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In light of this, the challenges of global governance include a broad range of inter-national policy issues and challenges that require governance, not all of which are necessarily global in scope.Instead, we observe multidimensional, frequently diffuse forms of governance in which a wide range of people play important roles alongside states. The complexity of the procedures, the political conflict over "who gets what" and "who benefits," and the continual need for attention to the concerns of accountability, legitimacy, and efficacy all point to a growing need for more governance. The most crucial point is that we shouldn't believe that all global government is inherently beneficial. As Inis Claude put it many years ago, "I must question the assumption of the normative superiority of collective policy, the view that one can have greater confidence in the wisdom and the moral quality of decisions made by a collectivity regarding the use of power and other resources than in the quality of policies set and followed by individual states. Global governance refers to the collective efforts identify, understand and address worldwide problems that go beyond the problem-solving capacities of states. Present Challenges of Global Governance. Global Governance Individuals or entities with the power and authority to Actor influence global process. Non-state Actors Those organizations and individuals who have power to influence but are not affiliated with particular state. State Actors Those that we would refer as countries. In global governance, state actors are considered as primary actors. State actors influence global processes through domestic and foreign policy, NGOS, MNC, IGO, expert, network and partnership. State and Non-state Actors Aim to contribute to the solution of interdependent issues supplementing, and sometimes clashing, with already established regimes designed to address certain international problems. Processes of Global Governance Complex Diplomacy, How Do Decisions Get Made? Leadership, Actor Strategies. The Varieties of Global Governance, International structures and mechanisms (formal and informal) IGOs: global, regional, other NGO. International rules and laws, Multilateral agreements; customary practices; judicial decisions, regulatory standards, International norms or "soft law" Framework agreements; select UN resolutions, International regimes, Ad hoc groups, arrangements, and global conference, Private and hybrid public-private governance. the Politics and Effectiveness of Global Governance, Power: Who Gets What? Who Benefits? Who Loses, Authority and Legitimacy: Who Governs and On What Basis, Accountability, Effectiveness: Measuring Success and Failure.

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Liberal theory, Liberal theory holds that human nature is basically good and that people can improve the moral and material conditions of their existence. Core elements of liberalism: For liberals, individual human beings are the primary international actors. The expansion of human freedom is a core liberal belief that can be achieved through democracy and market capitalism. What is theory, a set of key ideas about the nature and roles of individual’s conceptions of the state, sovereignty, and interactions among states and other actors, as well as conceptions about the international system. States are the most important collective actors, but they are pluralistic not unitary actors. Liberals also focus on nonstate actors and transnational and trans-governmental groups as well. This strand of liberalism forms the basis for economic liberalism. Roots of Liberalism The nineteenth-century political and economic liberalism: in favor of economic liberalism were advanced during the Enlightenment, opposing mercantilism and feudalism. Injustice, aggression, and war are, come from inadequate or corrupt social institutions and of misunderstanding among leaders: They are inevitable, but rather can be eliminated through collective or multilateral action and institutional reform. That is, moral and ethical principles, elections (in the case of democratic states), power relations and bargaining among domestic and transnational groups, and changing international conditions shape states' interests and policies. Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham believed that free trade would create interdependencies that would raise the cost of war and reward fair cooperation and competition with peace, prosperity, and greater justice. There is no single definition of states' national interest; rather, states vary in their goals and their interests change. The rationalism of the Enlightenment and the growing faith in modernization through the scientific and industrial revolutions to promoting democracy and free trade. Hedley Bull (1977) has also promoted the idea that the system is a society where actors adhere to common norms, consent to common rules and institutions, and common interests. To stimulate individual (and therefore collective) economic growth and to maximize economic welfare, free markets must be allowed to develop and mature, and governments: permit the free flow of trade and economic intercourse.

