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Chief Justice Early wrote to the court and argued that the question of segregated public education was inherently unequal and thus beyond the equal doctrine and could only be resolved by “the effect of segregation itself on public education”. The Supreme Court after citing their rulings over several similar cases (Sweatt v. Painter and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents for Higher Education in the 50s) and ruling the “intangible” inequalities between African American and all-white schools at the graduate level. Warren held that such inequalities also existed between the schools in the case before him, despite their equality with respect to “tangible” factors such as buildings and curricula.

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National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) began challenging segregated school systems in various states

encouraged African American parents to enroll their children in all-white schools ->led to refusal (including Oliver Brown)

Oliver Brown: told his daughter can’t attend school, enroll in a school far from home

NAACP filed a classion-action law: education (including facilities, teachers, etc.) offered to African Americans was inferior to that offered to whites, main argument -> segregation by its nature was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause

A.U.S. the district court heard Brown v. Board of Education and it ruled against the plaintiffs

though sympathetic to some of the plaintiffs’ claims -> determined that the schools were similar, cited the precedent set by Plessy and Gong Lum v. Rice which upheld the segregation of Asian Americans in grade school

The NAACP then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

October 1952 Court consolidated Brown with three other class-action school-segregation lawsuits filed by the NAACP:

Briggs v. Elliott (1951) in South Carolina

Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (1952) in Virginia

Gebhart v. Belton (1952) in Delaware

fifth case filed independently in the District of Columbia, Bolling v. Sharpe (1951)

Brown: U.S. district courts decided against the plaintiffs in Brigg and Davis, ruling the basis of Plessy that they had not been deprived of equal protection because the schools they attended were comparable to the all-white schools/would become so upon the completion of improvements ordered by the district court

Gebhart, the Delaware Supreme Court affirmed a lower court’s ruling that the African American schools were inferior to the white schools in almost all relevant aspects

Bolling v. Sharpe (1951), U.S. district court school segregation did not violate the due process clause of the 5th amendment

l-> the equal protection clause was not relevant since the Fourteenth Amendment only applies to states

Brown, Biggs and Davis appealed directly to the Supreme Court, Gebhart and Bolling were granted each (a writ for the reexamination of an action of a lower court)

Brown v. Board of Education argued on December 9, 1952 -> attorney for plaintiffs = Thurgood Marshall

Reargued case on December 8, 1953, to address the question of whether the framers of the Fourteenth Amendment would have understood it to be inconsistent with racial segregation in public education

1954, result = issue was inconclusive

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The implementation of the decision was met by vehement opposition in the Southern states. In protest of integrated schools, Prince Edward County closed all public schools for five years in 1959. The State of Virginia financed private schools instead, which were not affected by the ruling and therefore remained segregated. Black students had to study in makeshift schools in church basements or had to travel out of the state to attend school. Many simply missed out on five years of their education.

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-In 1890, the law in Louisiana that segregated wagons for black and  white people-6 years later, a shoemaker who looked white (look at the picture above)m, from the outside outwardly white, but who, because of the one-drop rule, is considered by the law to be black because he has a colored grandmother, deliberately ignored this rule. He was subsequently sentenced to 20 days.-The case went through several courts, eventually reaching the Supreme Court. The verdict of the First Instance regional found Homer Plessy guilty. Plessy filed an objection at the highest court in Louisiana, but his objection was rejected.

Plessy was still not satisfied and filed a second objection at the Supreme Court. The judge, especially judge Fergosun rejected his objection with racist reasons like: The white race is superior without doubts and will be superior forever(...), It is therefore regrettable that this High Court, the highest authority on the Basic Law of this country, has come to the conclusion that a federal state may regulate the enjoyment of civil rights by its citizens on the basis of race alone.”

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“Early in my life, I had learned that if you want something, you had better make some noise.”

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“Early in my life, I had learned that if you want something, you had better make some noise.”

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The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People  is an interracial American organization created in 1909 to work for the abolition of segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation; to oppose racism; and to ensure African Americans their constitutional rights. They have headquarters in NYC and Baltimore.

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“Concerning nonviolence, it is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks.”

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“Concerning nonviolence, it is criminal to teach a man not to defend himself when he is the constant victim of brutal attacks.”

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https://com.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english-literature/essayists/malcolm-x/
https://www.easybib.com/guides/quotes-facts-stats/malcolm-x/

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Malcolm X

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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Black men were allowed and encouraged to enlist in the American army.
(880.000 black soldiers fought in WW2)
After the war, black people were faced with horrible treatment by the white community. Although soldiers expect to be treated with respect and deserved to be honoured for fighting in the name of America, black veterans  were shunned more than ever.

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Sound Smart: Plessy v. Ferguson | History - YouTube

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Sound Smart: Plessy v. Ferguson | History

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Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP, and the Supreme Court

Thurgood Marshall: NAACP’s chief counsel, the first African American Court justice

argued the Brown vs. Board before the Supreme Court

In 1950, Marshall won the Supreme Court case of Sweet vs. Painter, in which the court ruled that the Texas law school claiming to offer black students an education equal to that offered by whites was not actually equal in terms of financing ability or opportunity

Marshall and other NAACP lawyers wanted the school segregation to be declared unconstitutional.

