Site for its highly diverse collection of fishes and other marine life. The Tubbataha Reefs is also part of the Coral Triangle considered a supreme marine habitat in Asia.

Another World Heritage Site is the Puerto Princesa City Subterranean River National Park or commonly known as the Puerto Princesa Underground River (PPUR) along the west coast. Proclaimed as one of the New 7 Wonders of Nature, the PPUR has one of the longest underground rivers in the world. It is also noted for its old growth forests, cathedral caves, white sand beaches, limestone cliffs and unique flora and fauna.

In the south, Ursula Island is a haven for migratory and resident birds. Mt. Mantalingahan traversing five towns in the south was proclaimed a Protected Landscape area by virtue of Presidential Proclamation 1815 on June 23, 2009.

Palawan is the habitat of 232 endemic species. Some of these unique creatures are the metallic-colored peacock pheasant and the reclusive scaly anteater. In the forests and grasslands, the air resonates with the songs of more than 200 kinds of birds. Over 600 species of butterflies flutter around the mountains and fields of Palawan, attracted to some 1,500-host plants found here. Endangered sea turtles nest on white sand beaches, and the gentle dugong feed on the sea grass that abounds in Palawan's waters.

Sprawled beneath the seas are nearly 11,000 square kilometers of coral reefs, representing more than 35% of the country's coral reefs. Myriads of fish swim in these underwater gardens.

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Known the world over as the Philippine's last ecological frontier and World's Best Island, the province of Palawan harbors vast tracts of tropical rainforests and a huge expanse of marine wilderness. Thick canopies of trees carpet mountain ranges running the length of the mainland.

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This journal article highlights the status of six (6) selected marine protected areas (MPAs) of Palawan.

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This article completely describes Palawan and its treasures.

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Description
Location and General Description
This ecoregion includes the island Palawan plus Balabac, Ursula Island, and the Calamian Group. Palawan itself is the sixth largest of the Philippine Islands. The climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet (National Geographic Society 1999). In northwest Palawan, a dry season lasts from November to May while the wet season lasts from June to October; the rest of the island experiences a short, one- to three-month dry season. The east coast becomes progressively drier than the west coast from north to south (Davis et al. 1995).

Palawan (along with the Calamianes and the island of Mindoro) was rifted (below water) from the Asian mainland approximately 32 million years ago, transported through seafloor spreading across the growing South China Sea, added to the growing Philippine Archipelago approximately 17 million years ago, and uplifted above water approximately 5-10 million years ago (Hall and Holloway 1998; Dickinson, Kennedy, and Parkes 1991). Metamorphic rocks are found in the northern portion of the island north of Mt. St. Paul. Volcanic rocks are found in the vicinity of Cleopatra's Needle, just south of Mt. St. Paul. Mt. St. Paul itself and the El Nido Cliffs are karst landscapes. The southern third of the island, south of the Quezon-Aboabo Gap, is dominated by ultramafics mixed with volcanic rocks and Tertiary limestone. Tertiary sandstones and shales occur along the southwest coast (Davis et al. 1995).

The channel between Palawan and Borneo is about 145 m deep. During the middle Pleistocene, sea levels were 160 m lower than today, and the islands were connected. During the last ice age (late Pleistocene), sea level was approximately 120 m below current levels, and Palawan was separated from ice age Borneo by a narrow channel. Palawan has always remained separated from the rest of the Philippines. Palawan is long and narrow, consisting of a steep mountain range whose highest point is 2,085 m (Mt. Mantalingajan). More than 45 percent of Palawan consists of mountains with slopes greater than 30 percent (Davis et al. 1995).

Vegetation types on Palawan are diverse and include beach forest, tropical lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, lowland semi-deciduous forest, montane forest, and ultramafic and limestone forest. Beach forest merges with other forest types away from the coast and includes Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium asperum var. asperum, Pometia pinnata, Palaquium dubardii, and Ficus spp. (Davis et al. 1995).

The lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, which naturally occupies 31 percent of the island, is dominated by Agalai spp., Dipterocarpus gracilis, D. grandiflorus, Ficus spp., Tristania spp., Exocarpus latifolius, and Swintonia foxworthyi. Sygium spp., Dracontomelon dao, and Pongamia pinnata are emergent. Lianas and cycads are common. In southern Palawan, a Casuarina sp. dominates in the lowland forests (Davis et al. 1995).

The eastern half of the island is in a rain shadow and contains moist semi-deciduous forests. Soils are thin on the steeper slopes and support medium-sized trees (up to 15 m tall), which shed their leaves during the March-May dry season. The rainy season is June-July. Common tree species include Pterocymbium tinctorium, Pterospermum diversifolium, Hymenodictyon spp., and Garuga floribunda (Davis et al. 1995).

Montane forests, found between 800 and 1,500 m, are dominated by Tristania spp., Casuarina spp., Swietenia foxworthyi, and Litsea spp. in the lower elevations. Upper montane forest trees include Agathis philippinensis, Dacrydium pectinatum, Podocarpus polystachyus, Gnetum latifolium, Cycas wadei, Cinnamomum rupestre, Nepenthes philippinensis, and Angiopteris spp. (Davis et al. 1995).

Limestone forests are found on the islets surrounding Palawan and over large areas in the southern portions of the island. Represented are Euphorbia trigona, Aglaia argentea, and Antidesma, Drypetes, Gomphandra, Sterculia, Pleomele, and Begonia spp. (Davis et al. 1995).

Victoria Peak, in south-central Palawan, contains the largest region of ultramafic forest on the island. Although many of the ultramafic tree species are shared with semi-deciduous forest, several species, including Scaevola micrantha, Brackenridgea palustris var. foxworthi, Exocarpus latifolius, and Phyllanthus lamprophyllus are believed to be heavy metal indicators (Davis et al. 1995).

Biodiversity Features
Relative to the size of Palawan, the ecoregion contains a rich fauna, including several groups that are not found in the rest of the Philippines (carnivores, pangolins, porcupines, and some insectivores) (Heaney 1986).

There are many endemic mammals in Palawan, but nearly all the genera (96 percent) are also found in Borneo. Of twenty-five indigenous nonvolant mammal species, eleven (44 percent) are endemic to Palawan, and the remainder are shared with Borneo. Therefore, the greater Palawan region is rightly considered part of the Sunda Shelf bioregion rather than that of the Philippines. The large number of endemic species but few endemic genera of Palawan are consistent with a separation of Borneo and Palawan of approximately 160,000 (since the middle Pleistocene) (Heaney 1986). There are fifteen endemic or near-endemic mammals in greater Palawan (table 1).

Table 1. Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.

Family Species
Pteropodidae Acerodon leucotis*
Cervidae Axis calamianensis*
Sciuridae Sundasciurus steerii*
Sciuridae Sundasciurus moellendorfi*
Sciuridae Sundasciurus rabori*
Sciuridae Hylopetes nigripes*
Muridae Chiropodomys calamianensis*
Muridae Maxomys panglima*
Muridae Palawanomys furvus*
Hystricidae Hystrix pumila*
Sorcidae Crocidura palawanensis*
Muridae Haeromys sp. A*
Sciuridae Sundasciurus hoogstraali*
Sciuridae Sundasciurus juvencus*
Tupaiidae Tupaia palawanensis*

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

The Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis) is found only in the Calamian Islands, where it survives in low densities on Busuanga, Calauit, and Culion Islands. The only protected area for this species was established to protect free-ranging African ungulates on Calauit Island (Wemmer 1998).

Balabac, Palawan, and the Calamian Islands also provide habitat for an endemic subspecies of the bearded pig (Sus barbatus ahoenobarbus), another subspecies of which is widely distributed in the Greater Sundas. The IUCN considers this species to be rare and declining. This species naturally inhabits tropical evergreen rain forest but is able to use a wide variety of habitats within forests. They are quite dependent on fruit supplies but consume a wide variety of foods. Directional large-scale population movements in scattered or condensed herds lasting days, weeks, or even months are reported for other subspecies in Borneo and Sumatra; this is generally associated with the mast fruiting of dipterocarps. Such movements have not been reported from the Philippines (Oliver 1993).

