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Read a book and take a literacy quiz on AR. Please check out books with literacy quiz on AR platform. Ask the librarian for help.

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Read a book and take a literacy quiz on AR. Please check out books with literacy quiz on AR platform. Ask the librarian for help.

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Newsela | Migratory monarch butterflies are listed as endangered species - but there's still hope

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Pesticides and herbicides, deforestation, climate change and severe weather events have all contributed to the decline in migratory monarchs.

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A new study finds that bird species with extreme or uncommon combinations of traits face the highest risk of extinction. The findings are published in the British Ecological Society journal Functional Ecology.

A new study led by researchers at Imperial College London finds that the most unique birds on the planet are also the most threatened. Losing these species and the unique roles they play in the environment, such as seed dispersal, pollination and predation, could have severe consequences to the functioning of ecosystems.

The study analysed the extinction risk and physical attributes (such as beak shape and wing length) of 99% of all living bird species, making it the most comprehensive study of its kind to date.

The researchers found that in simulated scenarios in which all threatened and near-threatened bird species became extinct, there would be a significantly greater reduction in the physical (or morphological) diversity among birds than in scenarios where extinctions were random.

Bird species that are both morphologically unique and threatened include the Christmas Frigatebird ( Fregata andrewsi), which nests only on Christmas Island, and the Bristle-thighed Curlew ( Numenius tahitiensis), which migrates from its breeding grounds in Alaska to South Pacific islands every year.

Jarome Ali, a PhD candidate at Princeton University who completed the research at Imperial College London and was the lead author of the research, said: "Our study shows that extinctions will most likely prune a large proportion of unique species from the avian tree. Losing these unique species will mean a loss of the specialised roles that they play in ecosystems.

"If we do not take action to protect threatened species and avert extinctions, the functioning of ecosystems will be dramatically disrupted."

In the study, the authors used a dataset of measurements collected from living birds and museum specimens, totalling 9943 bird species. The measurements included physical traits like beak size and shape, and the length of wings, tails and legs.

The authors combined the morphological data with extinction risk, based on each species' current threat status on the IUCN Red List. They then ran simulations on what would happen if the most threatened birds were to go extinct.

Although the dataset used in the study was able to show that the most unique birds were also classified as threatened on the Red List, it was unable to show what links uniqueness in birds to extinction risk.

Jarome Ali said: "One possibility is that highly specialised organisms are less able to adapt to a changing environment, in which case human impacts may directly threaten species with the most unusual ecological roles. More research is needed to delve deeper into the connection between unique traits and extinction risk."

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extinction; nature; new species; endangered plants; early birds; evolution; dinosaurs; fossils

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Planet's rarest birds at higher risk of extinction

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A new study finds that bird species with extreme or uncommon combinations of traits face the highest risk of extinction. The findings are published in the British Ecological Society journal Functional Ecology. A new study led by researchers at Imperial College London finds that the most unique birds on the planet are also the most threatened.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Smithsonian’s National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute

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Smithsonian’s National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute

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Meet the Researchers Working to Save Wood Turtles

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Wood turtles are one of the most endangered freshwater turtles in North America. To ensure a future for these reptiles, scientists first need to understand where wood turtles remain and how many are left.

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Newsela | Author hopes her books may rescue some species

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Katherine Applegate writes books she hopes will inspire kids to help endangered species.

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Endangered Insects of the Middle East - List - Earth’s Endangered Creatures

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Endangered animals of the world captured in photos, videos, and more.

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Area(s) Where Listed As Endangered:

Facts Summary:
The Four-toed Jerboa ( Allactaga tetradactyla) is a species of concern belonging in the species group "mammals" and found in the following area(s): Egypt, Libya.

This article is only an excerpt. If it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references, visit the rest of its contents here.

Wikipedia Article
Copyright Notice: This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Four-toed jerboa".

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Four-toed Jerboa Facts - Photos - Earth's Endangered Creatures

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Area(s) Where Listed As Endangered: Facts Summary: The Four-toed Jerboa ( Allactaga tetradactyla) is a species of concern belonging in the species group "mammals" and found in the following area(s): Egypt, Libya. This article is only an excerpt. If it appears incomplete or if you wish to see article references, visit the rest of its contents here.

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Newsela | Hawaiian conference on conservation shows gorillas one step from extinction

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World Conservation Congress in Hawaii reveals changes to endangered species list.

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Take a deep dive and learn all about nature at risk. Click here for a library of nature at risk resources.

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What is the most endangered animal on Earth right now?

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What is the most endangered animal on Earth right now?

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Learn interesting information about endangered animals for kids. Find out which animals are endangered and improve your knowledge with DK Find Out.

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Open a world of reading. Try Sora, the new reading app for students, by OverDrive.

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Read Save The Planet: Helping Endangered Animals on Epic

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Read Save The Planet: Helping Endangered Animals on Epic

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Instantly access Save The Planet: Helping Endangered Animals plus over 40,000 of the best books & videos for kids.

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The Great Bear Rescue: Saving the Gobi Bears

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The Great Bear Rescue: Saving the Gobi Bears

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Learn about endangered species and how wildlife is protected by the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). Learn about the World Wildlife Organization and the an...

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Great white sharks: endangered or abundant, scientists wonder

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Great white sharks: endangered or abundant, scientists wonder

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Jaguars are very rare, prefer to live alone and are good swimmers, runners and tree climbers.

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Threatened, Rare, & Endangered Plants - Point Reyes National Seashore (U.S. National Park Service)

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Point Reyes National Seashore has a variety of habitat types, from coastal dunes, to dense forests. The broad range of habitat types supports over 900 species of vascular plants, three of which are endemic, e.g., found nowhere else on Earth. Of these plants, over fifty are currently listed by the Fe…

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Your Guide to Castle and Medieval Warfare

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Your Guide to Castle and Medieval Warfare

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Six reasons the Dark Ages weren’t so dark

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Six reasons the Dark Ages weren’t so dark

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Newsela | The Crusades: Consequences and effects

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Centuries ago, these military campaigns changed Europe and the Middle East in major ways - and still resonate today.

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Middle Ages, period in Western European history that followed the disintegration of the West Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th cent. and lasted into the 15th cent., i.e., into the period of the Renaissance. The ideas and institutions of western civilization derive largely from the turbulent events of the Early Middle Ages and the rebirth of culture in the later years. The importance of the Middle Ages has been increasingly recognized as scholarship based on newly published source material, archaeological findings, and studies of demographics and migration patterns presents more accurate and detailed analyses of events and trends.

Sections in this article:

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2022, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

See more Encyclopedia articles on: Ancient History, Middle Ages and Feudalism

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Middle Ages, period in Western European history that followed the disintegration of the West Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th cent. and lasted into the 15th cent., i.e., into the period of the Renaissance. The ideas and institutions of western

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Travel to Days of Old Travel back to the time of Vikings, knights, and the Crusades.

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Transcript

Hi, and welcome to this overview of the Middle Ages!

The Middle Ages formally began with the collapse of unified Roman imperial authority in Western Europe in 476. Though the Roman Senate officially transferred that authority to the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, which became known as the Byzantine Empire, Europeans in the previous Western Roman Empire no longer had Roman emperors ruling over them. Foreign invasions - from the Goths, Huns, and Franks, among other groups - had resulted in large-scale plunder and ravaging of lands.