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After studied chapter 3 about IGOs and the foundations of global governance I knew about state system and also the process of International organization. After the Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War, Articles 64, 65, and 67 established several key principles of a new state system: territorial sovereignty; the right of the state (prince or ruler) to choose its religion and determine its own domestic policies; and the prohibition of interference from supranational authorities. Sovereignty was the core concept in the state system, sovereignty maybe limited by natural law by the type of regime or by the promise of people. However, Hugo Grotius, the early Dutch legal scholar rejected the concept that states have complete freedom to do whatever they wish. After the 19th century with increasing international trade, immigration, technological innovation and other development that undermine the capacity of state to govern effectively and the weakness of state system became increasingly. There are three pillars of 19th century governance such as the concert of European, public international unions, and The Hague Conferences. For the concert of European establish in 1815—a concert of major European powers making system wide decisions by negotiation and consensus. Members agreed to coordinate behavior based on certain rights and responsibilities, with expectations of diffuse reciprocity. About public international Unions were another important organizational innovation and agencies were initially established among European states to dealt with problems stemming from the industrial revolution, expanding commerce, communications and technological innovations. For the last pillars is The Hague conferences The third governance innovation in the nineteenth century was the concept of generalized conferences in which all states were invited to participate in problem solving. to think proactively about what techniques states should have available to prevent war and under what conditions arbitration, negotiation. Overall, the League fell far short of expectations, in large part because it was based on the principle of voluntary cooperation and because the sovereignty of its member states remained intact, the League enjoyed a number of successes but failed in some critical respects. the establishment of the United Nations, the expansion of functional and specialized organizations both within and outside the UN system, and the growth of international courts. The establishment of the United Nations in the closing days of World War II, the structure of the UN was patterned after that of the League of Nations. Four of the UN’s principal organs were patterned after those of the League of Nations: The Security Council, General Assembly, Secretariat, and International Court of Justice. The establishment of single-function IGOs to address specific issues such as health, economics, trade, labor issues, and environmental threats mirrors a pattern carried over from national governments. About The International Labor Conference is the ILO’s main decision-making body, also the ILO continues to be the primary specialized, functional organization devoted to labor issues and standards. Increasingly, however, those issues overlap with trade issues and the work of the World Trade Organization (WTO). About The office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was created in 1950, during the aftermath of the Second World War, to help millions of Europeans who had fled or lost their homes.

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The UN Charter articulates the founding members' ambitions for a better world as well as the lessons learned from the League of Nations and the realities that governments were able to agree upon in 1945. The essential legal obligations of all members are represented by the principles that guide the UN's organization and operations. These are mentioned in other clauses as well as Article 2 of the Charter

The member states' sovereign equality, which means they do not acknowledge a superior ruling body, is the most important premise. Due to the fact that legal status, not size, money, or military prowess, determines a state's equality, Singapore, Russia, China, and Lithuania are all considered equals.

This is the rationale behind each state's one vote. The final principle in Article 2 addresses the limits on the jurisdiction of the UN and underscores the long-standing norm of nonintervention in the domestic affairs of states, but provides a key exception for enforcement actions. The UN's founders understood the conflict that existed between the nonintervention principle's respect of state sovereignty and the organization's commitment to acting collectively against a member state. Changes in the meaning of security, racial tensions, humanitarian crises, failed governments, and terrorism would all present problems that they were unable to predict. Although it is understandable to think of human rights as falling under domestic law, both the Preamble and Article 1 of the UN Charter relate to them and require governments to "respect for the concept of equal rights and self-determination of peoples."

The General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the Trusteeship Council are the six main bodies of the United Nations, according to the Charter. Over time, each organ has undergone changes, responding to internal forces, environmental factors, and interactions with other organs. These six organs hardly scratch the surface of the United Nations' extensive network of complicated entities. The World Health Organization, Food and Agriculture Organization, International Labor Organization, International Monetary Fund, and World Bank are only a few of the affiliated organizations, The World Trade Organization is not one of them.