Linda Brown’s case allowed to focus on the  question of the constitutionality of segregation itself

he drew up researches of the psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark to argue the fact black children were sent to other schools damaged their self-esteem

school segregation reinforced notions of inequality, associated with prejudice and racism

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(From left) Lawyers George E.C. Hayes, Thurgood Marshall, and James M. Nabrit, Jr., celebrating outside the U.S. Supreme Court (Britannica)

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Plessy v. Ferguson | Oyez

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Amzie Moore

Mississippi Civil Rights Leader

In 1950, he was involved with many blacks from all over the Mississippi delta in organizing the Regional Council of Negro Leadership for obtaining first class citizenship for blacks

Moore became the president of Cleveland

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Little Rock Nine - Google Docs

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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After the Brown cases, which were issued by the Supreme  Kurt in 1954, white Americans (especially in the South) protested against the desegregation and the Massive arose.

On September 3rd, a small group of African Americans were escorted away from the school on the first day. Elizabeth Eckford tried to pass the guides but was stopped. This case drew worldwide attention.

After the governor dismissed the National Guard, President Eisenhower requested that several federal troops be sent to Little Rock. He spoke to Americans and called for desegregation. A day later, the first African Americans went to Central High. As a result, more than half of white Americans protested against the new regulations. Schools were closed and when they reopened, there was massive resistance because only two percent of black students attended white schools.

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Upon returning home from the war, many black veterans dedicated their life at home to the cause of the civil rights movement in addition to their service to the Allies.

They focused on two main goals: Victory over fascism and victory over racism. The Pittsburgh Courier, an important black newspaper, coined the term “Double V” to describe these endeavors.

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Malcolm X (born as Malcolm Little) was a minister, a leader in the civil rights movement, an important member of the Nation of Islam and a supporter of Black nationalism. He urged his fellow Black Americans to protect themselves against white aggression “by any means necessary,” a stance that is contrary to the nonviolent teachings of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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Malcolm X (born as Malcolm Little) was a minister, a leader in the civil rights movement, an important member of the Nation of Islam and a supporter of Black nationalism. He urged his fellow Black Americans to protect themselves against white aggression “by any means necessary,” a stance that is contrary to the nonviolent teachings of Martin Luther King, Jr.

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How war veterans impacted the civil rights movement | Article | The United States Army

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FORT LEE, Va. -- Medgar Evers, a World War II veteran who participated in the famed Red Ball Express logistical effort, marched head-first into the teeth of the civil rights struggle years later, muddying himself in the trenches of the movement's fight against segregation in Mississippi. Amid the commitment to the cause, he conceded danger was a lurking proposition.

"I'm looking to be shot any time I step out of my car," he said. "If I die, it will be in a good cause. I've been fighting for America just as much as the Soldiers in Vietnam."

Hosea Williams, like Evers, also was a World War II veteran. Having survived a Nazi bombing in Europe under the command of Gen. George Patton, Williams had teetered on the steps of death after being hospitalized for nearly a year as a result of the attack. He was reacquainted with the pain of his experience and introduced to the companions of rebuke and humiliation -- after he was beaten by whites "like a common dog" upon his return home for using a whites-only water fountain, he said.

"At that moment, I truly felt as if I had fought on the wrong side," Williams said later, noting his U.S. Army uniform worn at the time did not deter his attackers. "Then, and not until then, did I realize why God, time after time, had taken me to death's door, then spared my life ... to be a general in the war for human rights and personal dignity."

The experiences of civil rights icons like Evers and Williams and a long list of others form a collective narrative of those who served in the U.S. military during WWII and the Korean War and then returned to their communities with newfound hope and aspirations to improve their lot in American society through various efforts of the civil rights movement.

From the perspective of retired Army Lt. Col. John Boyd, black war veterans were critical to the fight for civil rights.

"They had a great impact on the movement," said the Mechanicsville resident and veteran of the Vietnam War. "I would go as far to say if it wasn't for the black Soldiers who came back from World War II and the Korean War and lent their expertise to the cause, Dr. King and the other ministers would not have been able to effectively organize [the masses] as they did."

Civil rights for African-Americans, or the "human rights and personal dignity" Williams referred to, have been elusive commodities for the better part of their existence. WWII, like all wars before it (and many since), was yet another opportunity to validate their place as American citizens and claim the rights and privileges they were persistently denied. Retired Col. Porcher "PT" Taylor, a combat veteran of WWII and the Korean and Vietnam wars, said risking life and limb for one's country makes a powerful argument for reciprocation.

"When you go out there on the battlefield and you're fighting for your life and the lives of the people you're serving with, it's a big difference compared to the ordinary citizen who did not serve," said the 91-year-old Petersburg resident. "The country is then indebted to that person. It's an obligation."

African-American men and women who served during WWII and the Korean War numbered more than 1.5 million, despite enduring racism and discrimination on the homefront and within the ranks. In addition to returning with heightened expectations because of their battlefield sacrifices, many returned with unique perspectives on life and liberty, especially since many had been exposed to Europe and its more tolerant racial climates. Black military members also gained communication, organizational and leadership skills they might have never acquired as civilians, Taylor said.

