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It's a beautiful outfit, but like other customs in court life, it must have been very stifling.

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Cultural Developments of the Heian Period in Japan, (794-1185)

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Cultural Developments of the Heian Period in Japan, (794-1185)

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Japan’s Heian period began in 794, the year in which Heiankyo became the country’s new capital. After it was formally decided that Japan would distance itself from Chinese influence, this city would become a major point of interest for the cultural advancements that allowed Japan to form a more distinct national identity. Many of these trends were made to reflect the lifestyle of Japan’s upper class, those who had sufficient money and time for artistic pursuits. Expression through writing became quite popular, with several unqiue genres like Monogatari gaining substantial attention. Poetry also found quite an audience, so much so that the ability to effectively compose poetry was often seen as essential for the highest government positions. Heian society found poetry to be a valid way to determine character, until it was more or less the preferred method of formal communication, much like how western societies have previously viewed cursive. The women of nobility had to meet the same expectations in order to communicate with their very cultured peers, as much of a noblewoman’s life was based around maintaining image. These ideals that women had to live with were often extreme, with layers of heavy robes, pale white faces, and teeth blackened via squid ink being some of the most prevalent fashion trends. Along with the arts, Japan’s religious views started changing as well. Followers of Buddhism believed that the teachings of the original Buddha would eventually fade or shift from their true meanings over time, which would in turn lead to people of the world moving further from the Buddha’s guidance until they lived in an age of ignorance called Mappo. As a solution to this, many Japanese would develop faith in the Amida Buddha, who they believed could bring them into the afterlife of the Western Paradise as long as they spoke a chant with his name before they died.

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Story of the Nun from the Shigisan Engi (Legend of Mount Shigi), Heian Period Japan, 12th century

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Story of the Nun from the Shigisan Engi (Legend of Mount Shigi), Heian Period Japan, 12th century

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This scroll, illustrated during the Heian period in Japan, tells the story of an elderly woman’s quest to be reunited with her brother. Her brother in this case would be the monk Myoren, known for his work in constructing and residing in a temple on the peaceful Mount Shigi. Myoren may not be the most prevalent character in this narrative, but he is probably the reason it is being illustrated, as several other long, story driven scrolls were created to show the many fantastical events that happened around him in his life, likely due to his spiritual devotion. Together, this series of scrolls was called the Shigisan Engi, named after the aforementioned mountain where Myoren lived. This story starts in the middle of an open, winding landscape, in which we can see two of the recurring characters, an old nun dressed in long white robes on her horse, and her attendant, who can be recognized by his eye-catching striped leg garments. The nun and her ally move on into a more urban setting where they ask local people for help. The Shigisan Engi scrolls differ sharply from the calm and graceful tones of onna-e narrative scrolls like The Tale of Genji, instead encapsulating the trademarks of the opposite otaka-e style. This style of scroll depicted individuals in a more open way with more visibly expressive faces, often in the midst of a wide variety of common activities. Such features are present throughout the city scenes in the nun narrative, as average people can be seen partaking in very natural slice-of-life activities like yard work, breastfeeding, and even playing with dogs. Eventually, the nun’s search takes her to the Todaiji Temple, where she is shown doing several different things at different times all in the same picture. Inside the temple, she prays to Buddha for guidance in finding her brother. She then rests and in her dream is informed of her brother’s presence on Mount Shigi. Finally, she gets up and can be seen leaving the scene at the bottom left. The last part of the scroll shows her seeing her brother again at his residence, with both of them looking quite happy to have found each other again.

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Hungry Ghost Scroll, Kamakura Period Japan, 12th century

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Hungry Ghost Scroll, Kamakura Period Japan, 12th century