The disintegration of Roman authority in Western Europe, however, was by no means a total loss to citizens. In fact, there were certain benefits. No longer did a universal monarch hold sway over much of the continent, with an army, civil service, and road system powerful enough to impose and collect heavy taxes. With violent decentralization of power came opportunity for individual freedom of maneuver, as many local rulers no longer had the territorial reach nor the wealth to employ armies of mercenaries and enslave the local population.

Large-scale tyranny was receding, and in its place was an array of independent principalities. Peasants, or serfs, gave portions of crops they grew to their lords in exchange for being allowed to reside on small parcels of land and keep portions of their crops for themselves. In return, they were required to serve in the lord's army in wartime, among other obligations. This reciprocal system of obligations was known as feudalism. Often serfs would owe their direct military obligation to lesser nobles including knights, who were professional cavalry soldiers who owned lands under the dominion of a higher-level lord such as a duke. The knights in turn owed military service to these lords. Feudalism was in wide usage throughout Western Europe mainly from the 9th to the 15th century, in which heavily-armed castles and manors figured prominently.

The code of chivalry grew out of feudalism, primarily to curb the massive amounts of violence that were unleashed in a system with a plethora of principalities, many of them roughly equal in strength and deploying armies of knights to invade each other's territory. This restraint on knightly conduct was instituted mainly to prevent nobles from being genuinely threatened any time their lands were invaded by enemy knights. Practically, the nobles sought to hone the military power of their battalions through chivalry: common emphasized values in the chivalric code were bravery on the field of battle and loyalty.

Amid the feudal warfare, certain nobles with advisors emerged into leading positions, grabbing more territory than others and eventually generating the means to found kingdoms. In the case of Charlemagne, who reigned from 768 to 814, the Franks under his command even conquered an empire of sorts - though a much-truncated version when contrasted with the ancient Roman Empire. But Charlemagne's territory would stretch from northern Spain through France and into Italy, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, and Germany. In seeking to revive the idea of the Roman Empire through his own conquests, Charlemagne was short of the mark but cultivated many of the negative and positive qualities of some Roman emperors. He had nine wives and in one day had 4,500 Saxons beheaded. Yet he was also a diligent lawmaker, overseeing codified legislation for the minute particulars of his empire; and he ardently promoted education, founding schools and bringing scholars to his seat of government.

In the triple partition of imperial territory to Charlemagne's grandsons, the westernmost region continued under the sway of the Franks, eventually becoming the monarchy of France. In the early tenth century, a group of inhabitants known as the Normans settled in a northwestern part of France and established a subsidiary duchy within the kingdom, owing loyalty to the French monarch. This relatively small duchy became enormously powerful, helping to install Hugh Capet on the French throne in 950. A literal crowning success came in 1066, when the Norman Duke William crossed into England and defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hastings, taking control of the country in the process. Through the installation of William the Conqueror (as he was thereafter known) on the English throne, and through a combination of marriage and power politics, the Norman rulers of England were eventually able to wrangle control of half of France, thereby creating the Angevin Empire. This development put French royalty in the awkward position of watching a vassal state take control of a foreign country and usurp French authority within France itself. The French quest for revenge helped fuel the Hundred Years' War, won by France in the mid-15th century, thanks to several factors including diplomatic skill, the inspirational campaigning of Joan of Arc, and the expert deployment of cannons in the French armies.

As Europeans waged deadly warfare, they were gaining tremendous skill in battle - skill that could better be employed to win foreign territories and markets rather than wasting the strength of each other. The Catholic Church recognized this dilemma and used the pretext of Muslim invasion and occupation of the Holy Land to spur Christian Europeans into action. Pope Urban II led the charge by giving a speech at the Council of Clermont in November 1095, in which he granted divine sanction to Christian military efforts to retake Jerusalem. The resulting European campaigns to re-conquer sacred territories in the Near East became known as the Crusades. The Crusaders initially succeeded and took control of Jerusalem and surrounding lands, which they possessed for almost a century. At the outset nominally fighting on the side of the Byzantines as co-religionists, in 1204 a detachment of Crusaders diverted from their main mission and sacked Constantinople. But as a result of this sacking and subsequent incursions by Turkish troops on Byzantine frontiers, groups of Byzantine scholars emigrated to the West, bringing a trove of preserved ancient works of scholarship with them.

At roughly the same time the French were smashing their way to victory against England using powerful artillery units, the Turks were also employing cannons in their siege of Constantinople. They took the city in 1453, effectively ending the Byzantine Empire. Another wave of emigration of Byzantine scholars to Western Europe got underway.

The commercial and scholarly interactions brought about through the Crusades, Muslim rule of Spain, and the Turkish conquest of the Byzantine Empire eventually formed the basis for the Renaissance, marking the end of the Middle Ages.

I hope this overview was helpful! Thanks for watching, and happy studying!

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When Were the Middle Ages? - World History Review (Video)

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Transcript Hi, and welcome to this overview of the Middle Ages! The Middle Ages formally began with the collapse of unified Roman imperial authority in Western Europe in 476. Though the Roman Senate officially transferred that authority to the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, which became known as the Byzantine Empire, Europeans in the previous Western Roman Empire no longer had Roman emperors ruling over them.

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Peasant homes were small, often just made up of one room. A peasant's hut was made of and , with a roof but no windows. Inside the hut, a third of the area was penned off for the animals, which lived in the hut with the family. A fire burned in a hearth in the centre of the hut, so the air was permanently eye-wateringly smoky. Furniture was maybe a couple of stools, a trunk for bedding, and a few cooking pots.

Women in peasant families learnt to spin wool from an early age, using wooden wheels to make clothes.

Children spent most of their time helping their parents with day-to-day activities. Rather than going to school, they worked on jobs in the house, looked after animals and helped grow food.

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Find out what life like in medieval society with BBC Bitesize History. For students between the ages of 11 and 14.

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The Middle Ages Interactive - Annenberg Learner

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Discover what it was like to live during the Middle Ages. Explore topics such as Feudal Life, Religion, Homes, Clothing,…

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Turmoil, crisis and the creation of a state, from Magna Carta to the horrors of the Black Death.

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Our list of the most important events in the medieval world, between the years 500 and 1500 AD. This includes political and military events, as well as the dates of inventions, new writings and religious matters in Africa, Asia and Europe. 523-4 - Boethius writes The Consolation of Philosophy
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, a Roman senator and official, is imprisoned by King Theodoric the Great. As he awaits his trial, Boethius writes this philosophical treatise, which examines various questions, including why bad things happen to good people. It has since become a major work of philosophy.
525 - Anno Domini calendar invented
A monk named Dionysius Exiguus creates this new dating system as part of his efforts to understand the dating of Easter. It wanted the year 1 AD to be the date when Jesus Christ was born, although later calculations show that his birth occurred before this. Gradually use of this calendar became more widespread, and is now the most widely accepted system for counting years in the world.
529-34 - Code of Justinian issued
A set of laws created during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, it is considered an important milestone in the history of law.
541-2 - Plague of Justinian
A major pandemic that struck the Middle East and Mediterranean regions, causing the estimated deaths of 25 million people.