Several of Palawan's endemic mammals are considered threatened. Three endemic mammal species are considered endangered, including the Calamian deer, a Sunda tree squirrel (Sundasciurus juvencus) (recommended for delisting; Heaney et al. 1998), and the Palawan rat (Palawanomys furvus), which was collected only four times in 1962. A subspecies of mouse deer, the Balabac chevrotain (Tragulus napu nigricans), which is confined to Balabac Island, is also considered endangered. Five endemic mammal species are considered vulnerable, including Acerodon leucotis, the Palawan treeshrew (Tupaia palawanensis), the Palawan stink badger (Mydaus marchei), the Palawan binturong (Arctictis binturong whitei), and a Sunda tree squirrel (Sundasciurus rabori) (IUCN 2000).

As with mammals, Philippine birds in general show a strong Bornean affinity, and it is clear that the main pathway of Asian immigration to the Philippines was through Palawan; of 395 Philippine breeding species, 137 (35 percent) also breed in Borneo. Palawan birds exhibit strong differentiation at the subspecific level when compared with its nearest Philippine neighbor, Mindoro. This is in contrast to the other partial land bridge between Borneo and the Philippines, the Sulu Islands, which have not differentiated significantly from Mindanao. Borneo and Palawan share twenty-three bird species that are not found in the rest of the Philippines. The Asian genera Polyplectron, Malacocincla, Malacopteron, Dinopium, Aegithina, Criniger, Seicercus, and Gracula are found only in Palawan within the Philippines (Dickinson et al. 1991). The island forms an important bird migration route between Borneo and the rest of the Philippines for southern migrants (Davis et al. 1995).

This ecoregion corresponds exactly with the Palawan EBA (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The EBA contains twenty restricted-range birds, seventeen of which are found nowhere else on Earth and five of which (Palawan peacock-pheasant [Polyplectron emphanum], grey imperial-pigeon [Ducula pickeringii], blue-headed racquet-tail [Prioniturus platenae], falcated wren-babbler [Ptilocichla falcata], and Palawan flycatcher [Ficedula platenae]) are considered vulnerable (Collar 1999). All these vulnerable birds are dependent on lowland and hill forest (Collar et al. 1999; Stattersfield et al. 1998). There are twenty endemic or near-endemic bird species in the Palawan ecoregion (Kennedy et al. 2000; table 2).

Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.

Family Common Name Species
Phasianidae Palawan peacock-pheasant Polyplectron emphanum*
Columbidae Grey imperial-pigeon Ducula pickeringii
Psittacidae Blue-headed racquet-tail Prioniturus platenae*
Strigidae Mantanani scops-owl Otus mantananensis
Strigidae Palawan scops-owl Otus fuliginosus*
Apodidae Palawan swiftlet Aerodramus palawanensis*
Bucconidae Palawan hornbill Anthracoceros marchei*
Monarchidae Blue paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone cyanescens*
Irenidae Yellow-throated leafbird Chloropsis palawanensis*
Muscicapidae Palawan flycatcher Ficedula platenae*
Muscicapidae Palawan blue-flycatcher Cyornis lemprieri*
Muscicapidae White-vented shama Copsychus niger*
Pycnonotidae Sulphur-bellied bulbul Ixos palawanensis*
Timaliidae Ashy-headed babbler Malacocincla cinereiceps*
Timaliidae Palawan babbler Malacopteron palawanense*
Timaliidae Falcated wren-babbler Ptilocichla falcata*
Timaliidae Palawan striped-babbler Stachyris hypogrammica*
Paridae Palawan tit Parus amabilis*
Paridae White-fronted tit Parus semilarvatus
Dicaeidae Palawan flowerpecker Prionochilus plateni*

An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.