Take, for example, Whitney Young. Enlisting in the Army in 1942, he attained the rank of first sergeant in just three weeks, according to www.mallhistory.org. His rapid ascent in a segregated unit caused some resentment among his fellow Soldiers and members of his unit's white leadership. As a result, he was often called upon to mediate between the two groups.

"It was my Army experience that decided me on getting into the race relations field after the war," Young said. "Not just because I saw the problems, but because I saw the potentials, too. I grew up with a basic belief in the inherent decency of human beings."

Young eventually became executive director of the National Urban League in 1961 and a major player in the civil rights Movement.

In addition to the varied and once-in-a-lifetime experiences common to military service, black veterans who served in WWII also were provided with unprecedented educational opportunities. The Servicemen Readjustment Act of 1944, also known as the GI Bill, provided them access to a free college education, although discrimination prevented many from receiving benefits. Williams and Evers were both educated under the GI Bill as well as others like Ralph Abernathy, a confidante of King, and Harry Belafonte, an entertainer and activist.

Education was an important factor in the civil rights movement, Taylor said, but the African-American war experience, especially the segregated conditions of WWII, was the rock-solid premise for civic action and responsibility. He noted how blacks desired more important roles in the war effort than the menial jobs most were relegated to, and how they longed for some measure of human dignity in light of the humiliating subjugation they experienced in comparison to German prisoners of war.

Further, Taylor cited those like championship boxer Joe Louis, who enlisted in the Army while still the world heavyweight champion. Louis was familiar with the challenges blacks faced during the war and gladly gave up thousands of dollars in profits to advocate for their cause. His efforts resulted in helping future baseball player Jackie Robinson and others gain acceptance into officer candidate school. Robinson would go on to assume the lead role in knocking down major league baseball's walls of segregation.

There are various other examples of this wartime service-civic responsibility dynamic. The work of Amzie Moore and Aaron Henry, both WWII veterans who noted the racism inherent in military segregation, were spurred to wage war against segregation in postwar Mississippi. They did not command the spotlight like the high-profile Louis, yet their work as white establishment agitators was far more dangerous. The two eventually helped to organize such efforts as voter registration campaigns and economic boycotts all over the state despite looming threats of violence.

The sense of frustration African-Americans felt while serving their country is perhaps no better illustrated than by the work of one Grant Reynolds. He, like so many before him, entered a WWII Army with high aspirations to do his part for the war cause. He was trained as a chaplain but resigned his commission a few years later due to the "brazen racism" he had witnessed, according to www.blackpast.org. Ironically, Reynolds channeled his experiences and with A. Philip Randolph, established the Committee Against Jim Crow in Military Service and Training in 1947. The group's efforts led to President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981 that integrated the services in 1948.

Truman's mandate, which did not erase military segregation all at once (complete integration did not occur until the mid-1950s), served in many respects as the basis for the various legislation signed into law years later to include the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that guaranteed civil and voting rights for all people.

Those two pieces of legislation are the crowning achievement of the civil rights movement and the signature of warriors like Williams and Evers, who committed themselves to the well-being of their country in and out of uniform, despite the cost. Perhaps their earlier brushes with mortality served as the opening salvos in their fight for human rights and dignity.

It's plausible they believed they had little to lose in light of what could be gained. Evers seemed to be at peace with the notion.

"Freedom has never been free," he said. "I love my children and I love my wife with all of my heart. And I would die, die gladly, if that would make a better life for them."

Williams, one of King's top lieutenants, fought long and hard for civil and human rights over the course of his life. He is best known for courageously leading the first Selma to Montgomery March of 1965. He died in 2000.

Evers participated in numerous causes in the name of equal rights and justice. He carried the title of NAACP field secretary for the state of Mississippi when he was tragically gunned down in 1963 at the hands of a white supremacist.

In 1994, Evers' killer was brought to justice. Today, the state of Mississippi is far removed from its segregationist past.

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How war veterans impacted the civil rights movement

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FORT LEE, Va. (Feb. 23, 2017) -- Medgar Evers, a World War II veteran who participated in the famed Red Ball Express logistical effort, marched head-first into the teeth of the civil rights struggle years later, muddying himself in the trenches of th...

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During the 1950s, segregation in schools was mostly (though not entirely) a Southern practice. According to the “seperate but equal” doctrine, Black and White students were not allowed to attend the same schools. While the schools, supposedly, were equal in resources and equipment, this mostly wasn’t the case. School segregation led to Black citizens being deprived of the practical and material benefits of citizenship.

The main plaintiff was Oliver Brown, father of Linda Brown, who was denied enrolment in her local White only elementary school. Several other similar cases were merged in the final lawsuit that ended up before the Supreme Court. The Court concluded that: “in the field of public education, the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.”

While this was a landmark decision and a milestone in civil rights history, the implementation of the ruling proved difficult as desegregation was violently opposed by protesters in the South and even to this day, schools remain de facto segregated.