See also: Justinian's Plague (541-542 CE)
563 - St Columbus founds Iona
The Irish missionary Columba and 12 companions set up a monastery on the Isle of Iona, just off the Scottish coast. This event marks an important point in the development of Christianity in the British Isles and the rise of monasticism in Western Europe.
590 - Gregory the Great becomes Pope
Gregorius Anicius is elected Pope, taking the name Gregory I. He would reign until 604, and would undertake a series of measures that strengthened the role of the Papacy and spread the Christian religion.
618 - Tang Dynasty begins
Li Yuan leads a rebellion against the Sui Dynasty in China and becomes the first emperor of the Tang. His descendants would rule China for nearly 300 years, an era that was noted for its prosperity and stability, and a high point in Chinese civilization.
622 - Hegira
The period when the Prophet Muhammad and his followers leave the city of Mecca, establishing themselves in Medina. This is a key point in the development of the Islamic religion.
651 - Islamic conquest of Persia
After about 20 years of warfare, the Sassanian Empire collapses, allowing the Islamic caliphate to take control of most its territory. This is one of the most important events in the expansion of Islam.
691 - Buddhism becomes state religion of China
The official acceptance of Buddhism was a major landmark in this faith becoming one of the major religions in the world.
717-8 - Siege of Constantinople
A one-year siege by the Umayyad Caliphate against the capital city of the Byzantine Empire ended with the Umayyads withdrawing. Often considered one of the most important military conflicts in the Middle Ages, this would lead to significant changes within the Islamic world.
747-50 - Abbasid Revolution
The overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate, and the rise of the Abbasid dynasty, this would see the centre of the Islamic world shift to Baghdad.

See also: How the Hashimite Revolution became the Abbasid Revolution
793 - Vikings raid Lindisfarne
Raiders from Scandinavia attack a monastery at Lindisfarne. It is seen as the beginning of Norse attacks and expansion in Europe.

See also: How and why did the Viking Age begin?
800 - Charlemagne crowned emperor
On Christmas Day, the Carolingian ruler is crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, the first person in Western Europe to hold that title.
843 - Treaty of Verdun
An agreement between the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, dividing the Carolingian Empire. This is seen as the beginning of the states of France and Germany.
862 - Rurik dynasty in Russia
A Varangian chieftain named Rurik rises to power in Rus' establishing a dynasty that would rule the region until the 17th century.
910 - Cluny Abbey founded
Founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine, this French monastery would become an important centre of Christianity in the Middle Ages.
911 - Foundation of Normandy
An agreement between King Charles III and the Viking leader Rollo establishes the Duchy of Normandy as a defence against other Norse raiders. The Normans emerge as a significant group over the next two centuries.
919 - First use of gunpowder
The Battle of Langshan Jiang was a naval conflict where gunpowder was used as a flamethrower and proved to be very effective. It would mark the beginning of this technology in warfare.
969 - Foundation of Cairo
The Fatimids establish a new city, al-Qāhirah, which goes on to become the capital of Egypt. By the 14th century it is one of the largest cities in the world.
979 - Song Dynasty reunites China
This new dynasty would rule the Middle Kingdom for more than 300 years, a period that saw technological growth and the population of the region greatly expand.
1025 - Avicenna writes the Canon of Medicine
The Persian scholar Ibn Sīnā completes his encyclopedia of medicine, which would remain the standard work on the topic until the 18th century.
1040 - Invention of moveable type
Bi Sheng is credited with pioneering the use of wooden movable type around 1040. This technology would develop and expand outside of China.
1054 - Great Schism
An official break between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches which lasts to the present day.
1066 - Norman conquest of England
At the Battle of Hastings, Duke William of Normandy defeats Harold Godwinson and establishes his rule over England.

See also: The Battle of Hastings
1077 - Walk to Canossa
A meeting between Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII, considered one of the most dramatic moments in the Middle Ages and in relations between church and state.

See also The Walk to Canossa: The Tale of an Emperor and a Pope
1084 - Zizhi Tongjian published
After 19 years of work, this chronicle of Chinese history is completed. One of the most ambitious works of history ever created, it covers almost 1,400 years and was published in 294 volumes.
1095 - First Crusade is launched
At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls upon Christians to undertake a military expedition in support of the Byzantine Empire against the Seljuk Turks. It would lead to the conquest of Jerusalem four years later and a concerted effort by Western Europeans to take control of the Near East.

See also: 10 Unusual Things that happened during the First Crusade
1098 - Cistercians founded
Robert, abbot of Molesme, establishes a new religious order in Cîteaux. The Cistercians offered a different kind of monastic reform that would be popular in medieval Europe.
1135 - Gothic buildings emerge
A new architectural style that would flourish in medieval Europe, it has its beginnings with the work done by French abbot Suger and his work on the Basilica of St Denis in Paris.
1170-80 - Maimonides writes Mishneh Torah
The Jewish philosopher Moses ben Maimon writes this 14 volume work on Judaism, becoming one of the key books on the religion.
1206 - Chinggis Khan becomes ruler of the Mongols
Temüjin unites the various nomadic tribes in Mongolia, and begins a series of conquests that would stretch across Asia and parts of Europe.
1215 - Fourth Lateran Council
Invoked by Pope Innocent III, this meeting would see hundreds of bishops and religious figures attend, and bring about sweeping changes to Catholic doctrine.
1215 - Magna Carta
A charter agreed to by King John of England and his rebellious barons, the document would come to be seen as the beginning of legal limits on the power of monarchs.
1258 - Siege of Baghdad
A Mongol army besieges and captures this city, ending the Abbasid Dynasty.
1265 - Thomas Aquinas begins his Summa Theologiae
This Dominican friar does not complete this massive work before his death in 1274, but the text has become one of the most important works on theology.
1291 - Siege of Acre
The last major Crusader stronghold in the Near East is captured by the Mamluks. It is often seen as the end of the Crusades.
1315-17 - Great Famine
A series of crop failures and bad weather that struck large parts of Europe.
1320 - Dante Alighieri completes the Divine Comedy
Considered one of the greatest works in literary history, it was written by an Italian poet.
1324-5 - Pilgrimage to Mecca by Mansa Musa
Musa I, ruler of the Mali Empire, is considered one of the wealthiest persons in history. In 1324 he began a pilgrimage to Mecca, bringing with him 60,000 people. His trip would have economic consequences for North Africa and Arabia that would last decades.
1337 - Beginning of the Hundred Years' War
The Kings of England and France begin a war - fought off and on - that would last until 1453.

See also: The Hundred Years' War: A Tale of Two Crowns
1347-51 - Black Death
One of the largest pandemics in human history, it crossed through Eurasia and killed as many as 200 million people.

See also What was the Black Death?
1368 - Ming Dynasty overthrows Yuan
The Chinese people depose Mongol rule, and the new dynasty ruled until 1644.
1378 - Western Schism begins
A split within the Catholic churches that would see two or three men claiming to be Pope at the same time.

See also: "Stop the Steal!": Challenging an election, medieval style
1397 - Kalmar Union established
The kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark and Norway are joined together by Margaret I.