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Beginning in 1185 and ending in 1333, Japan’s Kamakura period would come to be seen as a time of great violence due to frequent infighting done mainly for the right to rule the country. The largest of these conflicts was the Genpei civil war, fought between the militaries of two men who were not only former allies, but also brothers. Minamoto Yoshitsune and Minamoto Yoritomo had worked together to successfully overthrow the Taira clan, who had previously killed their father, but upon doing so could not agree on which of them should become the head of their new government. Whilst this civil war raged on, the Japanese public was exposed to the violence and fear much more than in the previous decades. It was this exposure to humanity’s darker aspects that led to a greater interest in art that conveyed forced out similar profound emotions. The artwork within scrolls would start to delve into the consequences of sin under Buddhism, and what the worst case scenarios may look like. Until enlightenment could be achieved, reincarnation could assign souls to any number of alternate forms of existence based on their actions. There were three of these realms below the realms of both humans and animals, and none of them were desirable. The realm directly below animals was the realm of existence in which one lived as a “hungry ghost” or an entity that suffered from endless, insatiable hunger. Although these hungry ghosts could not be seen or felt by living humans, they still lived as invisible presences alongside them, and could interact with their environment in other ways as they searched for scraps to eat. The desperation of hungry ghosts like the ones shown in the above scroll would reduce them to eating anything they could find, which included the dead human bodies. The exposure of unburied corpses, and the general dilapidated state of the graveyard in this scroll are likely due to the adverse effects of the Genpei civil war. Neglected bodies would be left outside to decompose, a process that was interpreted as hungry ghosts gnawing away at the flesh for sustenance. Also shown is the effects endless starvation had on the hungry ghosts’ bodies, as they look completely emaciated besides their painfully bloated stomachs. Anyone seeing this image would be forced to consider their fate, and would be terrified by the possibility of such a miserable existence.

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Even if it doesn't look exactly like home, it was made to feel like it. 

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"Autumn Colors" by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan Dynasty China, 13th century

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"Autumn Colors" by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan Dynasty China, 13th century

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This image is part of an ink painting made by Zhao Mengfu during the period of the Yuan Dynasty.

Zhao Mengfu was one of the few members of the educated literati to accept a position serving the Mongols. Many people who knew him were so upset with his decision that they ostracized him out of disgust or shame.

Evidently, Zhao was not shunned by everyone who was against the Yuan dynasty, because the painting shown above was made for a fellow literati by the name of Zhou Mi, whom Zhao would apparently visit. Like many other unrecognized scholars, or yimin as they were called, Zhou had decided to move away from his old duties and live simply in the South. Zhou's lineage could be traced back to the Shandong Province, but due to this being a more northern territory, he had never been able to see it for himself. Zhao understood how his friend may have grown homesick, so he painted a vision of the Shandong landscape based on how he saw it during his travels. Autumn Colors was painted entirely from memory, and besides the mountains in the background, the land shown in his artwork doesn’t directly mirror any real location in Shandong. Instead, Zhao tried to visually summarize the spirit or feelings of being there. The most recognizable landmarks depicted are the two blue-colored mountains, Mount Hua and Mount Que, which could have been positioned to imply the scene was being viewed from the loyal South, where Zhou then lived. Despite going in opposite directions, both Zhao and Zhou clearly suffered from Mongol rule in similar ways, and likely communicated their displeasure through art.

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Float on down the river and away from your Mongol troubles. 

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"Fishermen" by Wu Zhen, Yuan Period Dynasty China, 13th century. 

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"Fishermen" by Wu Zhen, Yuan Period Dynasty China, 13th century. 

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This particular hand scroll painting by Wu Zhen is an excellent indication of both his stylistic tendencies and his own values. As the name suggests, one of the defining elements of this piece is the portrayal of a number of fishermen positioned along a long, wide river that winds its way through nearly the whole scroll.
Even though this river is important to the painting’s central theme, it is purposely depicted by blank empty space. Other artists in China would depict bodies of water in the same way, but doing so fits well with this painting because it helps to reinforce the very relaxed tone. The uniform emptiness of the water tells us that there are no ripples or major disturbances, and the blank white matches up with the sky above like it’s reflecting it. The serenity of the river is likely meant to symbolize peace of mind, which is also alluded to by the very posture of the men in the boats. Nearly all of the men are sitting, with several of them reclined, fishing, or even lying down. Wu Zhen clearly wants to show that this is an enjoyable moment, where the subjects are distant from the concerns of their working lives as they move with the pace of their natural surroundings undisturbed.
There are no buildings shown until the very end, so that the viewer can imagine being far away from the noise and demands of large cities. For many native Chinese of the time, cityscapes might serve as a reminder of their unsatisfying work, lack of opportunity, and the occupying Mongol court who was responsible for both. Rivers on the other hand were seen as safer because Mongols were historically inexperienced with water travel. As nice as this image of a getaway is, it doesn’t last forever. The very end of the scroll shows a glimpse of civilization, which contrasts with the rest of the scenery and pulls viewers of the scrolls back to their more pressing realities.