Similar to the League of Nations Assembly, the UN General Assembly was intended to serve as the forum for general discussion where each UN member would be equally represented by one state, one vote. It is the focal point of the organization, with a wide range of agenda items and the duty to coordinate and oversee subsidiary bodies, but with only advisory authority over members aside from internal matters like elections and the budget. Due to its unique competence over the latter, it has some level of oversight and control over all UN initiatives and subsidiary organizations. The Assembly also performs significant elective duties, such as electing states to UN membership, non-permanent members of the Security Council, ECOSOC, and Trusteeship Council, judges for the International Court of Justice, and the UN Secretary-General. Despite the fact that the Security Council is the main body for addressing threats to global peace and security. It has the authority to discuss a situation and offer recommendations if the Security Council is not carrying out its duties (Articles 11–12), to conduct inquiries and studies regarding conflicts (Articles 13–14), and to request information from the Security Council and the Secretary-General (Articles 10–12). However, the "Uniting for Peace" resolution, passed in 1950 during the Korean War, sparked debate regarding the proper functions of the two organizations. In accordance with the resolution, the General Assembly asserted the right to suggest collective action when the Security Council was unable to reach a decision due to a veto. Later, it was utilized to address crises in Suez and Hungary (1956). Finally, the General Assembly shares responsibilities for Charter revision with the Security Council. The Assembly can propose amendments with a two-thirds majority; two-thirds of the member states, including all the permanent members of the Security Council, must then ratify the changes. For decision making in the General Assembly, First, the Charter itself specified that in electing the nonpermanent members of the Security Council, the General Assembly give consideration to “equitable geographical distribution,” but offered no guidance on how to do so or what the appropriate geographic groups should be, second factor in the emergence of caucusing groups is the one-state, one-vote principle. General Assembly decisions are made by a majority (either simple or two-thirds under specified circumstances such as elections and questions of peace and security). As a result, a stable coalition of states comprising a majority of members, like a majority political party or coalition of parties in a parliament, can control most decisions.

the power to act on behalf of all United Nations members. Provisions the requirements for performing this function are outlined in Chapters VI and VI. Chapter VI offers a variety of methods to look into disagreements and assist parties in reaching a peaceful resolution. Chapter VII lays down the power of the Security Council to compel all UN members to take enforcement techniques like military force or fines. Ahead of 1990, the Only once did the Security Council use its Chapter VII enforcement authority to

During the Cold War era, the methods described in Chapter VI were used to respond to conflicts on two separate occasions. In order to assure the UN's capacity to act and the distribution of military power in 1945, permanent members were chosen. swiftly and forcefully to any hostility. Without veto power, neither the US nor the USSR would have agreed to join the UN. However, the veto has always been divisive among small states and medium powers. The veto also reflected a realistic acknowledgment by others that the UN could not conduct enforcement action against its strongest members or without their consent. Since the Security Council's membership amounts to less than 8% of the entire UN membership, consideration of "equitable representation" is a crucial reform topic. Along with its obligations under the Charter to uphold international security, the Council works with the General Assembly to elect the Secretary-General, judges for the International Court of Justice, and new UN members. The Council met roughly 130 times per year in the 1940s. During the Cold War, this frequency decreased; for instance, in 1959, there were just five sessions. With 262 formal meetings in 2014, the number of meetings has continuously increased since the early 1990s; frequently, there are even more informal conversations. Over 2,100 resolutions had been passed by the Council as of the middle of 2014, and it had also released hundreds of presidential announcements summarizing meetings at which no resolutions had been acted upon. In addition to its responsibilities under the Charter for maintaining international security, the Council participates in the election of the Secretary-General, justices to the International Court of Justice, and new UN members in collaboration with the General Assembly.  the UN Charter gives the Security Council enormous formal power, but does not give it direct control over the means to use that power. The Council depends upon the voluntary cooperation of states and their willingness to contribute to peacekeeping missions, to enforce sanctions. The increased Security Council activity since 1990 has led many UN members to push strongly for reform in the Council’s membership in order that it better reflect the world of the twenty-first century, not the world of 1945.

ECOSOC is the UN’s central forum for addressing international economic and social issues, and its purposes range from promoting higher standards of living to identifying solutions to economic, social, and health problems and “encouraging universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. ECOSOC acts through decisions and resolutions, many of which are approved by consensus or simple majority votes. The specialized agencies and their relationship to ECOSOC. Several of the specialized agencies, including the ILO, UPU, and World Meteorological Organization (WMO), predate the UN itself. Part of ECOSOC’s work is done in eight functional commissions: Social Development, Narcotic Drugs, the Status of Women, Science and Technology for Development, Population and Development, Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Statistics, and Forests. Since 1947, ECOSOC has created five regional commissions. These are designed to stimulate regional approaches to development. Furthermore, coordinating these activities in the field is a large part of ECOSOC’s challenge.

