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Electron acceptor

Used in the synthesis of glucose

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Small sacs that transport substances throughout the cell

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Structures of condensed thread-like DNA

Function:

Ensures accurate DNA replication and separation

Holds an organism's genetic information

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Reproductive cells that fuse with each other to carry out the process of fertilization

Haploid cells (23 chromosomes)

Males: Sperm cells

Females: Egg cells

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Mitosis and Meiosis are regulated by cell organelles

Microtubules pull chromosomes to opposite sides of a cell to ensure an even number of chromosomes per cell

Centrioles guide microtubules

Centromeres provide a place for microtubules to attach to

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Inherited traits can affect metabolic pathways
Example: Mitochondrial Diseases

The mitochondria fails to produce enough energy to sustain normal bodily functions

Can be inherited from either a dominant or recessive gene

Symptoms include poor growth, muscle weakness/pain, learning difficulties

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ATP is used up during Anaphase

Microtubules must pull apart sister chromatids in a short amount of time

Microtubules contract and act as muscle fibers

Requires energy from ATP

ATP is stored during the G2 phase in preparation for the high consumption of ATP in Anaphase

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Many organelles need ATP for their functions

Carrier proteins need energy from ATP to transport molecules through active transport

Transportation against the concentration gradient

ATP is used by ribosomes for transcribing RNA sequences into proteins

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Many organelles need enzymes to carry out their function

Lysosomes need digestive enzymes to digest waste

Ribosomes need enzymes to synthesize proteins

Smooth ER needs enzymes to synthesize lipids

Many other enzymes

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All organelles are made of macromolecules

Membranes are made of phospholipids

Nucleolus is made of proteins and RNA (nucleic acid)

Cell wall is made of cellulose (carbohydrate)

Many more

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DNA of a new cell is inherited from parents

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Enzymes catabolize many reactions in metabolic pathways

Example: ATP synthase

Synthesizes ADP + Pi into ATP

Example: RUBISCO

Fixates CO2 onto the 5-carbon sugar RuBP

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The macromolecules ATP, NADH, and NADPH are broken down in metabolic pathways to provide energy for the process

The macromolecules ATP, NADH, FADH2, and NADPH are a product of metabolic pathways to be used as usable energy by the cell

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Macromolecules serve as energy sources in cellular respiration; they are the starting component of the system

Glucose, fatty acids

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A structure made of different protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane
Functions:

Absorbs light energy (chlorophyll)

Site of the photosynthetic ETC

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Purpose: To ensure that both daughter cells have duplicate copies of the parent's DNA
Interphase

DNA is replicated

Microtubules begin to form, centrioles move to poles

Prophase

Chromosomes condense

Nuclear envelope disintegrates

Metaphase

Microtubules line up chromosomes in the middle of the cell

Anaphase

Sister chromatids are pulled to poles

Telophase + Cytokinesis

Chromosomes unravel

Nuclear envelope reforms

Cytoplasm divides

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The two systems in plants and animals balance together to form a sustainable ecosystem.

The equations for cellular respiration and photosynthesis are opposites

They are directly correlated and reliant on each other

Animals and plants depend on both systems for their survival

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In some dominant + recessive allele relationships, the recessive allele affects the production of functioning proteins

Example: Coat Colour

Coat colour is determined by the concentration of melanin

A specific type of enzyme is responsible for changing the molecule to a pigment

The recessive allele for coat colour fails to produce a properly functioning enzyme that can convert melanin into a pigment

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There are multiple checkpoints during the cell cycle to ensure that the process is executed smoothly.

The enzyme, cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), is responsible for these checkpoints

A complex with the protein cyclin and a kinase

Cyclin appears most frequently at mitosis

Changes the structure and function of a protein by adding a phosphate group

Checkpoints:

If spindle is attached to chromosomes in mitosis

If DNA is damaged before replication in S phase

If all DNA has been replicated before mitosis

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The specialized shape of organelles increases the total energy production in metabolic pathways

Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

Highly convoluted and folded

Thylakoid Membrane

Folded into piles of sac-like structures

Surface area is increased

More area for ATP phosphorylation = more ATP produced

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum synthesizes proteins and lipids