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Death doesn't seem so bad if you still get to live in an elaborate fortress.

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The Ming Tombs of Beijing, Ming Dynasty China, started 1409

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The Ming Tombs of Beijing, Ming Dynasty China, started 1409

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When the capital of Ming dynasty China was moved to the northern city of Beijing, the area would have to develop and change to meet the needs of the emperor and his officials. In particular, that architects serving under Yongle would now designate this new capital as the focal point for some of their most ambitious building projects. One of the greatest projects was the Ming tombs, which would end up serving as the final resting place of 13 different Chinese emperors. The first of those emperors to be buried within the complex was Emperor Yongle, who was also the one who chose where these tombs would be located. Yongle’s personal tomb, known as the Imperial Mausoleum of Long-Lastingness or simply Changling, incorporated several impressive architectural features to pay respect to such a revered ruler, who was buried on the site only about fifteen years after it had begun being built. The entire layout of structures leading up to Yongle’s tomb are in many ways meant to parallel the imperial palaces of China’s past. The most standout elements of this design would be the large decorative gate at the very front of the complex, with large spacious courtyards surrounding several halls used to make sacrifices to Yongle’s spirit. Similar to the Tomb of Zhu Yuanzhang in Beijing, there was a spirit tower present close to the actual tumulus of the emperor. The towers at both tombs were made to house a tall angular column of stone, carved into which was a description of the respective emperor’s greatest deeds. The stela of emperor Yongle was inscribed with the words of an emperor who succeeded him. The tombs of Yongle and all of the other 12 emperors were reached from a long spirit path, which was curved slightly, so that evil spirits would be deterred. This same spirit path also featured up to 24 pairs of stone statues, either of animals or Chinese officials. All in all, the extent that the architects were willing to go to for the sake of one individual really shows their commitment, as well as the power held by China’s rulers.

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With enough imagination, some gnarly branches can become pretty much anything.

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"Seven Junipers" by Wen Zhengming, Ming Dynasty China, 16th century

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"Seven Junipers" by Wen Zhengming, Ming Dynasty China, 16th century

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Wen Zhengming was a celebrated artist of his time whose unique depictions of nature compelled viewers to see art in their own way. Initially, Through the strong encouragement of his father, Wen received a high quality education over the course of his youth that molded him into a reserved but very studious young scholar. Despite his education and affinity for learning, he failed the civil service examination repeatedly, possibly by choice, which prevented him from living up to his father’s hopes. Instead of becoming an official, Wen was able to become a renowned artist, which also brought him a great deal of respect. Aspiring artists from all over China held his work in high esteem, so much so that many of them tried to copy his style.

This particular handscroll is completely focused on the branches of juniper trees, highlighting their erratic twists and turns. The branches don’t seem to be directed in any particular order, but they still overlap and connect with each other to form a mess of implied lines. The viewer would follow these forms in their own order as they try to interpret the organic linework for themselves. With such a simple subject matter contorted so unconventionally, it was natural and even intended for those viewing it to imagine their own secondary images. Wen himself would try to see the branches as dragons clawing through the air.

Later, when Wen was fifty years old, he was given the opportunity to learn and teach at the Imperial Academy. He did accept this offer, but ultimately taught for only four years before going back to his true callings in the arts. He would continue with his love for the craft up until his last moments, where it is said he passed away while writing a tomb inscription, with a brush still in his hand.

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Rocks like these are great for meditation, and they don't need to be watered either.