The UN Secretariat comprises about 43,000 professional and clerical staff based in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi, and field operations around the world, not including the secretariats of the specialized agencies or military and civilian personnel in UN peace operations. UN Secretariat members recruited from an ever-broader geographic base as the membership expanded. Secretariat members are not expected to give up their national loyalty, but to refrain from promoting national interests. About, The Secretary-General is manager of the organization, responsible for providing leadership to the Secretariat, preparing the UN’s budget, submitting an annual report to the General Assembly, and overseeing studies conducted at the request of the other major organs. The UNSGs have been a key factor in the emergence of the UN as an autonomous actor in world politics, thereby making the UN something more than just a forum for multilateral diplomacy. A key resource for UNSGs is the power of persuasion. The “force” of majorities behind resolutions may lend greater legitimacy to initiatives, though it may not ensure any greater degree of success. Autonomy is also key to the UNSG’s influence.

the ICJ shares responsibility with the other major organs for ensuring that the principles of the Charter are followed. Its special role is providing states with an impartial body for settling legal disputes in accordance with international law (so-called contentious cases) and giving advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the General Assembly, Security Council, and specialized agencies. the ICJ has noncompulsory jurisdiction, meaning that parties to a dispute (states only) must all agree to submit a case to the court; there is no way to force a party to appear before the court, but once states agree to ICJ jurisdiction, they are legally bound to follow the decision. The ICJ had 130 contentious cases brought before it between 1946 and 2014. Furthermore, while judicial decisions are sources of international law under the ICJ Statute, Article 38.1(d) also provides that the “decision of the Court has no binding force except as between the parties and in respect of that particular case. the ICJ has been important to the constitutional development of global governance and complementary to the UN’s political organs in its role. For the UN’s budget is complex. The regular budget covers its administrative machinery, major organs, and their auxiliary agencies and programs. It grew from less than $20 million in 1946 to $1.6 billion in 2008, but has remained relatively constant since the late 1990s due to the resistance of major donor states to increases in the budget. The first UN financing crisis arose in the early 1960s over peacekeeping operations in the Congo and Middle East, with the Soviet Union, other communist countries, and France refusing to pay because, in their view, peacekeeping authorized by the General Assembly was illegal. The second crisis arose in the 1980s, when the United States began withholding part of its dues.

Although Article 52 legitimizes the existence and operation of regional alliances and encourages regional efforts to settle local disputes peacefully, it is very clear that the UN Security Council. . By the late 1990s, regional organizations were actually supporting more peace operations than was the UN. As of 2008, twenty-two regional and other types of organizations were participating in high-level meetings with the Secretary-General and Security Council. Today, regionalism and globalism coexist with minimal friction outside the security area, and regional organizations have proliferated even more rapidly than global ones.

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The Organization of African Unity was founded in 1964 by the heads of 31 newly independent African governments. The organization was guided by three guiding principles. States first agreed that they were sovereign equals, and then they consented to refrain from meddling in one another's internal affairs. Third, there was no room for changing the status quo because territorial boundaries were sacred. The OAU played a significant role in at least nine cases of securing troop withdrawals, using its diplomatic pressure to influence both African states and outside powers. Other times, members turned to the UN or sub-regional organizations like the Economic Community of West African States for dispute resolution or to organize regional military forces for a specific action. In 2007 the UN Secretary-General secured agreement to transform the AU force into a hybrid UN-AU force. Moreover, Sub regional groups have been formed all over Africa since the 1960s and continue to proliferate. ECOWAS is one of the largest, with fifteen member states. ECOWAS was established in 1975 with the vision of becoming a single economic bloc organized into an economic and monetary union. some trade barriers and customs rules have actually increased, even as interstate roads have been constructed and telecommunication lines linked, they transformed the ECOWAS secretariat into a commission with enhanced powers to implement policies and oversee projects in defined sectors. For The Southern African Development Community, South Africa has become a leader particularly in the SADC, whose predecessor, the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), was established to reduce economic dependency on South Africa’s white minority regime. SADC, with a broad economic, social, and environmental agenda, now has fifteen member states and a population area of 277 million people. SADC had hoped to create a customs union, a common market, and a monetary union, all of which have been delayed by members’ overlapping memberships in other regional groups that either compete with or undermine SADC’s objectives. SADC’s development objectives have involved supporting functional projects among both SADC members and neighboring countries, such as transport, shared water resources, and hydroelectric power, Like ECOWAS, SADC has become involved with security issues, most notably in Lesotho in 1989 and the Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 to 2002.