The critically endangered Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) was historically found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Samar, Jolo, Negros, Busuanga, and Mindanao. Busuanga contains one of the only remaining populations (others are found on Mindoro, Negros, and Mindanao). Whereas the decline of the species was initially driven by overexploitation, habitat loss and human persecution are now the principal threats to the Philippine crocodile. Surveys in 1980-1982 revealed a total wild population of approximately 500-1,000 individuals, but current wild populations may be approximately 100 nonhatchlings. Captive breeding efforts are being led by the Crocodile Farming Institute, an entity of the Philippine government (Ross 1998).

A total of 1,522 (Davis et al. 1995) to 1,672 (Quinnell and Balmford 1988) vascular plants have been identified on Palawan, and it is estimated that more than 2,000 species are present on the island. As detailed earlier, Palawan has an extremely diverse range of vegetation types for the Philippines. A small number of dipterocarps, an important timber tree group, are present on the island, as well as a variety of medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes and plants used in ceremony and as ornamentals (Davis et al. 1995).

Current Status
Almost all of the Philippines was once completely forested (Dickinson et al. 1991). As of 1988, Palawan contained 7,410 km2 (54 percent) of total forest remaining (SSC 1988). At the time this was the highest percentage of any of the Philippines' large islands.

Later aerial surveys (Development Alternatives 1992) indicated that significant reductions in closed-canopy forest cover had occurred since 1988 as a result of recent logging. As seen from the air, the lowlands and hillsides consist of slash-and-burn agriculture up to the edges of natural forest in the highlands. Closed-canopy forest caps only the highest areas on the island.

Palawan's forests are of low commercial value because of the small number of dipterocarps, and until the last twenty years Palawan's forests were ignored in favor of the more valuable forests of Luzon and Mindanao. Government logging regulations setting guidelines for minimum diameter, minimum rotation length, and replanting have been largely ignored (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

Because of a generally high population density in other parts of the Philippines, large numbers of shifting cultivators (kaingineros) are attracted to Palawan to eke out a living on the hillsides of the island, and their cumulative impact is enormous (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

All of Palawan was declared a Fauna and Flora Watershed Reserve, and this includes a variety of protected areas, including national parks, wilderness areas, experimental forests, forest research reserves, game refuges, wildlife sanctuaries, museum reservations and research sites, tourist zones, and marine reserves.

Recent reports in the international press indicate (and have been confirmed, L. Heaney, pers. comm., 2000) that the situation in Palawan has stabilized, that large-scale logging has been halted, and that a balance is being achieved between economic development and conservation; future monitoring will determine whether this is remains true.

Types and Severity of Threats
Habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the Philippines, and Palawan, though currently in better condition, is no different. Logging and shifting cultivation (kaingin) are cited as the primary forces of habitat conversion. Logging takes many forms, from industrial scale to smaller-scale operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest. Mangroves are used locally for firewood, dyes, and tannins (Davis et al. 1995), and they are sometimes removed to make way for fishponds (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

Hunting and the wild pet trade are also significant threats in Palawan. Leopard cats have been hunted for their pelts and are sold when kittens as pets (Heaney and Regalado 1998). The Palawan binturong is hunted for meat and as pets, and the pangolin is hunted for its hide (Quinnell and Balmford 1988). The Palawan peacock-pheasant (Dickinson et al. 1991; Collar et al. 1999), blue-headed racquet-tail (Collar et al. 1999), Philippine cockatoos (Cacatua haematuropygia), and blue-naped parrots (Tanygnathus lucionensis) (Quinnell and Balmford 1988) apparently are suffering greatly from the pet trade. The final destination for these birds often is the United States (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

Ornamental plant collecting, especially for the orchids (Phalaenopsis amabilis and Paphiopedilum argus), pitcher plants (Nepenthes spp.), palms (Veitchia merrillii), and aroids (Amorphophallus spp. and Alocasia spp.) threatens some plant populations (Davis et al. 1995).

A valuable resin, known as Manila copal, is collected from Agathis dammara trees. This collection weakens the trees, and slackening production and disease combined with overexploitation are threatening the species (Davis et al. 1995; Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

Currently, Palawan's mineral wealth (chromite, copper, iron, manganese, mercury, and nickel) has not been extensively exploited, but the possible future extraction of these minerals represents a potential threat (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).

Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
MacKinnon (1997) identified seven subunits in the Philippines, and the Philippine Biodiversity Action Plan (Philippine BAP 1997) demarcated fifteen biogeographic units. Udvardy (1975) identified the Philippines as a single biogeographic province. We delineated nine ecoregions in the Philippine islands, including Palawan. We deviated from Udvardy (1975), MacKinnon (1997), Stattersfield et al. (1998), and the Philippine BAP (1997) to varying degrees and based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions on Heaney (1993).

We placed Palawan, Calamian Islands, and Cuyo Islands into a single ecoregion, the Palawan Rain Forests [IM0143]. Palawan has closer zoogeographic affinities to Borneo.

References
References for this ecoregion are currently consolidated in one document for the entire Indo-Pacific realm.
Indo-Pacific Reference List

Prepared by: John Morrison
Reviewed by:

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Philippines: Islands of Palawan, Balabac, Ursula, and the Calamain Group | Ecoregions | WWF

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Description Location and General Description This ecoregion includes the island Palawan plus Balabac, Ursula Island, and the Calamian Group. Palawan itself is the sixth largest of the Philippine Islands. The climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet (National Geographic Society 1999).

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This article features the Marine Protected Areas of Palawan which cover over a million hectares.

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A recent Memorandum of Agreement signed by six municipalities in Northern Palawan, Philippines has set the ball rolling for another million-hectare marine protected area (MPA). Fortunately, local communities are ready to go, according to WWF-Philippines' team on the ground.

A recent Memorandum of Agreement signed by six municipalities in Northern Palawan, Philippines has set the ball rolling for another million-hectare marine protected area (MPA). Fortunately, local communities are ready to go, according to WWF-Philippines' team on the ground.

IN 2016, it was Cagayancillo in Palawan, southern Philippines-better known as the home municipality of world-famous UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park-where 1,013,340 hectares of coastal and offshore waters were proclaimed a marine-protected area (MPA). It was the largest MPA in the country, for what is actually the smallest municipality in Palawan. At almost 1.5 million hectares in land size, Palawan is also the Philippines' largest province, its most sparsely populated, and easily the richest in terms of natural beauty and resources.

On October 17, 2017, six municipalities in northern Palawan marked another conservation milestone, when their respective mayors signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) to implement another big undertaking-the 1.008 million-hectare Northeastern Palawan Marine Protected Area Network Management Plan.

The municipalities of Araceli, Dumaran, El Nido, Linapacan, Roxas, and Taytay, according to WWF-Philippines, "have rallied together to further conserve Palawan's coastal and marine areas that are vital sources of livelihood, minerals, and raw materials, as well as recreational, cultural, and other social activities." The vision, the MoA states, is "an empowered northeastern Palawan MPA network with an abundant, climate-resilient and unified marine management system demonstrating sustainable fishery and conservation practices by 2030."

Government agencies involved in seeing the plan through are the Provincial Government of Palawan, through the Provincial Agriculture Office; the Palawan Council for Sustainable Development; and the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. WWF-Philippines will continue its supporting role with technical assistance, capacity building, and workshops.

Ready for the next level

"At last, it's taking off," says Mavic Matillano, Project Manager for Improved Fisheries in Palawan for WWF-Philippines. "For the longest time, it was about advocacy. Now we're ready for the next level, policy making and institutionalising."

Thanks to the previous example of Cagayancillo and the continuing work of WWF-Philippines on MPAs in northeastern Palawan, an area known for its biodiversity and natural resources, local communities were already quite sold on the effort, reports Matillano. "We worked on the ground at all levels, from hook-and-line fishermen to barangay (village) officials and mayors. It's a good thing we've already graduated from having to explain why an MPA is a good idea, or why no-take zones are important. People didn't complain anymore, or ask, 'What about us?' They could already see the advantages; otherwise, they wouldn't have agreed to the move."