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Daisen-in Garden in the Daitokuji Temple and other Dry Landscapes of Zen Buddhism, Muromachi Period Japan, 16th century 

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Daisen-in Garden in the Daitokuji Temple and other Dry Landscapes of Zen Buddhism, Muromachi Period Japan, 16th century 

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As Zen Buddhism and its teachings spread across Japan throughout the Muromachi period, it eventually became necessary for temples of this new Buddhist sect to be built. As with any other religious structure, these temples had to be structured in a way where they could best meet the specific needs of Zen Buddhism’s practices. Attaining enlightenment is an essential aspect of Buddhism, and followers of Zen believed the most effective way of finding that enlightenment was meditation, which freed the mind of any rampant distractions so the practitioner could better understand their present reality. Zen Buddhist temples found out how to help those in meditation through the symbolic arrangements of karesansui or dry landscapes. These landscapes would be areas in which natural objects are carefully placed to reflect the values of Zen, making for a meditation space where monks or visitors to a temple could find themselves surrounded by harmony. Dry landscapes almost always incorporated several large stones surrounded by many smaller mixed pebbles, which would be raked meticulously to form thin lines. While many monks would rely on long hours of discipline and deep thought to bring them closer to enlightenment, there were others who believed that it was possible for enlightenment to happen suddenly at any time, when the mind was emptied not through concentration but simple mundane work. In that way, maintaining the pebbles could be another way in which dry landscapes could aid Zen Buddhists in their spiritual pursuits. The lines of pebbles will typically curve around the larger rocks to mimic the appearance of water currents in a stream, and an example of this can be seen in the well known Daisen In garden in Kyoto, Japan, which is shown in the above picture. Within this river of pebbles are rocks which symbolize the different approaches to accepting life’s hardships. One stone has curved ends that make it look like a boat, while another stone is intended to be a turtle. The boat moves with the current, while the turtle struggles to overcome it. The larger dry landscapes also symbolize bodies of water, like seas or even an ocean. Such meaningful use of scenery design was no doubt very beneficial in helping monks feel in tune with their environment.

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Patience is key if you want some green tea. 

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Customs of Japanese Tea Ceremonies, Momoyama Period Japan, 1573-1616

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Customs of Japanese Tea Ceremonies, Momoyama Period Japan, 1573-1616

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One of the most intricate traditions practiced among followers of Zen Buddhism was Chanoyu, an almost ritualistic preparation and drinking of limited types of tea, mainly green-colored tea called matcha. Like Zen Buddhism itself, the tea used in such ceremonies was introduced to Japan through foreign trade, but quickly gained thorough acceptance by the country due to how well it complimented the Zen lifestyle. Ceremonial tea had to be made with specialized instruments used in a specific order, with smaller formalities mixed in that could make the activity a kind of performance. Specialized rooms were even made solely for people to sit for long periods and share tea. Once the tea was prepared in such a meeting, it would be passed around in a bowl to be enjoyed by one person at a time. At first, many of the tea bowls used would be ornate pieces imported from China, but eventually a more original Japanese style of pottery known as raku ware would be preferred. The significance of raku ware and ideas about the tea ceremony in general were shaped by one particular tea master named Sen No Rikyu. Rikyu was perhaps the most highly regarded expert on tea ceremonies during his time, even serving two major daimyo, Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. He thought that tea ceremonies should reflect the principles of wabi and sabi. Wabi related to appreciating the beauty in that which was not perfect, or just accepting life in all its moments, whether they were directly or indirectly beautiful. Sabi is more about finding peace and tranquility by simplifying things. For Rikyu, these two aesthetics made raku ware more appealing. The uneven and wildly distorted shapes found within raku ware captured wabi’s respect for the uncontrolled and overlooked. The processes by which raku ware was formed also suited Zen Buddhism well. The pottery was commonly taken out of its kiln while it was still hot, so that it would react with the outside environment in surprising or chaotic ways, much like how enlightenment could possibly happen when you least expect it.

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"Two Eagles" by Badashanren, Qing Dynasty China, 1702

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"Two Eagles" by Badashanren, Qing Dynasty China, 1702