The League of Arab States, or Arab League, was formed in March 1945, seven months before the UN, and has been an important player in the Middle East. The Arab League was created as a manifestation of Pan-Arabism, all member states have equal voice in all of the Arab League’s bodies and most resolutions must pass by only a simple majority. The League stayed silent, however, during the conflict between Israel and Hamas in Gaza in 2014. The League failed to act in Yemen’s civil wars in the 1960s and 1990s as well as the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, but did condemn Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait. It supported the government of Sudan in the face of the genocide in the Darfur region of that country, In March 2011, a subsequent resolution called for the UN Security Council to impose a no-fly zone to protect Libyan civilians. This provided an important source of legitimacy for Security Council action and for US and NATO military intervention, even though Arab state support was not unanimous. in its seventy years of existence, states in the Arab League have cooperated only periodically. The organization’s problematic identity, leaders’ fear of restrictions on sovereignty, and the weak institutional design explain that poor record. For the Gulf cooperation council, all are monarchies and oil-producing states. Despite these similarities, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf Oman sought a military alliance modeled after NATO, and Saudi Arabia sought an organization to provide a loose sense of collective security while allowing states to follow their own interests. the primary organ of the GCC is the Supreme Council, which meets annually and is composed of the heads of state of the six member countries. Despite initial failure forecasts, the GCC has survived; but, over time, its performance as a regional organization has changed. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the Iran-Iraq War received little political response from the GCC, with the exception of the latter's formal request for US assistance. Economically, the GCC has had duty-free trade among members since 1983 and a common market since 2008. In early 2015, some GCC countries joined a coalition with the United States to mount air strikes against ISIS in Iraq and Syria; some also joined Saudi Arabia in military action in Yemen.

regional free trade initiatives give rise to a fear of trade blocs and barriers to wider trade patterns, the EU eliminated internal barriers to trade among its members and favored partners, but raised barriers to trade with others. regional organizations vary widely in the nature of their organizational structures, the types of obligations they impose on member states, their resources, and the scope of their activities, from the formality and supranationalism of the EU to the loose, informal political concretization of policies found in APEC and ASEAN. Yet recent analysis has also shown that the differences between the EU and many other regional organizations can be overstated. However, developments within the burgeoning field of regional organizations are "critical to understanding the many diverse ways in which government is moving, the variety of issues being confronted, and the shapes that regional politics take.

Trans regional organizations have a long history, but since the early 1990s they have gained increasing urgency to address issues such as terrorism, drug trafficking, certain types of environmental degradation, and nontraditional security threats. Other groups, such as the Alliance of Small Island States, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) are coalitions of likeminded states. The OIC bring together states from several regions, “to co-ordinate efforts for the safeguarding of the Holy Places and support of the struggle of the people of Palestine, and help them to regain their rights and liberate their land. OIC failed to further its primary issue, but it has also found itself divided on the issue of terrorism. On the one hand, it has condemned terrorism, labeling attacks as “un-Islamic”; yet on the other hand, it has refrained from condemning Palestinian terrorism and suicide attacks. some much more important parts of global governance than others. Clearly, the processes of regionalization have varied widely in different parts of the world and will continue to evolve in response to the varying dynamics within the regions.