The municipalities have common agendas and common challenges, Matillano notes. There is the lucrative industry of live reef food fish, locally known as sunô, as well as other fisheries, and a continuously growing tourism sector. On the other side of the coin are problems with law enforcement and boundaries. "Like, what happens when a poacher caught in Town 1 hides out in Town 2?" Matillano illustrates. "Or a poacher in Town 2 actually lives in Town 3? Such incidents, in fact, were the trigger points that pushed them to find resolutions."

The MoA now calls for a technical working group to prepare for the next phase, implementation, by ironing out the details of the agreement, including operationalisation, delineations, financial share, and responsibilities, such as the roles of the mayors, agricultural officers, tourism officers, and the Bantay Dagat or ocean patrols. The target is to implement the law by June of this year, and to launch it at the annual provincial festival, the Baragatan ("to gather" in the local Cuyunon dialect), held two weeks before Palawan's Foundation Day on June 23. The gatherings could also provide an opportunity for local officials to meet on the MPAs, and for locals to sit and watch videos on marine conservation and MPAs while attending other festival events.

A big deal

Among the municipalities, Araceli is fast developing as a tourism destination, with its beautiful stretches of white beach. "The establishment of an MPA is a big deal, because we want to preserve the environment, and not exploit it," says Araceli Mayor Noel Beronio, himself originally from a family of fishermen. "We want the ocean to be sustainable, and not ruined for the next generations."

Beronio affirms that the level of environmental awareness in his community is already high. "It was the community that requested this move towards an MPA, so we are aware of the long-term process. It can't be hurried. I tell the fishermen, if we don't do it, they will be the ones to suffer; they will have to go further to fish, they will spend more on fuel, they will be more at risk. We should help each other so that our fishing grounds can just be near our homes."

Next step, Matillano says, is to localise the MoA. "Each municipality must be aligned in terms of local policies, coastal resource management (CRM) plans, MPA ordinances, fisheries and tourism codes. WWF can offer technical assistance to the local government units." Matillano also notes how the negative experiences of other places in the country with destructive mass tourism have made communities with growing tourism sectors quite wary. "Sometimes it works when they become afraid of how wrong it could go," she notes. "But they already have a much bigger understanding of the problem."

"We now have to establish responsibilities of each municipality so we don't claim we're not ready, or we don't pass on responsibilities to others," affirms Beronio. "We're all connected." He foresees a day when law enforcement officers of the different municipalities, for example, can just send text messages to warn each other of poachers or illegal fishermen. "The ocean is what sustained us, raised us, sent us to school. We really have to do whatever we can to protect it."

-END-

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In Palawan, over a million more hectares of MPAs for the Coral Triangle

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A recent Memorandum of Agreement signed by six municipalities in Northern Palawan, Philippines has set the ball rolling for another million-hectare marine protected area (MPA). Fortunately, local communities are ready to go, according to WWF-Philippines' team on the ground.

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Palawan Biodiversity Resource Center (PBRC)

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Palawan Biodiversity Resource Center (PBRC)

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The website features the Specimen preservation, curation, cataloguing, and archiving of the Palawan endemic and threatened species.

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The PBRC also features a built-in "Diorama" that depicts a typical Palawan environment rich with wildlife species.

The diorama portrays a scenic representation of the Palawan forest and sea ecosystems, displaying the colorful three-dimensional wildlife species' models. It intends to create exhibits to whisk the viewers to the Palawan environment and immerse them into visual experiences similar to those derived from looking at a real scene. Ostensibly, the setting up of the diorama is to educate viewers in the diverse Palawan ecosystems.

Featured in the diorama are Palawan Pangolins ( Manis culionensis), infamous for its species reputation of being the most trafficked mammal in the world; various ungulates such as the Calamian Deer ( Axis calamianensis), an endangered species of deer found only in the Calamian Islands of Palawan, and the Palawan Bearded Pig ( Sus ahoenobarbus), the largest wild pig species in the Philippines.