See also: War, Plague, and the Beginning of the Kalmar Union
1401 - Competition for the Florence Baptistery
A competition was held in Florence to design the doors of the buildings, won by Lorenzo Ghiberti. It is seen as one of the key moments in the beginning of the Renaissance.
1439 - Gutenberg invents printing press
The first European to use movable type, Johannes Gutenberg would usher in a revolution in the creation of books and the spread of information.
1453 - Siege of Constantinople
Sultan Mehmed II conquers the capital of the Byzantine Empire, establishing the Ottomans as a major international power for the next several centuries.
1469 - Marriage between Ferdinand and Isabella
The union between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon would lead to the establishment of Spain as a major international power.
1492 - Columbus sails to the Americas
Christopher Columbus leads a voyage westwards on the Atlantic Ocean, hoping to reach Asia. Instead they land in the Caribbean, beginning the period of European settlement and colonization in the Americas.

There were many other important events that could have made this list, but we felt these 50 had a extraordinary influence on history during the medieval period. You can see other lists online, such as:
10 medieval dates you need to know Timeline of the Middle Ages A Chronology of the Middle Ages

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The 50 Most Important Events of the Middle Ages

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Our list of the most important events in the medieval world, between the years 500 and 1500 AD.

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Great Thinkers of Ancient Greece: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

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Great Thinkers of Ancient Greece: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Ancient Greece Timeline
Timeline Description: Ancient Greece is called the birthplace of the modern city and state, with stores and meeting places as well as homes, farms, and governments. This is a timeline of its history.

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Ancient Greece Timeline Timeline Description: Ancient Greece is called the birthplace of the modern city and state, with stores and meeting places as well as homes, farms, and governments. This is a timeline of its history.

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What would life have been like if you had lived in ancient Sparta or in ancient Athens?

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What would life have been like if you had lived in ancient Sparta or in ancient Athens?

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In ancient times the Greeks lived in city states. Each state had its own laws, government and money but they shared the same language and religion. The two most important city states were Athens and Sparta. We know much about Athens because it produced many writers and artists, whose work has survived to this day.

At first both Athens and Sparta were ruled by Kings. Then both were ruled by small groups of powerful people (oligarchies). Later Athens came to be ruled by the people as a democracy whilst Sparta remained an oligarchy.

Athens was the largest and most powerful Greek state. It was a city with lots of beautiful public buildings, shops and public baths.

Parthenon, a temple

The people of Athens lived below the Acropolis (rocky hill). The marble Parthenon, a temple, (see picture above) was built on the highest part of the Acropolis.

Model of the Parthenon in the British Museum

Inside the Parthenon stood a large gold and ivory statue of Athena.

Athena was the goddess of wisdom and war and was the patron of Athens. The legend says that Athene and Poseidon had a contest to have the city named after them. Poseidon promised the riches of the sea, but Athena's gift of an olive tree was felt to be more valuable.

In Athens boys went to school but girls were taught at home.
Government
Athens did not have a king, it was ruled by the people as a democracy. The people of Athens believed that no one group of people should make the laws and so citizens could choose the government officials, and vote for or against new laws. The people of Athens chose their ruler.

They held a large meeting on the slopes of a hill in Athens where any citizen could speak, and tell the government what it should be doing. This was called the Assembly, and there had to be at least 6,000 citizens at every Assembly.

Athenian democracy was not like modern democracy. Only citizens over 18 could vote. Women, slaves and foreigners could not become citizens. So democracy in Athens meant rule by the men of Athens.
Slavery
Slaves made up about a quarter of the working population on Athens. Most were people who had been captured in warfare and sold to slave dealers. They were then put on sale in the slave market.
Further Information
Find out what Athens and Sparta were really like
Sparta's powerful army is ready for war. Athens knows that it cannot defeat this army ... but it has a Navy and Sparta does not. The year is 430 BC. Poliphus and his family from Athens and Sparcus and his family from Sparta are thinking about the future. They each have different points of view!! Cool site!

Athens
Information

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In ancient times the Greeks lived in city states. Each state had its own laws, government and money but they shared the same language and religion. The two most important city states were Athens and Sparta. We know much about Athens because it produced many writers and artists, whose work has survived to this day.

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Ancient Greeks: The Civilization of Greece at its Height | TimeMaps

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The civilization of Ancient Greece emerged into the light of history in the 8th century BC. Normally it is regarded as coming to an end when Greece fell to the Romans, in 146 BC. However, major Greek (or "Hellenistic", as modern scholars call them) kingdoms lasted longer than this.

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: The first Greeks

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The ancient Greeks are known for their contributions to science, math, medicine, government and philosophy. But long before the ancient Greeks could help inform Western civilization, there were other groups that lived in the region. The Minoans, Mycenaeans and Dorians all lived and battled until the Dark Ages ended their reign.

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Ancient Greece flourished as the world's main trading hub, and surrounding areas also prospered.

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: The Olympic Games

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The original Olympic Games of ancient Greece had fewer events than the Olympic Games of today. Athletes competed in boxing, wrestling, footraces and horse events like chariot racing. The most important event was the pentathlon, which showed off an athlete's throwing, jumping, running and wrestling skills.

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: Art and architecture

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Ancient Greece: The Birth of the City-State

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Ancient Greece: The Birth of the City-State

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Ancient Greece: The rise of city-states Athens and Sparta

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Ancient Greece: The rise of city-states Athens and Sparta

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: The rise of city-states Athens and Sparta

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Athens and Sparta are two good examples of city-states in ancient Greece that contrasted greatly with each another.

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Ancient Greece: Gods, goddesses and heroes

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Ancient Greece: Gods, goddesses and heroes

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: Gods, goddesses and heroes

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Newsela | Ancient Greece: Democracy is born

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Newsela | Life of the People in Ancient Rome

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When in Rome: eat, drink and tie a proper toga.

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Monuments built by Romans are found throughout the Mediterranean and beyond. They were a physical connection between the lands controlled by Rome and Rome herself - "caput mundi" - the capital of the civilized world. Throughout the Empire these structures symbolized the power of Rome.

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How Ancient Romans Changed Construction Forever

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How Ancient Romans Changed Construction Forever

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Tommy the robot nurse helps Italian doctors care for coronavirus patients

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Tommy the robot nurse helps Italian doctors care for coronavirus patients

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Newsela | Tommy the robot nurse helps Italian doctors care for coronavirus patients

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Robots like Tommy can measure blood pressure and oxygen saturation for the patients in the intensive care unit.

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Kindness assumes everyone is worthy, you included.

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Cultivating self-compassion is key to strong mental and emotional health

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Cultivating self-compassion is key to strong mental and emotional health

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Newsela | Being kind to yourself is the best way to help achieve your goals

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Self-compassion is a helpful practice for promoting health and making positive changes.

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Entrepreneur's passion for animals sustains low-cost vet clinic

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Entrepreneur's passion for animals sustains low-cost vet clinic

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Newsela - Entrepreneur’s passion for animals sustains low-cost vet clinic

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Angels Vet treats about 60,000 pets each year. It treats 40,000 rescue animals.

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How loving kindness meditation can help you deal with even the most annoying people

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How loving kindness meditation can help you deal with even the most annoying people

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Newsela | How loving kindness meditation can help you deal with even the most annoying people

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Open a world of reading. Try Sora, the new reading app for students, by OverDrive.

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Life in the Middle Ages-A Feudal Society

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Life in the Middle Ages-A Feudal Society

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Why Are so Many Frog Species Disappearing?