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Homer Plessy (1862-1925) was a white man with black ancestors.
Thats why the "Citizens' commitee to test the constitutinality of the seperate car act" choose him to be an subject in court

On the 19. Juli 1890 in the state of Louisiana came a new law into affect.
This Law seperated white and black people

Homer Plessy's trial and the conlcusion of Henry Billings Brown in wich he said "seperate but equal" is not being highly discussed in society.
The south states are using this trial as reasoning for seperating white and black people in society.

It all began when Plessy wanted to sit down on his seat in a train. He sat down on his seat but the conductor told him to move out of this section, Plessy refused to do so. He ended up  kicked out of the train and send to jail for 20 days. (So almost the same like the Rosa Park case)

"The day America's apartheid was born" called by german journalists. (linked Zeitarticle)

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William Bailey
"After getting out of the service, knowing the price that I had paid and the problems I had faced . . . why shouldn't I exercise the rights and privileges of any citizen? . . . If I could go over there and make a sacrifice with my life I was willing to do it here."

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Veteran Medgar Evers

- tried to integrate the University of Mississippi law school
- became the NAACP's first field secretary in Mississippi
- stated that he specifically recruited veterans for the NAACP because they "don't scare easy."
- "I'm looking to be shot any time I step out of my car," he said. "If I die, it will be in a good cause. I've been fighting for America just as much as the Soldiers in Vietnam."

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"The day America's apartheid was born" called by german journalists. (linked Zeitarticle)

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Rassismus: Der Tag, an dem Amerikas Apartheid geboren wurde - WELT
Plessy v. Ferguson – Wikipedia

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Plessy v. Ferguson

Verhandelt:

13. April 1896

Entschieden:

18. Mai 1896

Name:

Homer A. Plessy v. John H. Ferguson

Zitiert:

163 U.S. 537 (1896)

Sachverhalt

Beschwerde nach Strafurteil gegen Schwarzen wegen Aufenthalts in einem für Weiße reservierten Zugabteil

Entscheidung

Die Bereitstellung öffentlicher Einrichtungen nach dem Grundsatz „separate but equal" (dt. „getrennt aber gleich") verstößt nicht gegen die Equal Protection Clause des 14. Zusatzartikels und ist damit verfassungsgemäß.

Besetzung

Vorsitzender:

Melville W. Fuller

Beisitzer:

Harlan · Brown · Field · Gray · Shiras · White · Peckham · Brewer

Positionen

Mehrheitsmeinung:

Brown, Fuller, Field, Gray, Shiras, White, Peckham

Mindermeinung:

Harlan

Angewandtes Recht

Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten, 14. Zusatzartikel; 1890 La. Acts 152

Aufgehoben durch

( de facto aber nicht de jure) Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954) und spätere Urteile.

Plessy v. Ferguson ist ein 1896 vom Obersten Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten entschiedener Fall, der als Grundsatzentscheidung in der Geschichte des Gerichts gilt. Das Gericht hatte darüber zu entscheiden, ob ein Gesetz des Staates Louisiana, das getrennte Abteile für Bürger weißer und schwarzer Hautfarbe in Eisenbahnzügen vorschrieb, gegen die Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten verstoße. Es verneinte dies mit sieben zu einer Richterstimme und erklärte damit die Bereitstellung getrennter Einrichtungen für Weiße und Schwarze unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen für zulässig. Durch dieses Urteil wurde damit de facto das Prinzip Separate but equal, also „Getrennt aber gleich", als Basis der Rassentrennung in den Südstaaten etabliert.

Die Entscheidung Plessy v. Ferguson wurde 1954 durch das Urteil im Fall Brown v. Board of Education, das aber nur das öffentliche Schulwesen betraf, und später andere Urteile effektiv, aber formal nie, aufgehoben. In der US-amerikanischen Geschichtsschreibung wird Plessy zusammen mit Dred Scott v. Sandford und Korematsu v. United States allgemein als eines der schlechtesten Urteile des Obersten Gerichtshofs angesehen.

Die Benennung des Falls ergibt sich der angelsächsischen Rechtstraditionen entsprechend aus den Namen der beiden als Prozessparteien beteiligten Personen, des Schuhmachers Homer Plessy und des Richters John Howard Ferguson, sowie der Abkürzung für den aus dem Lateinischen entnommenen juristischen Fachausdruck „versus" (deutsch: „gegen").

Der Grund der juristischen Auseinandersetzung in Plessy v. Ferguson war ein am 19. Juli 1890 vom Bundesstaat Louisiana unter der Bezeichnung Separate Car Act verabschiedetes Gesetz. Dieses schrieb für Eisenbahnzüge getrennte Wagen für Weiße und Schwarze und bei Verstößen eine Strafe von 25 US-Dollar oder 20 Tagen Gefängnis vor. Einige Bürger Louisianas beschlossen, dieses Gesetz juristisch anzufechten. Sie gründeten dazu ein Citizens' Committee to Test the Constitutionality of the Separate Car Act (Bürgerkomitee zur Überprüfung der Verfassungsmäßigkeit des Separate Car Act) und überzeugten den damals 30-jährigen Schuhmacher Homer Plessy (1862-1925), das Gesetz absichtlich zu verletzen. Plessy galt zwar nach der One-Drop-Rule aufgrund einer schwarzen Urgroßmutter juristisch als Schwarzer, war jedoch äußerlich nicht als solcher zu erkennen. Des Weiteren unterstützte die Bahnbetreibergesellschaft East Louisiana Railroad Company das juristische Vorgehen gegen dieses Gesetz ebenfalls, wenn auch aus rein wirtschaftlichen Überlegungen. Albion Tourgée (1838-1905), ein bekannter weißer Bürgerrechtsanwalt aus New York, erklärte sich bereit, den Fall ohne Honorar vor Gericht zu verhandeln.

