# data[].attributes.body
Black = Racial issue
Blue = Gender issue
Red = Special education
Green = General education

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1944--An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy

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1944--An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy

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Gunnar Myrdal publishes a book that suggests racism is an "anachronistic holdover of slavery," meaning that racism should never be copied in today's time, as it was something only for the time of slavery.

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Mexican Americans successfully challenge Southern California's segregated school policies in

Mendez v. Westminister (Rury, 2020, p. 161).

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The Brown v. Board of Education

Supreme court case declares that segregated schools are inherently unequal and therefore unconstitutional (Rury, 2020, p. 155).

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Arkansas governor Orval Faubus deploys the state's National Guard to prevent nine Black students from entering a

racially segregated school in which they had enrolled.

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1958--Creation of "National Defense Education Act" 

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1958--Creation of "National Defense Education Act" 

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This act pushed for more teacher training, federal aid to all schools, and better math and science programs. This also led the way for many changes in curriculum by official foundations.

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A majority of Black teenagers are attending high school (Rury, 2020, p. 161).

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1961--Creation of the Peace Corps by President Kennedy

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1961--Creation of the Peace Corps by President Kennedy

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This served as a volunteer program to encourage American youth to help developing nations with their social and economic development.

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1964--Robert Havighurst's research found that racial populations were isolating themselves in schools and were declining in test scores.

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1964--Robert Havighurst's research found that racial populations were isolating themselves in schools and were declining in test scores.

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1965--The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is passed by the U.S.Congress as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty." 

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1965--The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is passed by the U.S.Congress as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty." 

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ESEA represents "the nation's first comprehensive federal

education bill," thus heralding a new era of federal education

funding and policies (Rury, 2020, p. 172). ESEA is notable for its scope as well as its distributional policy. Specifically, Title 1 of

ESEA established funding for schools serving low-income

populations and offered a model for "compensatory" funding which many states later mimicked.

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1971--The U.S. Supreme Court upholds mandatory busing as a solution to de facto school segregation in Swan v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg. 

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1971--The U.S. Supreme Court upholds mandatory busing as a solution to de facto school segregation in Swan v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg. 

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As a practice, busing involved using school buses to give schools more heterogeneous populations by "mixing" students from different neighborhoods. This practice represented one practical

solution to school segregation which was both de jure (i.e.,

formerly upheld for official segregation policies) and de facto (e.g., "coincidentally" stemming from residential segregation.) Busing was a controversial practice which sparked passionate responses from both sides, and its contemporary effects may be observed through the second Democratic debate of the 2020 presidential election.

Interestingly, busing wound up being a more effective solution to school segregation in the South and more difficult to implement and maintain elsewhere.

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1972--The U.S. Congress passes Title IX.

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1972--The U.S. Congress passes Title IX.

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Title IX tied federal funding of schools and associated programs with a lack of discrimination on the basis of sex. Title IX established a precedent which could be used for a variety of activist legal cases; however, its impact has been mixed. One notable effect of Title IX is the expansion of women's athletics, but Title IX's impact on other areas of gender inequality in schools is much less significant. Title IX offers one example of the staying power of norms and power structures, even when directly addressed through public policy.

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1975--The Education for All Handicapped Children Act is passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by President Gerald Ford.

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1975--The Education for All Handicapped Children Act is passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by President Gerald Ford.

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The Education for All Handicapped Children Act established several core principles of modern special education in the United

States. The bill guaranteed students with learning disabilities a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). It also helped to

establish the guiding principle of the least restrictive environment as well as providing families with certain rights in decision-making

processes related to special education. This law was revised and renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),

which continues to serve a key role in special education today.

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Rury, J. L. (2020). Education and social change: Contours in the history of American schooling. Routledge.