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Why Are so Many Frog Species Disappearing?

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Adolescent Apathy and What Loss of Caring Can Mean

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Adolescent Apathy and What Loss of Caring Can Mean

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Along with "You can't make me!" another great rallying cry of adolescence is, "I don't care!" Both expressions are meant to defy parental authority-in the first case, discounting the power of parental command, in the second discounting the impact of any negative consequence the parents might decide to apply.

But beyond this common use of "I don't care!" is a serious psychological issue that parents must be mindful of-the expression of apathy and the various meanings it can convey. Consider just a few examples of apathy commonly encountered along the path of adolescent growth.
Apathy as Pretense
"I don't care if you don't like how I'm changing!" an 11-year-old explodes as parents censor the new tough talk he has learned testing young manliness with male peers. But the parents stick to their standards: "How you talk with friends on the playground is your business; but how you talk at home is ours. None of that language here!"

It's hard to be an early adolescent because what gains you points with peers can earn you demerits with parents. He still wants his parents' good opinion, but to save face he pretends it doesn't matter. His statement of apathy in this situation is really bravado speaking. What he actually feels is, "I care too much about what you think of the new me to let my caring show."

Parents need to see the "I don't care what you think" statement for what it is, and avoid strong statements of disapproval at this vulnerable age. Disagree with the young person's choices when they feel they must, but don't criticize his character when doing so.
Apathy as Boredom
"There's nothing I care to do!" moans the early adolescent (around ages 9-13) at a loss of how she can occupy herself. Having discarded childhood hobbies and possessions because she no longer wants to be defined and treated as a child, she doesn't yet have older likes, interests, and activities to replace those that have been let go. When it comes to knowing how to meaningfully engage herself, for a while she is riding on empty.

While parents are often inclined to trivialize boredom in their adolescent, it is actually a very painful emotion. It is an expression of loneliness. The young person can't find a satisfying way to connect with herself, other people, or the world. She feels disconnected, at loose ends.

Although short-term boredom creates the opportunity for the adolescent to develop her own resources and entertain herself, long-term boredom should catch parental attention because it is often a staging area for impulse. The young person is willing to do something, anything, with friends to escape the emptiness they share. This is a time when parents need to keep their adolescent adequately busy so impulsive risk-taking to cope with long term boredom is not allowed to rule.
Apathy as Defiance
"Who cares about grades?" protests the middle school student to parents, as academic performance falls from failing effort. "It should be good enough to just get by." The formerly high performing young man is rejecting the importance of school achievement to which he was committed as a child and that his parents still are.

By this expression of apathy, he intends to show the adult world he is no longer wants to be wed to the values of childhood. Not caring about what mattered to the child and what matters to parents feels like an expression of adolescent independence.

But for his future sake at this disaffected time, the parents insist that all school work will be done, and apply their oversight to make it so. "Although we understand how school performance matters less to you at the moment, we still expect you to pay attention in class, complete all the homework, study for all the tests, and if you can't make yourself do all this, we will give you our support of our supervision, even if that means showing up at school to help you take care of studies there."
Apathy as a Defense
"I don't care about serious dating anymore," declares the high school junior who has just been jilted by her boyfriend of two years, with whom she had fallen in love, but who it turned out hadn't been in lasting love with her. Now she discovers some painful lessons about love: love is not guaranteed to be forever; the one we love the most can hurt us the worst; our love for someone is not always the best measure of their love for us.

"Caring takes daring" is the lesson the young person has learned because when it comes to love, the risk of hurt is always there. Apathy at this juncture doesn't heal the suffering, but it does defend against becoming enamored again anytime soon. Respecting this decision, parents can also help the young person appreciate good aspects of this last relationship that can strengthen the next loving attachment when she feels ready to try again.
Apathy as Indifference
Adolescence can be a very self-centered and socially limiting experience, in the extreme causing young people to lose empathy for others in their preoccupation with self-interest and confinement to their own small social circle of friends.

In the first case, concern for others is sacrificed to caring only for self, ignoring the needs of those they live with. This is when parents complain: "He only thinks of himself!" In the second case, the high school student may be so committed to a social clique and sticking to her own kind that there is insensitivity and indifference to the welfare of others outside of her immediate associations. This is when the young person seems to think: "Who cares about them?"

Because healthy personal relationships must work two ways and not just one (the adolescent's way), and because after leaving school the young person must be prepared to function in a larger and more diverse world, lack of empathy and range in personal relationships will not serve the growing adolescent well. Therefore parents need to insist on mutuality with them and do all they can to broaden experience and enlarge sense of social affiliation while she is still living at home.
Apathy as Cynicism
Fresh out on one's own and facing a large impersonal world and job market that is inhospitable, the last stage adolescent finally secures an entry-level job, earning just enough to move in with two similarly situated friends who need a third roommate to make rent on the one bedroom apartment they now all share. What a come-down from the comforts of living at home!

Because the present is discouraging and the future looks unpromising, it's tough to care about life when life doesn't appear to care much about you. If you just graduated from college and there are not the opportunities you thought awaited someone with your advanced education, life can feel unfair. Add pessimism to apathy and cynicism can result, creating an outlook with little hope and a lot of disappointment and anger. True independence is a letdown when the world is revealed as the hard, impersonal place it is. Now the work of making one's way begins.

Because cynicism makes it difficult to stay motivated, it can be the enemy of effort at a time when summoning the will to keep trying, to try even harder, is what is needed. Although parents should not spare the older adolescent this time of struggle, they can offer encouragement and also provide perspective by relating some of the trials they went through starting out in life many years ago.
Apathy from Substance Use
At any stage of adolescence, when life gets hard to engage with, it's tempting to escape from these demands, which is where a lot of substance use comes in. The escape is about freedom - freedom from worrisome or painful cares, freedom for unrestricted and uninhibited pleasure. The effect of substance use is an altered psychological state.

Depending on the dose and frequency, substance use can take the user from sober caring, to less caring, to acting carelessly, to becoming carefree, to not caring at all if intoxication or getting wasted occurs. When regular use of alcohol, marijuana, or other psychoactive drugs becomes established, a loss of normal caring can disable effort. Now apathy erodes ambition, motivation falls away, and healthy functioning is harder to maintain.

Another impact of substance use on apathy is not caring about consequences and engaging in dangerous risk-taking. In either case, parents should push for an assessment of use, and if advised, see about getting substance use counseling, treatment, or support group help.
Apathy from Depression
"What differences does anything make?" exploded the high school senior. She just lost her best friend to a fatal car accident a month ago. "Nothing matters anymore!" That's what her parents report in counseling, explaining how "our daughter's just feeling really sad, but she'll get past it. We just need to give time."

However, based on other data that they share, I disagree. "She's showing signs that she needs help. She's no longer striving on her own behalf. She doesn't care about the future. She looks downcast all the time. She's stopped socializing with friends and just stays by herself. She's given up working out. She's not interested in communicating and gets angry when you want to talk with her. I think she's becoming seriously depressed. Significant loss of any kind always carries the risk of a depressive response."