Homer Plessy erwarb am 7. Juni 1892 ein Ticket erster Klasse für einen Zug der East Louisiana Railway von New Orleans nach Covington, beides Städte im Staat Louisiana. Nachdem er in einem Abteil für Weiße Platz genommen hatte, informierte er den Zugbegleiter über seine Abstammung. Er wurde daraufhin aufgefordert, den Platz zu räumen und sich stattdessen in ein Abteil für Schwarze zu setzen. Nachdem er dies abgelehnt hatte, wurde er festgenommen, jedoch einen Tag später gegen eine Kaution von 500 US-Dollar wieder freigelassen. Der gesamte Vorfall war dabei im Vorfeld mit der East Louisiana Railway abgestimmt worden.

Homer Plessy wurde einen Monat nach dem Vorfall vom Bezirksstrafgericht der Gemeinde New Orleans des Verstoßes gegen das Gesetz für schuldig befunden ( State of Louisiana v. Plessy, 1892). Der Vorsitzende Richter an diesem Gericht war John Howard Ferguson. Er hatte in vorherigen Entscheidungen die Anwendung des Gesetzes in Zügen, welche die Grenzen des Staates Louisiana überquerten und damit auch in anderen Staaten unterwegs waren, für verfassungswidrig erklärt. Im Fall von Homer Plessy entschied er allerdings gegenteilig mit der Begründung, dass der Staat für Bahnbetreiber, die nur auf dem Territorium Louisianas operieren würden, entsprechende Gesetze erlassen könnte. Er verurteilte Plessy dem Gesetz entsprechend und erklärte dieses unter der genannten Einschränkung für verfassungsgemäß.

Im gleichen Jahr lehnte der Oberste Gerichtshof des Staates Louisiana Plessys Einspruch gegen das Urteil von Ferguson ab ( Ex parte Plessy, 1892). Zwei Jahre später wurde der Separate Car Act noch um Bestimmungen zu getrennten Wartebereichen an Bahnhöfen erweitert. Am 13. April 1896 kam es schließlich zur Verhandlung von Plessys erneutem Einspruch vor dem Obersten Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten. Seine Argumentation beruhte auf einem unzulässigen Eingriff in seine Rechte als amerikanischer Bürger durch den Separate Car Act und auf der Verweigerung der durch den 14. Zusatzartikel gesetzlich garantierten Gleichberechtigung. Nach Auffassung seines Anwaltes Albion Tourgée impliziere das Gesetz eine Minderwertigkeit schwarzer Bürger.

Am 18. Mai 1896 entschied das Gericht unter dem Vorsitz von Melville W. Fuller mit 7 zu 1 Richterstimmen in einem von Richter Henry Billings Brown verfassten Urteil, die Klage von Plessy abzuweisen, da die Bestimmungen des Gesetzes verfassungsgemäß seien. In der Begründung dieser Entscheidung schrieb Brown unter anderem:

„[...] Dass der Separate Car Act nicht gegen den 13. Verfassungszusatz verstößt, der die Sklaverei und die Zwangsarbeit, außer als Strafe für ein Verbrechen, abschaffte, ist zu eindeutig, um es zu begründen. [...] Ein Gesetz, das lediglich eine rechtliche Unterscheidung zwischen der weißen und der schwarzen Rasse beinhaltet - eine Unterscheidung, die auf der Hautfarbe der beiden Rassen beruht, und die immer bestehen wird, solange weiße Menschen von denen der anderen Rasse aufgrund ihrer Hautfarbe unterscheidbar sind - hat nicht die Absicht, die rechtliche Gleichheit beider Rassen zu untergraben. [...] Das Ziel des 14. Verfassungszusatzes war ohne Zweifel, die absolute Gleichheit beider Rassen vor dem Gesetz durchzusetzen, aber es liegt in der Natur der Sache, dass es nicht das Ziel sein konnte, auf der Hautfarbe basierende Unterschiede abzuschaffen, oder, im Unterschied zu politischer, soziale Gleichheit oder eine Vermischung der beiden Rassen durchzusetzen zu Bedingungen, die für beide unbefriedigend sind. [...]"