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Tobacco corporations merged as a result, and by 2000, just four companies were responsible for 70% of the cigarettes sold worldwide. Tobacco corporations established a plan to target consumers in developing nations because there was less information about the negative consequences of smoking and less restrictions from the government there. This was done to make up for the downturn in developed-country markets. Tobacco businesses continue to put pressure on developing nations to oppose regulatory restrictions. Move Two: Nonstate Actors' Dark Side Nonstate actors are no more likely than states to advance just causes, be kind, or work together more. Around 180 states, or 95% of the world's population, had signed the pact as of the beginning of 2015.Because of this, even though cigarettes are expensive relative to income, by the early 1990s, the number of smokers in the developing world had overtaken that of the developed world. In 1993, Judith MacKay, the head of an Asian anti-tobacco NGO with deep ties to the World Health Organization, was approached by law professor Allyn Taylor and retired public health professor Milton Roemer. Along with suing the World Trade Organization, they put pressure on governments of developing nations to oppose any changes to the status quo in the name of free trade. Even so, the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control went into effect in 2005. They talked about persuading WHO officials to put out a fresh, legally-binding tobacco regulatory treaty.NGOs continue to play a crucial monitoring role and urge their individual governments to adopt and enforce the treaty's provisions, even if some governments have lagged behind in this area. The concept was to create a set of unambiguous principles that might have almost universal support. Later changes could be added on specific topics like advertising, taxation, and anti-tobacco education initiatives. As a result of the initial skepticism among WHO personnel, one advocated for the concept to be scaled back in favor of a purely voluntary "code of conduct" for tobacco companies. There was a growing sense of progress at NGO conferences all around the world.

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Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist organization Al-Shabab is still still operating in the nation, has carried out bombings and raids in the country's bordering countries of Kenya and Uganda, and is seen as a threat to the US due to its success in luring American Somalis. The Security Council believed that in order to offer humanitarian aid, as in conventional peacekeeping operations, it required the approval of the Somali warlords, which is why the UN took its time to intervene in 1992.The peacekeepers were authorized to use force when disarming the warring factions in 1993 when UNITA was replaced by UNOSOM II, a smaller force that lacked much of the heavy equipment and airpower the US had brought to Somalia. However, this increased the risk to the peacekeepers because some militias, particularly those led by General Mohamed Farah Aidid, resisted such efforts. This changed UNOSOM's status from a neutral peacekeeper to an active combatant, placing it "in the worst of all possible worlds" and making it a participant in the conflict.A public uproar in the United States about the UN's involvement in Somalia was repeated in other nations after 18 US soldiers were killed by Aidid's army in October 1993, and one of their bodies was dragged through the streets of Mogadishu. It started at the height of the enthusiasm for UN peacekeeping that followed the Cold War, but because the US intended to cut the operation short and didn't want to risk the lives of its soldiers, the Somali warlords gained leverage by attacking US and other UN forces. Following the 9/11 attacks on the United States, Somalia came under the spotlight as a potential safe haven for international terrorists as Islamic courts and charities became more active in their efforts to build an Islamic state there. Conflict as the Origin of Security Governance The main issue in international politics throughout history has been war, which also served as a major driving force behind the founding of IGOs such as the Concert of Europe in the nineteenth century and the League of Nations and UN in the twentieth century. Contrarily, the number of intrastate armed confrontations sharply increased between the mid-1950s and the mid-1990s before declining after that. The complexity of humanitarian disasters and the shifting character of hostilities are two of the biggest obstacles to peace in the world.