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The above painting from Badashanren of two fierce looking eagles was made for more than just an interest in wildlife. The Two Eagles painting also functioned as an allegorical political image expressing the unwavering loyalty and pride that people of the Ming dynasty had for their history. Following the collapse of the Ming, the Qing dynasty and its government was initiated by the foreign Manchu empire. Although the Manchus were comparatively more lenient than past oppressors like the Mongols, they still brought unwanted change to Chinese society. Badashanren’s upbringing and youth under the Ming was a happy time for him, especially since he was rather well off due to being related to the imperial family. His outlook would change drastically once the authority he had been so closely linked to was superseded by arrival of the Manchus, and Badashanren’s extreme distaste for these outsiders would soon become a consistent theme of his art. His love for the Ming and hate for the Qing is why he chose to illustrate the eagles with such disdainful poses in this artwork. Eagles had been seen and used as symbols of strength in a number of Chinese artworks, especially during the Ming. Here, Badashanren uses them in the same way to convey the feelings of Ming loyalists like himself towards the Manchus. One eagle stands tall and upright with its face partially turned away from direct view to represent the unbroken spirit of the leftover Ming subjects, while the other is somewhat hunched over, glaring out towards any prey as a way to imply that the power of the native Chinese will eventually strike back at outside forces. Just as Zhao Mengfu had used livestock as a metaphor for dissent against the Mongols, Badashanren uses the birds of prey to send a similar message towards the Manchus.

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Does the man look like a camel, or does the camel look like a man?

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"Snow on Mount Tian" by Hua Yan, Qing Dynasty China, 18th century 

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"Snow on Mount Tian" by Hua Yan, Qing Dynasty China, 18th century 

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Throughout China’s history, its artists have been organized and divided into schools or pressured into following or not following certain ideals. As important as this context can be for understanding the art, it’s refreshing to know that some truly exceptional artists of the Qing Dynasty were still able to find success with their own personal styles. These unbridled individuals, who painted according to their own ideals, have been called eccentrics due to the many reasons for which their work would stand out. One such eccentric would be Hua Yan, a man who, like a number of other eccentrics, did not come from a wealthy background. Despite his status, Hua was still exposed to both art and artists frequently throughout his upbringing. He also received a substantial amount of training in his youth through his work of painting murals used for shrines. This background helped him to develop a very lively and natural brushing style with his work that he carried with him across his life as an artist.

One piece that serves as a great example of Hua’s energetic nature would be the hanging scroll painting titled Snow on Mount Tian. Not much is shown in the picture besides a man and his camel traversing through snowy white mountainscapes, giving the picture a feel of placid, almost lonely, isolation. Despite the somewhat bleak atmosphere, there are a few features that help the scroll maintain a playful mood. The human figure, a foreign man in his bright red shawl, is accompanied by his large camel, as they simultaneously raise their heads to spot a single bird far off overhead, possessing similar facial expressions as they do so. The similar posing of both man and animal, along with the patterns of hair they have in common, creates a sort of visual gag for viewers that also brings the figures closer together in a way. Depicting the world with such an honest personality, along with an attention to detail, were large parts of what made Hua Yan’s work so endearing to both scholars and average people alike.

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If only Hokusai had lived past 100, then he could have made art that would blow these waves out of the water!

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"Great Wave off the Coast of Kanagawa" by Katsuhika Hokusai, Edo Period Japan, 1830s

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"Great Wave off the Coast of Kanagawa" by Katsuhika Hokusai, Edo Period Japan, 1830s

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The Edo period in Japan saw the emergence and flourishing of mass-produced art prints made with carved woodblocks. The pictures made through this efficient new process were referred to as ukiyo-e and would eventually encompass various different genres that reflected the contemporary Japanese tastes. Although print-making relied a great deal on woodcarvers to put designs into blocks, these artisans received relatively little credit in comparison to the illustrators who created the original designs. Several print designers came to prominence for their work, but one particular artist who would stick in the minds of viewers both Japanese and Western, was Katsuhika Hokusai. Hokusai had a great passion for art, which he practiced his whole life, but eventually came to be a great stickler for the quality of his own work, even thinking that his greatest accomplishments only started once he was in his seventies. Indeed, the latest years of his life would come to be seen as some of his most successful, with such iconic works as The Thirty Six Views of Mount Fuji. In this series of landscape prints, Hokusai used a striking lineup of different colors, including the recently introduced Prussian Blue pigment, to show off the unique character of Mount Fuji, as well as environments where it would be seen. The Mount Fuji series would eventually comprise 46 individual prints, and the one which has become more famous than any other work by Hokusai is the Great Wave off the Coast of Kanagawa. Even though this subject has become an icon for Japan’s rich artistic history, it was apparently not too different from other wave pictures Hokusai made much earlier in his life, which likely drew inspiration from Western style etchings.