Das Gericht verwarf Plessys Auffassung hinsichtlich eines Verstoßes gegen den 13. Zusatzartikel ebenso wie die Ansicht, dass das Gesetz eine Minderwertigkeit von Schwarzen implizieren und damit den 14. Verfassungszusatz verletzen würde. Nach Auffassung des Gerichts setzte der Separate Car Act lediglich übliche soziale Prinzipien in Form einer wertungsneutralen Trennung zwischen Weißen und Schwarzen durch. Jede diesbezüglich behauptete Wertung der Schwarzen als unterlegen würde sich nicht aus dem Gesetz ergeben, sondern allein aus der Interpretation dieses Gesetzes durch die Schwarzen selbst. In den Augen der Gerichtsmehrheit bezog sich der 14. Verfassungszusatz nur auf juristische und politische Gleichbehandlung, nicht jedoch auf soziale Gleichheit.

John Marshall Harlan war der einzige Richter, der in einer Minderheitsmeinung dieses Urteil ablehnte. Er sagte voraus, dass dieses Urteil zukünftig als genauso schändlich wie schon das Urteil im Fall Dred Scott v. Sandford angesehen werden würde, und begründete seine Entscheidung unter anderem mit den folgenden Ausführungen:

„[...] Die weiße Rasse sieht sich selbst als die dominierende Rasse in diesem Land. Und sie ist es in Bezug auf Ansehen, Errungenschaften, Bildung, Wohlstand und Macht. Sie wird, daran habe ich keine Zweifel, es für alle Zeiten sein, wenn sie ihrem großartigen Erbe treu bleibt, und an den Prinzipien der verfassungsmäßigen Freiheiten festhält. Aber in der Sichtweise dieser Verfassung und vor den Augen des Gesetzes gibt es in diesem Land keine überlegene, dominierende, herrschende Klasse von Bürgern. Es gibt hier keine Kasten. Unsere Verfassung ist blind gegenüber der Hautfarbe, weder kennt noch toleriert sie Klassen zwischen den Bürgern. In Bezug auf die Bürgerrechte sind alle Menschen gleich vor dem Gesetz. Der Schwächste ist dem Stärksten ebenbürtig. Das Gesetz sieht den Menschen als Menschen, und berücksichtigt nicht sein Umfeld oder seine Hautfarbe, wenn es um seine durch das höchste Gesetz dieses Landes garantierten Rechte geht. Es ist deshalb bedauerlich, dass dieses Hohe Gericht, die höchste Instanz zum Grundgesetz dieses Landes, zu der Auffassung gelangt ist, dass ein Bundesstaat allein auf der Grundlage der Rasse die Inanspruchnahme der Bürgerrechte durch seine Bürger regulieren darf. [...]"

Das Urteil hatte zunächst keine nennenswerten unmittelbaren Folgen. Eine möglicherweise zu erwartende breite Entrüstung in den Medien oder der Öffentlichkeit blieb ebenso aus wie erwähnenswerte Proteste. Homer Plessy bekannte sich im Januar 1897 des Verstoßes gegen das Gesetz schuldig und zahlte die durch den Separate Car Act vorgesehene Strafe von 25 US-Dollar. Er führte später ein Leben ohne weitere besondere Vorkommnisse und starb 1925.

Hinsichtlich ihrer weiterreichenden Konsequenzen hatte die Entscheidung allerdings dramatische Folgen für das öffentliche Leben in den Südstaaten. Durch das Urteil wurde de facto die Doktrin Separate but Equal („Getrennt aber gleich") etabliert, obwohl diese Formulierung im Urteilstext nur in Harlans Ausführungen enthalten war. Auch in der Mehrheitsmeinung wurde lediglich an einer Stelle die umgekehrte Formulierung „Equal but separate" aus dem in Frage stehenden Gesetz des Staates Louisiana zitiert. Die Entscheidung bildete somit, zusammen mit dem Urteil im Fall Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education drei Jahre später, die juristische Grundlage für die Legitimation bereits bestehender und die Verabschiedung weiterer als Jim-Crow-Gesetze zur Rassentrennung in den Südstaaten. Zusammen mit der „Atlanta-Compromise-Rede", in welcher der schwarze Bürgerrechtsaktivist Booker T. Washington 1895 die damalige soziale Isolation der Schwarzen akzeptierte und eine friedliche Koexistenz mit den Weißen mit dem Ziel einer schrittweisen Verbesserung vorschlug, lieferten die in Plessy v. Ferguson enthaltenen Ausführungen der Gerichtsmehrheit auch die ideelle Basis für die Rassentrennung.

Die Entscheidung Plessy v. Ferguson wurde 1954 durch das Urteil im Fall Brown v. Board of Education, das aber nur das öffentliche Schulwesen betraf, und später andere Urteile effektiv, aber formell nie aufgehoben. Zusammen mit dem Civil Rights Act von 1957 und dem Civil Rights Act von 1964 bedeutete dies das offizielle Ende für den Grundsatz Separate but Equal und damit für die rechtlich sanktionierte Rassentrennung in den Vereinigten Staaten.

1. Akhil Amar: Plessy v. Ferguson and the Anti-Canon. In: Pepperdine Law Review. Band39, Nr.1. Pepperdine University School of Law, Malibu 2013, S.75-90 (englisch).

2. Plessy v. Ferguson. 163 U.S. 537, 1896; Online unter http://supreme.justia.com/us/163/537/case.html http://supreme.justia.com/us/163/537/case.html.