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In 2008 global financial system came close to collapse, Global stock markets plummeted; one of the world’s largest banks collapsed, and global unemployment increased by an estimated 14 million people just in 2008. The United States and Europe were most severely affected; many developing countries much less so. States such as China, South Korea, and Japan, dependent on exports to the United States and Europe, saw their markets shrink and export earnings fall. Oil prices dropped by 69 percent between July and December 2008. The crisis had many causes: irresponsible lending in the United States and Europe; central bankers and other regulators who tolerated risky practices; a glut of savings in Asia that reduced global interest rates; years of low inflation and stable growth that made people overconfident. However, The IMF initially responded to the crisis by making available almost $250 billion for credit lines, then tripled that to $750 billion in 2009 In addition, the IMF created the Short-Term Liquidity Facility for emerging-market countries. It reorganized the Exogenous Shocks Facility, designed to help low-income states, to provide more rapid assistance. states and non-state actors have established a large number of formal and informal international institutions to help manage international economic relations, and to promote development, trade, stability, and growth. Liberal economic norms have a long genesis, dating from eighteenth-century have stated that human beings act in rational ways to maximize their self-interest, Government institutions provide basic order, facilitate free flow of trade, and maximize economic intercourse. One major challenge to economic liberalism came from statist mercantilism, which emphasizes the role of the state and the subordination of all economic activities to the goal of state building. Where liberals see the mutual benefits of international trade, mercantilists see states as competing with each other to improve their own economic potential. MNCs represent the most efficient mechanism for economic development and improved well-being. For the first time in history, production, marketing, and investment are being organized on a global scale rather than in terms of isolated national economies. international finance and trade have been dominated by developed countries since World War II, governance too has primarily involved the major Western economic powers. Only now, with China’s rise and that of other emerging economies, are the politics of global economic governance shifting significantly. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) works to achieve sustainable growth and prosperity for all of its 190 member countries. It does so by supporting economic policies that promote financial stability and monetary cooperation, which are essential to increase productivity, job creation, and economic well-being.  The GATT is the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The WTO is the World Trade Organization. GATT was an international treaty with a temporary international existence, whereas the World Trade Organization is a permanent body whose authority has been ratified by its many member nations. GATT dispute settlement was generally slower and less effective than dispute settlement under the WTO. The OECD has played an especially important role with respect to regulation of MNCs in the developed world. Its members have agreed to voluntary guidelines giving MNCs the same treatment as domestic corporations. Ocean shipping and air transport are two areas that have had a direct impact on expanding economic relations. Thanks to technological improvements, both means of transport have become faster, more efficient, and cheaper. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the UN specialized agency designed to facilitate technical cooperation in shipping, through various committees that approve technical standards and regulations on such issues as accidents, pollution, and compensation. Private governance can be defined as the phenomenon of private actors pursuing public goals and interests in the exercising of traditional state functions in the forms of rulemaking, implementation and dispute resolution. The ASEAN countries have been working toward their own free trade area since concluding AFTA in 1992. AFTA has primarily focused on tariff reductions, but has begun to work also on nontariff barriers. Conservative critics say that the IMF is too interventionist in economies; they see the free market economy working efficiently without interference, A few radical critics from developed countries would join the critics from the developing countries of the IMF as an outmoded. WTO member has a voice through the consensus procedure, decisions often involve “unequally matched states against one another in chaotic bouts of negotiating which has seen developed countries secure more of the economic opportunities they already have while offering developing countries very little of what they actually need.