Rough ER -- uses ribosomes to synthesize proteins

Smooth ER -- synthesizes fatty acids and phospholipids

The Golgi Apparatus modifies macromolecules produced by the ER

Glycosylation

Covalently bonding sugars (carbohydrates) with lipids and proteins

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Genetically inherited diseases can affect organelle systems
Example: Tay-Sachs Disease -- Lysosomes

Mutation in genetic code for an enzyme found in the lysosomes of nerve cells

Recessive trait

Prevents lysosomes from breaking down GM2 Ganglioside

Can be fatal for neuron cells

Most commonly found in infants, most who die before the age of 4

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Copy of DNA that is used to transcribe proteins, and reach areas that DNA cannot reach

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Biological code that is inscripted with a cell's genetic information

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Emergent Property: Giving diverse genetic traits to a living organism's offspring
Level: Cellular
System Components:

Chromosomes

Gametes

Centrioles

Microtubules

Centromeres

System Component of:

Living Cell

Organelles

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Emergent Property: A structure that performs a specialized function to sustain cell life.
Level: Cellular
System Components:

Macromolecules

System Component of:

Living Cell

Metabolic Pathways

Genetic Inheritance

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Emergent Property: The synthesis of glucose in plants through absorption of light.

Level: Cellular

System Components:

Light

Inorganic molecules (CO2 + Water)

Chlorophyll

Photosystems + ATP synthase

ATP, ADP + Pi

NADPH, NADP+

Thylakoid membrane

RUBISCO

System Component of:

Living Cell (plants)

Environment

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Emergent Property: The synthesis of ATP to generate useful energy for the cell.
Level: Cellular
System components:

Energy source (carbohydrates, fatty acids)

ADP + Pi, ATP

Electron Carriers (NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2)

Protein complexes + ATP synthase

Mitochondrial membrane

Oxygen

System component of:

Living Cell

Environment

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Provides energy for a cell to live

Works together with other systems to maintain cell life

Without this system to generate energy, a cell would die

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Emergent Property: Materials that organelles can utilize, consume, aid organelles in their functions, and more.
Level: Molecular
System Components:

Carbon (backbone)

Functional Groups (polar properties)

System Component of:

Organelles

Metabolic Pathways

Genetic Inheritance

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Some examples of how different systems interact with each other

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Prophase II

Nuclear envelope disintegrates

Chromosomes condense

Metaphase II

Chromosomes align at the middle of the cell

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids are separated

Telophase II

Nuclear envelope re-forms

4 total gametes produced

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Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes pair up and undergo synapsis

Crossing over of genetic information

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosomes form tetrads and are arranged randomly at the middle of the cell

Anaphase I

Tetrads are separated

Telophase I

Nuclear envelope re-forms

Two daughter cells are produced

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Purpose: A reduction division of chromosomes to produce haploid gametes.

46 chromosomes --> 23 chromosomes

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If centromeres are removed...

Microtubules cannot attach to chromosomes and separate tetrads/sister chromatids

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If microtubules are removed...

Chromosomes are not separated evenly

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If centrioles are removed...

Nothing will be anchoring microtubules

Chromosomes are not divided evenly in gametes

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If gametes were removed...

Fertilization of offspring would be impossible

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If chromosomes were removed...

There would be no genetic information to pass onto the offspring

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Site of the Calvin Cycle

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If RUBISCO is removed...

CO2 is not fixated with RuBP

Calvin Cycle does not occur

Plant does not produce glucose

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If the thylakoid membrane is removed...

The photosynthetic ETC would not exist

No non-polar barrier to create proton gradient

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If NADPH is removed...

Not enough energy for glucose synthesis

Electron is not accepted after the photosynthetic ETC

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If ATP is removed...

No energy for synthesis of glucose

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If the ATP synthase is removed...

No photophosphorylation of ATP

No energy to create glucose in the Calvin Cycle

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If photosystems are removed...

Electrons have nowhere to be transported

Energy is not created to generate a proton gradient

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If chlorophyll is removed...

Light cannot be absorbed by plants to excite electrons

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If carbon dioxide is removed...

There is no continuous input in the Calvin cycle

No source of Carbon to synthesize glucose

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If water is removed...

No electrons are donated meaning the light reactions would not begin

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If light is removed...