The diorama is also decorated with species of mammals such as the Palawan Bearcat ( Arctictis binturong whitei), a canopy-dwelling omnivore that feasts on fruits, shoots, insects, rodents, and birds found on the upper layer of their ecosystem; the Asian Palm civet ( Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), known mostly through the Kopi Luwak, a type of coffee made out of coffee beans that passed through its digestive system then extracted from its feces, and the Palawan Porcupine ( Hystrix pumila), a member of the Old World poccupines (Hystricidae) depicted as large, terrestrial rodents that possess spiny coverings in their backs to ward off potential predators.

Endemic avian species of Palawan such as Palawan Hill Mynah ( Gracula religiosa palawanensis), the Red-vented Cockatoo ( Cacatua haematophygia), the Palawan Hornbill ( Anthracoceros marchei) and the Blue-naped parrot ( Tanygnathus lucionensis) are likewise displayed in the diorama.

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PBRC | Palawan Biodiversity Resource Center

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The PBRC also features a built-in "Diorama" that depicts a typical Palawan environment rich with wildlife species. The diorama portrays a scenic representation of the Palawan forest and sea ecosystems, displaying the colorful three-dimensional wildlife species' models.

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Antidesma bunius

Significance:

Bignay is a good source of calcium and iron.

Leaves - boiled for medicinal purposes (such as in snake bites)

Fruit - used to make wine and jam

Bark - used to make ropes

Wood - used to make carboard

Description:

Native in the country

Dioecious

Evergreen shrubby tree

Height - 4 to 10m

Leaves - 10-22cm long

Fruits - sweet, round, 8mm

cranberry-like

Commonly found in open areas and second-growth forests.

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Citrus hystrix

Significance:
It is used as herbal medicine and food.

Leaves - distillled to make fragrant oil

boiled for medicinal purposes

Fruit - used in dishes

Description:

Evergreen

Small & thorny shrub

Height - 3 to 12m

Fruit - 10cm diameter

yellowish-green

very sour

Leaves - 10 to 12cm long

Seed - germinates in 2 to 3 weeks

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Nypa fruticans

Significance:
It has multiple uses such as sugar, alcohol, tuba, and vinegar.

Leaves - used as shingles for roofing, walls, and room partitions

Fibers - woven into baskets, bags, brooms, and mats

Fruit - food

Description:

Perennial

Aquatic (Mangrove)

Rhizome

Stemless

Leaves - erects, 7m or longer

Fruit - flat, 12cm

Seed/Vegetative propagation

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Fernandez J, Fernandez F, & Legaspi, EI. (2002). Palawan Flora and Fauna. Palawan: Palawan Tropical Forestry Protection Programme.

The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. (2021). Published on the Internet at http://www.ipni.org and http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/

Plant Resources of Southeast Asia. (2016). Calamus caesius (PROSEA). Retrieved from https://uses.plantnet-project.org/en/Calamus_caesius_(PROSEA)

Tropical Plants Database, Ken Fern. tropical.theferns.info. 2021. Retrieved from tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Citrus+hystrix

Morton, J. 1987. Bignay. p. 210–212. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.

Stuart, G. J, (2019). Kalantas. Philippine Medicinal Plants. Retrieved from http://www.stuartxchange.ph/Kalantas.html

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Seed vault importance in the the Philippines

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Seed vault importance in the the Philippines

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The seed vaults in the Philippines are important because it holds species of plant (crop) seedlings from researchers and farmers.

It is a way to help farmers and other Filipinos to save the agricultural diversity of the area and learn to serve and protect to prevent extinction of the present plants.

References:
Bengwayan M.A. (2020).

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Axis Partitioning Events of the Plant Embryo

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Axis Partitioning Events of the Plant Embryo

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During embryogenesis, the establishment of these embryonic organs and meristems are guided by the auxin hormone and the partitioning events takes place.

There are three (3) embryonic tissue systems that will form along the radial axis which is perpendicular to the apical-basal axis. The plant hormones such as auxin plays a key role in inducing the embryogenic competence. The embryogenic cell develops into a mature embryo by the zygotic and somatic embryogenesis which are developmentally arrested and metabolically quiescent.

The Radial patterning of the embryogenic tissue systems are the protoderm, ground meristem, procambium along with the embryonic root, endodermis and cortex which are from the apical-basal axis. Consistent cell division pattern is not critical to radial pattern establishment although it aids in the positional lineage-dependent specification of the fate of the cell.