It can be a vicious cycle. Depression can breed apathy, and apathy can sustain depression. Hopeless, helpless, pessimistic, fatalistic, when the young person loses sight of what used to matter they may need help reviving their sense of positive purpose in life to restore healthy functioning. Obviously, if despondency sounds at all suicidal-"life is not worth living," "I feel like ending it all," "death preferable to living in pain"-parents should get the young person immediately assessed for risk of self-harm and given counseling help.

Apathy can mask a variety of problems. The lesson for parents is: Don't ignore protracted or pronounced apathy in your adolescent. It can signify something serious going on that warrants your attention.

For more about parenting adolescents, see my book, Surviving Your Child's Adolescence.

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Adolescent Apathy and What Loss of Caring Can Mean

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Along with "You can't make me!" another great rallying cry of adolescence is, "I don't care!" Both expressions are meant to defy parental authority-in the first case, discounting the power of parental command, in the second discounting the impact of any negative consequence the parents might decide to apply.

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Newsela | How to communicate effectively

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Developing our communication skills offers many benefits.

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Communication Skills: What is active listening?

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Communication Skills: What is active listening?

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Newsela | Communication Skills: What is active listening?

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Active listening is a formal skill that needs to be learned and practiced.

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Having trouble communicating? Go talk to a horse

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Having trouble communicating? Go talk to a horse

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Newsela | Having trouble communicating? Go talk to a horse

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Horse therapists say horses can help people learn about themselves and get better at communicating with others.

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Newsela | Key thinkers of the Enlightenment

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A roundup of a group of Enlightenment thinkers who consciously sought human advancement through logic, reason and criticism.

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Voltaire, author of the 18th century French satire "Candide"

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Voltaire, author of the 18th century French satire "Candide"

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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The Three Great Thinkers Who Changed Economics

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The Three Great Thinkers Who Changed Economics

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Newsela | The Three Great Thinkers Who Changed Economics

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Landmark theories on commerce, labor, and the global economy

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Newsela | Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-Seekers

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Thinkers and truth-seekers of ancient Greece might have been ahead of their time.

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Famous Scientists & Mathematicians - Sigmund Freud

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Famous Scientists & Mathematicians - Sigmund Freud

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Improve your students' reading comprehension with ReadWorks. Access thousands of high-quality, free K-12 articles, and create online assignments with them for your students.

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Great Thinkers of Ancient Greece: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

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Great Thinkers of Ancient Greece: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

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Social media can be both bummer and boon for the brain

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Social media can be both bummer and boon for the brain

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela | How to have a balanced health triangle

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Newsela | How do People Create Knowledge?

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Curiosity prepares the brain for better learning

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Curiosity prepares the brain for better learning

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Newsela | Curiosity prepares the brain for better learning

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Curiosity improves memory by tapping into the brain's reward system

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Curiosity changes the brain to boost memory and learning

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Curiosity changes the brain to boost memory and learning

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Newsela | Curiosity changes the brain to boost memory and learning

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كيف أنظم يومي الدراسي

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كيف أنظم يومي الدراسي

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إنّ وضع جدول تنظيميّ للواجبات المدرسيّة يعتبر من أهم الخطوات لتنظيم الوقت الدراسيّ ، لذا يجب أن يتضمن ما يأتي:

قائمة المسؤوليات: يجب على الطالب التفكير جيداً بالمسؤوليات والواجبات المطلوبة منه، من حيث الأعمال المنزلية، والوظائف، والتمارين الرياضية، ومدى القدرة على الموافقة بينها وبين وقت الدراسة، ثمّ كتابتها بالشكل الصحيح والمناسب في الجدول التنظيمي.

اختيار الوقت المناسب للدراسة: يمكن القيام بذلك من خلال تحديد الأوقات التي يستطيع أن يدرس بها الشخص بشكلٍ فعّال، فمثلاً قد يكون من الأشخاص الذين يستفيدون من الدراسة ليلاً أو ربما صباحاً، ممّا يؤدي إلى بذل الجهد لتخصيص الوقت الكافي والمناسب للدراسة في غضون تلك الأوقات التي يستفيد منها الشخص بشكل فعّال.

تحديد أوقات للراحة: لا يستطيع الطالب الدراسة لمدة ساعات طويلة متواصلة، فلا بدّ من تحديد أوقات للراحة حتى يستطيع تحقيق النجاح، كما أنّ أخذ قسط من الراحة أثناء العمل سيساعد على تحسين مستوى الإنجاز الدراسي، لذا يوصي الخبراء بتخصيص مدة خمس عشرة دقيقةً من الراحة لكلّ خمسٍ وأربعين دقيقة من العمل أو الدراسة.

تتمثّل عملية تحديد الأولويات في تخصيص الوقت الأكبر والأساسيّ للمهام الأكثر أهمية، والتي تحتاج إلى مستوى عالٍ من التركيز، ومحاولة إنجازها بالبداية، ثمّ التطرّق إلى المهام أو الواجبات الأقل أهمية في سلم الأولويات المحدَّد لإنجازها، فمثلاً يمكن وضع مواد الرياضيات، واللغة العربية، واللغة الإنجليزية في القائمة الأكثر أهمية لإعطائها القدر الأكبر من التركيز، ثمّ ممارسة الواجبات الأخرى المطلوبة كالموسيقا مثلاً.

الحصول على قدر كافٍ من النوم

إنّ حصول الطالب على القسط الكافي من النوم يعتبر من أهمّ الأسس التي يعتمد عليها تركيزه في الصف في اليوم التالي، لذا لا بد من مراعاة حصول كلّ من الجسم والعقل على الراحة الكافية والحيوية المطلوبة، والنوم لمدّة تتراوح ما بين سبع إلى ثماني ساعات، وذلك كما أثبتت العديد من الدراسات، حتى يتجنّب انخفاض نسبة الإنتاجية والفعالية.

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مهارات دراسية

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كيف أنظم يومي الدراسي - موضوع

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إنّ وضع جدول تنظيميّ للواجبات المدرسيّة يعتبر من أهم الخطوات لتنظيم الوقت الدراسيّ ، لذا يجب أن يتضمن ما يأتي: قائمة المسؤوليات: يجب على الطالب التفكير جيداً بالمسؤوليات والواجبات المطلوبة منه، من حيث الأعمال المنزلية، والوظائف، والتمارين الرياضية، ومدى القدرة على الموافقة بينها وبين وقت الدراسة، ثمّ كتابتها بالشكل الصحيح والمناسب في الجدول التنظيمي.

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كيف تكون متفوقاً في دراستك

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كيف تكون متفوقاً في دراستك

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إنجاز الواجبات المنزلية

يمكن للطالب التفوق في دراسته من خلال الاهتمام بإنجاز الواجبات المنزلية، ثم تسليمها إلى المعلم، ويؤدي عدم القيام بذلك إلى إضاعة تعلم مفهوم جديد، مما يترك لديه فجوة في التعلم، كما أن درجاته ستكون أقل مما ينبغي أن تكون عليه، لذلك يجب على الطالب القيام بالواجب المنزلي على الرغم من أن ذلك لا يعتبر أمراً ممتعاً، إلا أنه يعتبر جزءاً أساسياً من المدرسة وعملية التعلم.