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Liberal economic theory emphasizes the role of the market in stimulating both individual and collective economic growth, Government institutions perform critical functions of providing order and stability and in facilitating the free flow of trade. For economic liberals, MNCs represent the most efficient mechanism for economic development and improved well-being. Liberal economic view the development state, measured by growth of gross national product (GNP) or gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. economists in the UN’s Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) began to challenge the liberal economic model. The dependency school argued that that the developing world was permanently mired in poverty and unable to grow because capitalist economic system requires new resources from the developing world to generate growth and developing country should improve their position economically, fundamental change in the international system is necessary. inequality between the developed North and the developing South will remain relatively permanent. When UNCTAD was founded in 1964, many newly independent states from Africa, Asia, and Latin America formed the Group of 77 because of the inherently unequal international liberal trading system could not be made more equal without major changes. The G-77 sought changes in five major areas of international economic relations: commodity pricing, regulation of MNCs, improved means of technology transfer, increased foreign aid, and improved trading provisions. how to achieve development continues to be widely debated, particularly the role of the state, The Beijing Consensus or China Model also known as the Chinese Economic Model pointing to China’s rapid, state-driven growth as a model. the Beijing Consensus state-owned or state managed corporations may be used to invest capital in their own markets and abroad. At the same time, private companies are permitted to function.  However, Economists and political scientists argued that States can escape from poverty when there are institutions protecting private property and competition as well as ensuring the rule of law to prevent corruption and extractive rents. In short, the current thinking is that institutions play a more critical role in successful development than the liberal economic model suggests. States are clearly important, because traditionally they have been responsible for their own growth and development as sovereign entities and the UN, World Bank, and regional development banks have taken on new responsibilities, as have many other UN specialized agencies. MNCs, too, have filled a critical role. And with the emergence of the human development agenda, many NGOs have taken on new responsibilities to meet the needs of individuals and also many other non-state actors as well. The World Bank has become the focal point for 432 International Organizations financing major development initiatives, with the IMF becoming important more recently as debt relief became an issue beginning in the 1980s. The UN has been a source of innovative ideas about development, namely that development does not happen automatically, UN that played a key role in elucidating sustainable development and human development. In three subsequent Development Decades, various targets were announced, such as targets for annual aid to developing states and goals for increasing annual growth rates, domestic savings, and agricultural production. the UN set goals in a number of issue areas related to human development. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) incorporated a set of eight goals that represented a “compact among nations” to reduce poverty and promote sustainable human development in response to globalization. The MDGs and the agenda they represented involved commitment not only from across the UN system, including the Bretton Woods institutions, but also from bilateral donors and NGOs. Three key goals of MDGs have been met: both the number of individuals in extreme poverty and the poverty rates have fallen in every developing region including sub-Saharan Africa. The percentage of the population having completed primary education increased by 98 percent. Yet challenges remain. The UN has developed a number of key institutions to facilitate its work, The UNDP has also played an important role in institutionalizing core development ideas, among them the annual Human Development Reports. The UN has played a special role with respect to promoting the roles of women in development. The liberal economic tradition had assumed that all individuals, including women, would participate in and benefit equally from the economic development process. The UN also developed programs to expand women’s productive roles in agriculture, small business, and industry, and to encourage microcredit for poor women.  By the late 1970s, the World Health Organization had expanded its agenda from stopping the spread of communicable diseases to a more holistic view of health. The new forms of development governance tend to be more inclusive and provide greater accountability and are perhaps more legitimate. Whether they are as effective or more effective than the older approaches remain to be seen.

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Beginning with the nineteenth-century abolition of the slave trade, former slaves were granted nominal rights and protections. Many liberal democratic states have based human rights practices on political and civil liberties, while socialist states have developed socioeconomic protections. These states believe that it is in their national interest to promote human rights abroad, that states sharing those values are better positioned to trade with, and less likely to go to war with, each other. States are not just protectors, however; they are also the primary violators of individual human rights. Nongovernmental organizations have long been active in human rights activities, with anti-slavery groups being among the first and most active, IGOs, in particular the UN, and NGOs have played key roles in the process of globalizing human rights. They have been central to establishing the norms, institutions, and activities for giving effect to the idea of universal rights. The UN Charter adopted a broad view of human rights, going far beyond the view of the League of Nations. Included in Article 1 is the statement that the organization would be responsible for organizing cooperation in areas of a “humanitarian character,” and “in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion. The prominent role of NGOs, transnational advocacy networks, and social movements in pushing for domestic laws and international treaties that set human rights standards has already been discussed. They worked tirelessly to abolish slavery, using a variety of tactics, including letter-writing, petitions, popular theater, and public speeches. other NGOs continue to play key roles in setting human rights standards in many areas, since slavery in various forms, including human trafficking, continues to be a significant problem, as discussed in the opening case. The UN has played a far more active role in human rights promotion since the early 1990s. It has promoted democratization through its electoral assistance programs. Since the early 1990s, the language of second- and third-generation human rights has increasingly been linked to development activities and programs across the entire UN system. NGOs have been active in providing education on human rights in Cambodia, Central America, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. Historically, the United States was a leader in supporting human rights and international mechanisms for accountability. Founded on liberal principles guaranteeing the political and civil rights of individuals. There has been remarkable progress in human rights governance since World War II. Globalization of communication and ideas has been a powerful stimulus to the development of international human rights and humanitarian activities.