3. Infoplease: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Pearson Education, Inc. 2005; Online unter http://www.infoplease.com/us/supreme-court/cases/ar29.html

Steve Luxenberg: Separate: The Story of Plessy v. Ferguson, and America's Journey from Slavery to Segregation. W. W. Norton, New York 2019, ISBN 978-0-393-23937-9.

Keith Weldon Medley: We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson. Pelican Publishing Company, Gretna, LA 2003, ISBN 1-58980-120-2

Brook Thomas: Plessy v. Ferguson. A Brief History with Documents. Bedford und St. Martin's, Boston und New York 1996, ISBN 0-312-13743-5

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Plessy v. Ferguson Verhandelt: 13. April 1896 Entschieden: 18. Mai 1896 Name: Homer A. Plessy v. John H. Ferguson Zitiert: 163 U.S. 537 (1896) Sachverhalt Beschwerde nach Strafurteil gegen Schwarzen wegen Aufenthalts in einem für Weiße reservierten Zugabteil Entscheidung Die Bereitstellung öffentlicher Einrichtungen nach dem Grundsatz „separate but equal" (dt.

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Work together with the Malcom X group. Introduce your person and then discuss differences and similarities in approach and objective!

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Work together with the MLK group. Introduce your person and then discuss differences and similarities in approach and objective!

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Recreate a staff room discussion (among teachers) after the court ruling!

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https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/civil-rights-movement/a/brown-v-board-of-education

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School Segregation and Brown v Board: Crash Course Black American History #33

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Recreate a possible staff room discussion during the first few weeks of the school year!

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Discuss the role of the army in escaping segregation, providing job opportunities, integrating minorities and socially disadvantaged people!

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Propose and discuss theories why this case didn't spark a response similar to the Rosa Parks incident!

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https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/martin-luther-king-jr

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Martin Luther King, Jr: Crash Course Black American History #36

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https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/english-literature/essayists/malcolm-x/

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Malcolm X and the Rise of Black Power: Crash Course Black American History #38

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https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/civil-rights-movement/a/massive-resistance-and-little-rock

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Desegregation of Schools

In its Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision, issued May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation of America's public schools was unconstitutional.

Until the court's decision, many states across the nation had mandatory segregation laws, or Jim Crow laws, requiring African American and white children to attend separate schools. Resistance to the ruling was so widespread that the court issued a second decision in 1955, known as Brown II, ordering school districts to integrate "with all deliberate speed."

Little Rock Central High School

In response to the Brown decisions and pressure from the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP), the Little Rock, Arkansas, school board adopted a plan for gradual integration of its schools.

The first institutions to integrate would be the high schools, beginning in September 1957. Among these was Little Rock Central High School, which opened in 1927 and was originally called Little Rock Senior High School.

Two pro-segregation groups formed to oppose the plan: The Capital Citizens Council and the Mother's League of Central High School.

Who Were the Little Rock Nine?

Despite the virulent opposition, nine students registered to be the first African Americans to attend Central High School. Minnijean Brown, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas and Carlotta Walls had been recruited by Daisy Gaston Bates, president of the Arkansas NAACP and co-publisher of the Arkansas State Press, an influential African American newspaper.

Daisy Bates and others from the Arkansas NAACP carefully vetted the group of students and determined they all possessed the strength and determination to face the resistance they would encounter. In the weeks prior to the start of the new school year, the students participated in intensive counseling sessions guiding them on what to expect once classes began and how to respond to anticipated hostile situations.

The group soon became famous as the Little Rock Nine.

Orval Faubus

On September 2, 1957, Governor Orval Faubus announced that he would call in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the African American students' entry to Central High, claiming this action was for the students' own protection. In a televised address, Faubus insisted that violence and bloodshed might break out if Black students were allowed to enter the school.

The Mother's League held a sunrise service at the school on September 3 as a protest against integration. But that afternoon, federal judge Ronald Davies issued a ruling that desegregation would continue as planned the next day.

Elizabeth Eckford

The Little Rock Nine arrived for the first day of school at Central High on September 4, 1957. Eight arrived together, driven by Bates.

Elizabeth Eckford's family, however, did not have a telephone, and Bates could not reach her to let her know of the carpool plans. Therefore, Eckford arrived alone.

The Arkansas National Guard, under orders of Governor Faubus, prevented any of the Little Rock Nine from entering the doors of Central High. One of the most enduring images from this day is a photograph of Eckford, alone with a notebook in her hand, stoically approaching the school as a crowd of hostile and screaming white students and adults surround her.

Eckford later recalled that one of the women spat on her. The image was printed and broadcast widely in the United States and abroad, bringing the Little Rock controversy to national and international attention.

Ronald Davies

In the following weeks, federal judge Ronald Davies began legal proceedings against Governor Faubus, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower attempted to persuade Faubus to remove the National Guard and let the Little Rock Nine enter the school.

Judge Davies ordered the Guard removed on September 20, and the Little Rock Police Department took over to maintain order. The police escorted the nine African American students into the school on September 23, through an angry mob of some 1,000 white protesters gathered outside. Amidst ensuing rioting, the police removed the nine students.