يمكن للفرد التفوق في دراسته من خلال تنظيم وقته، حيث يمكن له استخدام مخطط ورقي، أو الاستفادة من برامج الكلاود (Cloud) لإعداد تقويم فردي والالتزام به، بحيث يعمل على تضمينه بجميع المعلومات الخاصة بالفصل مثل واجبات القراءة، والامتحانات، والمشاريع، بالإضافة إلى جميع الأمور المتعلقة بالدراسة، ويؤدي قيام الفرد بتنظيم جميع أموره في تقويم واحد إلى تبسيط حياته، وتمكينه من رؤية جميع المهام المترتبة عليه في مكان واحد.

الاستعداد جيداً للامتحان

يمكن للطالب التفوق في دراسته من خلال الاستعداد جيداً للامتحان ، وذلك من خلال اتباع النصائح الآتية:

تناول وجبة خفيفة صحية قبل القدوم إلى الامتحان بحوالي خمسة وأربعين دقيقة، وذلك حتى يصبح الدماغ أكثر نشاطاً ووضوحاً.

القدوم إلى الامتحان ضمن الوقت المحدد حتى يكون مستعداً جيداً.

قبول حقيقة أنه ليس شرطاً عليه الحصول على العلامة الكاملة، وإنما يكفي النجاح بتفوق.

الاسترخاء والتركيز قبل البدء بالامتحان، والتفكير بشكل إيجابي.

كتابة الإجابة الأولى التي تخطر على باله.

وضع علامة على الهامش بجانب السؤال الذي يواجه صعوبةً في الإجابة عليه للعودة إليه لاحقاً، وذلك حتى لا يضيع الوقت، واستغلاله في حل الأسئلة السهلة.

المرور على جميع أسئلة الامتحان بشكل كامل قبل البدء بالإجابة على الأسئلة عند تقديم اختبار الكيمياء أو الفيزياء على سبيل المثال، ثم البدء بالإجابة عن الأسئلة السهلة أولا، وذلك حتى يعزز ثقته بنفسه، ثم الانتقال بعد ذلك إلى الأسئلة الأكثر صعوبةً.

1. Derrick Meador (19-5-2017), "Essential Strategies to Help You Become an Outstanding Student"، www.thoughtco.com, Retrieved 12-7-2018. Edited.

2. "10 best study habits of successful students", www.ecpi.edu, Retrieved 12-7-2018. Edited.

3. "How to succeed in a science class", www.jccmi.edu, Retrieved 12-7-2018. Edited.

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مهارات دراسية

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كيف تكون متفوقاً في دراستك - موضوع

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يمكن للطالب التفوق في دراسته من خلال الاهتمام بإنجاز الواجبات المنزلية، ثم تسليمها إلى المعلم، ويؤدي عدم القيام بذلك إلى إضاعة تعلم مفهوم جديد، مما يترك لديه فجوة في التعلم، كما أن درجاته ستكون أقل مما ينبغي أن تكون عليه، لذلك يجب على الطالب القيام بالواجب المنزلي على الرغم من أن ذلك لا يعتبر أمراً ممتعاً، إلا أنه يعتبر جزءاً أساسياً من المدرسة وعملية التعلم.

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كيف أنظم وقتي للمذاكرة للامتحانات

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كيف أنظم وقتي للمذاكرة للامتحانات

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أمور يجب فعلها عند تنظيم الوقت للامتحانات

إنّ أوّل ما يجب عليك فعله قبل الامتحانات هو تنظيم وقتك للدراسة لها، إذ إنّ التنقل بصورةٍ عشوائيةٍ من مادةٍ إلى أخرى قد يضعك في مأزقٍ كبيرٍ جداً وقد يؤدّي إلى عدم التمكن من إنهاء المادة الدراسية قبل الامتحان، وفيما يأتي بعض النصائح لتنظيم الوقت للامتحانات:

تأكد من معرفتك لموعد امتحاناتك قبل مدةٍ من الامتحان، فلا يوجد مأزقٌ أكبر من أن تعرف عن امتحانك قبل ساعاتٍ من موعده.

اجمع أكبر قدرٍ ممكن من المعلومات عن طبيعة الامتحان والمادة الدراسية التي يغطيها، فبهذا لن تضيّع وقتك بدراسة أمورٍ لن تهمّك في الامتحان.

رتب امتحاناتك حسب أولويتها، ويمكنك تحديد أولويات امتحاناتك عن طريق معرفة ترتيبها وتحصيلك الدراسي في كلٍّ منها خلال السنة ومدى صعوبة وسهولة دراسة كلٍّ منها بالنسبة لك، إذ إنّ سهولة وصعوبة دراسة المواد تختلف من شخصٍ لآخر، فهنالك من يتمكن من حفظ المواد بسرعةٍ كبيرةٍ بينما يعاني في المواد التي تعتمد على الفهم وهكذا.

طريقة تنظيم الوقت لدراسة الامتحانات

إنّ أفضل طريقةٍ لتنظيم وقتك للدراسة بعد حصولك على المعلومات السابقة هي بعملٍ جدولٍ واتباعه، ولعمل هذا الجدول عليك عمل جدولٍ ليومك بشكلٍ عام وليس للدراسة فقط، والهدف من هذا هو أن تتمكن من تحديد المدّة التي ستتمكن فيها من الدراسة بعد تخصيص وقتٍ للنوم، والدوام المدرسي، أو الجامعي في حال وجودهما أثناء الامتحانات، وأوقات عملك في حال الدراسة والعمل معاً وتناول الطعام، وهكذا.

قسّم الوقت المخصّص للدراسة إلى أجزاء بمدّة نصف ساعةٍ تقريباً، وخصّص كلّ جزءٍ من هذه الأجزاء لتحقيق هدفٍ معينٍ من الدراسة، فعلى سبيل المثال يمكنك تخصيص نصف ساعةٍ لمراجعة الفصل الأوّل من مادة الرياضيات والنصف ساعةٍ الأخرى لحلّ مسائل على هذا الفصل، ومن المهم أن تأخذ استراحاتٍ قليلةٍ بين كلّ جزءٍ مدتها خمس دقائق تقريباً كي تستعيد نشاطك.

نصائح عند دراسة الامتحانات

من الأمور التي يجب مراعاتها عند دراسة الامتحانات ما يلي:

إنّ الدراسة عند الامتحانات لا يمكن أن تكون فعالةً مطلقاً إن لم تدرس خلال الفصل بشكلٍ يوميّ، إذ إنّ الدراسة للامتحانات يجب أن تكون مراجعةً لما فهمته سابقاً وليست دراسةً من الصفر.

عليك أن تهتم بالحصول على قسطٍ من الراحة، وأن ترتب المواد الصعبة في الأوقات التي تكون مستويات تركيزك فيها أعلى ما يمكن، وهذه الأوقات تختلف من شخصٍ لآخر، فهنالك البعض ممّن يركزون في الصباح وآخرون بعد ممارسة التمارين الرياضية.

رتب جميع أوراقك ومود الدراسة كي لا تضيّع الوقت في الحصول عليها من أًصدقائك أو البحث عنها بدلاً من الدراسة.

1. "Tips for managing your study time", www.khanacademy.org, Retrieved 25-6-2018. Edited.

2. Emily Listmann , "How to Create a Study Schedule"، www.wikihow.com, Retrieved 25-6-2018. Edited.

3. "Top 10 study tips", www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au, Retrieved 25-6-2018. Edited.