References:
Harada, J. J., Belmonte, M. F., & Kwong, R. W. (2010). Plant Embryogenesis (Zygotic and Somatic). Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0002042.pub2

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Under a favorable germinating condition, a viable seed that doesn't have the capacity to germinate for a long period is called the seed dormancy stage.

Types of Seed Dormancy

Exogenous (caused by conditions outside the embryo; e.g. scarification)

Endogenous (chemical changes within the embryo)

Parameters Affecting Seed Dormancy

1. Chilling - exposure of seeds to low temperatures.

2. Leaching - washing os seeds with fresh water for 12-46 hrs.

3. Stratification - permeable seed coat alteration for gas and water exchange.

4. Scarification - physical alteration on the seed coat through scratching, breaking, etc. to become permeable.

5. Chemical exposure - exposure to chemicals

References:
Bentsink L, Koornneef M. Seed dormancy and germination. Arabidopsis Book. 2008;6:e0119. doi:10.1199/tab.0119
Bradbeer, J. W. (1988). The Breaking of Seed Dormancy. Seed Dormancy and Germination, 55–79. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-7747-4_6
Shock, C.C., Cheatham, N.E., Harden, J.L., Mahony, A.C., & Shock, B.M. (2019). Germination: Seed Dormancy.

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The image below shows an experiment of seed dormancy using Luffa acutangula with  a control (left) and a sample for scarification (right).

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It is the stage of developing new plants in a favorable condition.

Steps of Germination:

1. Water Imbibition

2. food reserve mobilization
3. protein synthesis
4. radicle protrusion

Food Mobilization:
A shift of priorities after germination to the rapid growth of shoot and root, food reserves are hydrolyzed in phase II (metabolic re-activation) mobilized in phase III (relation to germination completion) providing energy substrates and macromolecules until it becomes autotropic. Additionally, phytohormones also plays a role in food mobilization.

References:
Ali, A. S. & Elozeiri, A.A. (2017). Metabolic Processes During Seed Germination. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.70653
Srivastava, L. M. (2002). Seed Germination, Mobilization of Food Reserves, and Seed Dormancy. Plant Growth and Development, 447–471. doi:10.1016/b978-012660570-9/50161-1

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1. Phototropism - differential elongation of the cell towards or against the blue light source
- The growth of of plants, hypocotyl for example, follow the direction of the light source.
- The hypocotyl grows longer on the shaded side and bends towards the light (positive phototropism).

2. Gravitropism - differential elongation of the cell towards or against gravity
- The growth of the shoot and roots are affected by this tropism, enabling the plant to grow upright.
- Shoots grow upwards, against gravity which is called negative gravitropism.
- Roots, on the other hand, grow into the soil which is positive gravitropism. This allows the plant to acquire nutrients from the soil.

3. Hydrotropism - differential elongation of the cell in response to moisture gradients
- Although the study of hydrotropism is overpowered by gravitropism, several methods have been used to override gravitropism, one example is the use of rotating clinostat.
- This tropism is mainly exhibited by the roots, which function to absorb moisture or water.

4. Chemotropism - plant organ movement in response to chemical

References:
Blancaflor, E. B., & Masson, P. H. (2003). Plant Gravitropism. Unraveling the Ups and Downs of a Complex Process. Plant Physiology, ¹³³(4), 1677–1690. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.103.032169

Foundation, C. (n.d.). 12 Foundation.

Kafkafi, U. (2008). Functions Of The Root System. Soilless Culture, 13-40. doi:10.1016/b978-044452975-6.50004-6

Kiss, J. Z. (2007). Where’s the water? Hydrotropism in plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, ¹⁰⁴(11), 4247–4248. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0700846104

Liscum, E., Askinosie, S. K., Leuchtman, D. L., Morrow, J., Willenburg, K. T., & Coats, D. R. (2014). Phototropism: Growing towards an Understanding of Plant Movement. The Plant Cell, ²⁶(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.113.119727