There will be no energy to excite electrons in the photosynthetic electron transport chain

No synthesis of ATP or NADPH

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Function: Enzyme that fixates CO2 onto the 5-Carbon sugar RuBP

Necessary first step of the Calvin Cycle

Ensures re-usage of Carbon

Glucose cannot be produced without RUBISCO

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1. Fixation of CO2 to RuBP

2. Reduction to G3P (3-Carbon Sugar) -- eventually glucose is synthesized

3. Regeneration of RuBP

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Water donates electron to photosystem

Sunlight is captured by chlorophyll

Electrons are excited and reverted back to ground state as they are transferred between chlorophyll molecules

Electrons reach reactions centres

Electrons move through Photosystem I and II

Causes proton gradient (greater concentration of protons in thylakoid space than stroma)

Proton gradient drives ATP synthase into ATP synthesis

Electron is accepted by NADP+

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Enzyme for ATP phosphorylation

Protein gradient causes rotational motion

Generate kinetic energy to synthesize ATP

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Several proteins, nucleic acids, other molecules bonded together

Electronegativity of different complexes attract electrons in the ETC, causing energy jumps which drives the proton gradient

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If oxygen is removed...

Electrons will have nowhere to go after the ETC

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If the mitochondrial membrane is removed...

ETC would not exist

No proton gradient between intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix

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If the ATP synthase is removed...

No kinetic energy to synthesize ADP + Pi to ATP

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If the protein complexes are removed...

No energy jumps in the ETC

Not enough energy for the proton gradient, or for ATP phosphorylation

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If the electron carriers are removed...

ATP production would decrease significantly

Not enough energy to sustain cell life

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If ATP is removed...

There would be no form of usable energy that the cell can use

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If the energy source is removed...

There would be nothing to synthesize ATP from

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Function: To produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation

Reduced electron carriers donate electron to the electron transport chain

Electron travels through ETC by jumping between protein complexes

A big energy jump transports protons across the mitochondrial membrane

A proton gradient is create, creating enough energy to power the ATP synthase

Phosphorylation of ATP

Components:

Electron Carriers

Protein Complexes

ATP synthase

Oxygen

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Function: Reuses acetyl-CoA molecule to produce ATP, reduced electron carriers, and carbon dioxide

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Function: Converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA

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Function: Converts glucose into pyruvate

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Polymers of nucleotides

Functions: Storing genetic information
Nucleotide Components:

A nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine)

5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose, ribose)

Phosphate group

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Strands of DNA stored in the nucleus

Condense into chromosomes during mitosis

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Attach to centromere to pull/arrange sister chromatids

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Holds sister chromatids together

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To anchor and pull spindle fibers/microtubules during mitosis

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Site of the photosynthetic electron transport chain

Separates stroma and thylakoid space

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Separates mitochondrial membrane and intermembrane space

Polar properties acts as a barrier from ions to maintain a proton gradient

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Made of proteins
Purpose: To catalyze biological reactions

Reduces activation energy needed

Without enzymes, biological processes would be far too slow to sustain life

System Component of:

Organelles

Metabolic Pathways

Genetic Inheritance

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If the Golgi Body is removed...

Proteins will not be specialized and transported in the cell

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If the Rough ER is removed...

Amino acid sequences will not be folded into proteins

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If the Nuclear Envelope is removed...

There will be no genetic information (DNA+RNA) to code proteins

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If macromolecules are removed...

There would be no material to build organelles

E.g. Phospholipids in membranes, cellulose in cell walls

Chemical reactions that would originally be catalyzed by enzymes would proceed far too slowly

Most organelles would lose their function

Lysosomes fail to digest waste

Golgi apparatus is unable to modify proteins + lipids

Mitochondria fails to make ATP

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If Functional Groups are removed...

Organic molecules will be completely non-polar and hydrophobic

Unable to interact and bond with polar molecules

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If the Carbon Backbone is removed...

Organic molecules will have no structure

Functional groups will have no backbone structure to bond to

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Emergent Property: The synthesis of glucose in plants through absorption of light.

Level: Cellular

System Components:

Light

Inorganic molecules (CO2 + Water)

Chlorophyll

Photosystems + ATP synthase

ATP, ADP + Pi

NADPH, NADP+

Thylakoid membrane

RUBISCO

System Component of:

Living Cell (plants)

Environment

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Leads to ATP phosphorylation