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مهارات دراسية

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
إبراهيم أبو غزالة

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كيف أنظم وقتي للمذاكرة للامتحانات - موضوع

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إنّ أوّل ما يجب عليك فعله قبل الامتحانات هو تنظيم وقتك للدراسة لها، إذ إنّ التنقل بصورةٍ عشوائيةٍ من مادةٍ إلى أخرى قد يضعك في مأزقٍ كبيرٍ جداً وقد يؤدّي إلى عدم التمكن من إنهاء المادة الدراسية قبل الامتحان، وفيما يأتي بعض النصائح لتنظيم الوقت للامتحانات: تأكد من معرفتك لموعد امتحاناتك قبل مدةٍ من الامتحان، فلا يوجد مأزقٌ أكبر من أن تعرف عن امتحانك قبل ساعاتٍ من موعده.

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أسهل طرق المذاكرة

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أسهل طرق المذاكرة

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أسهل طرق المذاكرة - موضوع

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. صعوبة الدراسة . أسهل طرق المذاكرة . نصائح مهمة . المراجع صعوبة الدراسة يعاني أكثر الطلاب والمتعلمين من صعوبة الدراسة وترسيخ المعلومات في أذهانهم، على

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القراءة الفاعلة

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القراءة الفاعلة

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باتت القراءة من مستلزمات الإنسان الضرورية في الحياة ومن مفاتيح سعادته فيها، فالقراءة بشكل عام ضرورية للإنسان، والقراءة الفاعلة أشد ضرورة، إذ إنَّ القراءة لمجرد القراءة قد لا يكون لها نفس الأثر والتأثير المقصود في الحياة، والقراءة هي: (عملية معرفية تقوم على تفكيك رموز تسمى حروفاً لتكوين معنى، والوصول إلى مرحلة الفهم والإدراك)، ولعل الجزئية من التعريف المتعلقة بالهدف من القراءة هي تحقيق الفهم والإدراك والمقصود بالقراءة الفاعلة، أي القراءة ذات الآثار العظيمة ومنها فهم المقصود وإدراك معناه، وهناك سبل يمكن من خلالها اكتساب مهارة القراءة الفاعلة.

سبل اكتساب مهارة القراءة الفاعلة

من سبل اكتساب مهارة القراءة الفاعلة:

اختيار المكان المناسب للقراءة بهدف تحقيق التهيئة النفسية نحوها، كتوفر الهدوء فيه والبعد عن مسببات التوتر والصخب.

التركيز على العنوان الرئيسي للدرس والعناوين الفرعية المندرجة في سياق ذلك، وهذا يعطي انطباعاً مهمَّاً حول الموضوع المتعلِّق بالقراءة، ويساعد على الاندماج والتفاعل مع تفاصيله.

البدء بأسئلة ذهنية متعلقة بموضوع القراءة من قبيل ماذا وكيف ومتى، وغير ذلك، وهي عادة تركز على عناوين تتعلق بحقائق الأشياء المتعِّلقة بالموضوع كالتاريخ، والرقم، والعدد، والأسماء، ومفاصل الأحداث، وغير ذلك، وهذا يستلزم أحياناً تكرار تصورها في الدماغ؛ ليبقى الإنسان على تسلسل مع ما يقرأه.

الاندماج مع القراءة بوضع تصورات وفرضيات ذهنيّة تتعلق بتسلسل أفكار ما يقرأه على ضوء المعطيات المتاحة المتعلقة بما قرأه، وما فهمه من حقائق وعناوين وأحداث وغير ذلك.

القراءة الأوليَّة السريعة دون تركيز على أجزاء معيِّنة ممَّا يقرأه، والتي تهدف إلى إعطاء تصوُّر وانطباع عام عمَّا يقرأه الشخص، وقد تكون على شكل تصفح الوقت نفسه عند الشروع في القراءة بشكل تفصيلي.

القراءة التفصيلية الدقيقة، وفيها يتم قراءة الكتاب بشكل تفصيلي تحليلي، مع الوقوف على أفكاره ومحتوياته، مع الاستعانة بتلخيص ما يراه من أفكار مناسبة يحتاجها لزاده الثقافي بشكل عام.

الاسترجاع والتذكر لما قرأه، ويكون ذلك بعدة سبل، كتلخيص بعض الأفكار، وتذكر بعض المفردات والأحداث.

التسلح بصفات مهمّة تسهم في القراءة الفاعلة، كتحديد الهدف منها، وجعل القراءة متعة ونوع راحة نفسية، والاتصاف بالمرونة المنافية للتشدد والقسوة، والاتصاف بالصبر والمثابرة، والتحلي بالهمّة العالية والعزيمة القوية، ومكافأة النفس بطريقة مناسبة مع كل نجاح في القراءة بشكل فاعل، وتنظيم الوقت بشكل جيِّد وعدم تأجيل عمل اليوم إلى الغد.

من فوائد القراءة الفاعلة:

الشعور ببركة الوقت وقيمته في الحياة.

تنمية وتطوير الذات باستمرار معرفياً وثقافياً.

تحقيق الراحة النفسيَّة للفرد، وقوة ثقته بنفسه.

ملاحظة: إنَّ للتنشئة الأسرية السليمة التي تجعل من الكتاب والمكتبة حيِّزاً مهمّاً في البيت، ولسلوك الأبوين الإيجابي في سبل تعاملهما مع الكتاب أثر عظيم في غرس حب القراءة عند الطفل، فينشا محبّاً للقراءة والمطالعة الذاتيّة.

1. "How Reading Develops Read more at: www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/effective-reading.html", www.skillsyouneed.com, Retrieved 25/6/2018. Edited.

2. Lana Winter-Hébert, "10 Benefits of Reading: Why You Should Read Every Day"، www.lifehack.org, Retrieved 25/6/2018. Edited.

3. "Before you start reading a text, think of the following:", findyourway.uj.mobi, Retrieved 25/6/2018. Edited.

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مهارات دراسية

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
إبراهيم العبيدي

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
القراءة الفاعلة - موضوع

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باتت القراءة من مستلزمات الإنسان الضرورية في الحياة ومن مفاتيح سعادته فيها، فالقراءة بشكل عام ضرورية للإنسان، والقراءة الفاعلة أشد ضرورة، إذ إنَّ القراءة لمجرد القراءة قد لا يكون لها نفس الأثر والتأثير المقصود في الحياة، والقراءة هي: (عملية معرفية تقوم على تفكيك رموز تسمى حروفاً لتكوين معنى، والوصول إلى مرحلة الفهم والإدراك)، ولعل الجزئية من التعريف المتعلقة بالهدف من القراءة هي تحقيق الفهم والإدراك والمقصود بالقراءة الفاعلة، أي القراءة ذات الآثار العظيمة ومنها فهم المقصود وإدراك معناه، وهناك سبل يمكن من خلالها اكتساب مهارة القراءة الفاعلة.

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المحافظة على المدرسة

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المحافظة على المدرسة

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المحافظة على المدرسة - موضوع

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. المدرسة في المجتمعات الحديثة . دور الدولة . دور الأسرة . دور المعلم المدرسة في المجتمعات الحديثة تُعتبر المدرسة من أهمّ المؤسّسات في أي مجتمع، فهي التي