The following day, President Eisenhower sent in 1,200 members of the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, and placed them in charge of the 10,000 National Guardsmen on duty. Escorted by the troops, the Little Rock Nine attended their first full day of classes on September 25.

Numerous legal challenges to integration continued throughout the year, and Faubus repeatedly expressed his wish that the Little Rock Nine be removed from Central High.

Although several of the Black students had positive experiences on their first day of school, according to a September 25, 1957, report in The New York Times, they experienced routine harassment and even violence throughout the rest of the year.

Melba Patillo, for instance, was kicked, beaten and had acid thrown in her face. At one point, white students burned an African American effigy in a vacant lot across from the school. Gloria Ray was pushed down a flight of stairs, and the Little Rock Nine were barred from participating in extracurricular activities.

Minnijean Brown was expelled from Central High School in February 1958 for retaliating against the attacks. Harassment went beyond the students: Gloria Ray's mother was fired from her job with the State of Arkansas when she refused to remove her daughter from the school. The 101st Airborne and the National Guard remained at Central High School for the duration of the year.

Ernest Green

On May 25, 1958, Ernest Green, the only senior among the Little Rock Nine, became the first African American graduate of Central High.

In September 1958, one year after Central High was integrated, Governor Faubus closed all of Little Rock's high schools for the entire year, pending a public vote, to prevent African American attendance. Little Rock citizens voted 19,470 to 7,561 against integration and the schools remained closed.

Other than Green, the rest of the Little Rock Nine completed their high school careers via correspondence or at other high schools across the country. Eckford joined the Army and later earned her General Education Equivalency diploma. Little Rock's high schools reopened in August 1959.

Did you know? Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. attended graduation ceremonies at Central High School in May 1958 to see Ernest Green, the only senior among the Little Rock Nine, receive his diploma.

Little Rock Nine Aftermath

Several of the Little Rock Nine went on to distinguished careers.

Green served as assistant secretary of the federal Department of Labor under President Jimmy Carter. Brown worked as deputy assistant secretary for workforce diversity in the Department of the Interior under President Bill Clinton. Patillo worked as a reporter for NBC.

The group has been widely recognized for their significant role in the civil rights movement. In 1999, President Clinton awarded each member of the group the Congressional Gold Medal. The nine also all received personal invitations to attend the inauguration of President Barack Obama in 2009.

Jefferson Thomas became the first of the Little Rock Nine to die when he succumbed to pancreatic cancer at the age of 67 on September 5, 2010. After graduating from Central High, Thomas served in the Army in Vietnam, earned a business degree and worked as an accountant for private companies and the Pentagon.

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Little Rock Nine - Definition, Names & Facts | HISTORY

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The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine Black students who enrolled at formerly all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in September 1957. Their attendance at the school was a test of Brown v. Board of Education, a landmark 1954 Supreme Court ruling that declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against Black people-they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many white Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.
WATCH: The Civil Rights Movement on HISTORY Vault
Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction, Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they'd once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they'd made during Reconstruction, " Jim Crow " laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn't use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn't vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.
READ MORE: How Jim Crows Limited African American Progress
Jim Crow laws weren't adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be "separate but equal."
READ MORE: When Did African Americans Get the Right to Vote?
World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II, most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren't given the better paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with-to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.
READ MORE: Why Harry Truman Ended Segregation in the US Military
Rosa Parks

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks had complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn't find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the "mother of the modern day civil rights movement." Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks' courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system. The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956 the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional.

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 3, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.
READ MORE: Why Eisenhower Sent the 101st Airborne to Little Rock After Brown v. Board
Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth's lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth's lunch counter where they'd first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael, who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power."
READ MORE: How the Greensboro Four Sit-In Sparked a Movement
Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 " Freedom Riders"-seven Black and six white activists-mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C., embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother's Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus, but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders-and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.-by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a "whites-only" facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, who reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals
HISTORY and Google Earth: Follow the Freedom Riders' Journey Against Segregation During the Civil Rights Era
March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King's speech in which he continually stated, "I have a dream..."

King's " I Have a Dream" speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964-legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination -into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.
READ MORE: 8 Steps That Paved the Way to the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as " Bloody Sunday." Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions.

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.
READ MORE: Why People Rioted After Martin Luther King Jr.'s Assassination
Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King's assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.
READ MORE: Civil Rights Movement Timeline
Six Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement
10 Things You May Not Know About Martin Luther King Jr.

Sources

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation.
Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library.
Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives.
Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey.
Little Rock School Desegregation (1957). The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford.
Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks.
Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org.
The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center.
The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site.
Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

Photo Galleries

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The civil rights movement was a struggle for justice and equality for African Americans that took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. Among its leaders were Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, the Little Rock Nine, Rosa Parks and many others.

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https://www.britannica.com/event/Plessy-v-Ferguson-1896/Majority-opinion

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Plessy v. Ferguson Summary | quimbee.com

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1863: Emancipation Proclamation --> President Abraham Lincoln signs Emancipation Proclamation, declaring "that all persons held as slaves" within the rebellious states "are, and henceforward shall be free."

1866: Congress passes Civil Rights Act which outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin.

1868: Jim Crow Laws --> collection of state and local statutes that legalized racial segregation.