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What do we want to know more about? What questions do we have?

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What do we want to know more about? What questions do we have?

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How does social exclusion manifest differently across various demographics and cultural contexts?

What are the long-term consequences of social exclusion on children and families?

How do societal attitudes and policies contribute to or mitigate social exclusion?

What are the most effective interventions for reducing social exclusion and promoting inclusion among children and families?

How can we address the intersectionality of social exclusion to ensure inclusivity for marginalized groups?

What interventions or strategies are effective in combating social exclusion?

How do societal norms and structures contribute to or alleviate social exclusion?

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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Preventing Exclusion and Expulsion from Child Care Programs

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Solutions Tree - Forster Social Inclusion 

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Solutions Tree - Forster Social Inclusion 

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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Social Exclusion at School

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Social exclusion in the school environment is increasingly being recognised as a form of relational aggression or bullying, in which a child is exposed to harm through the manipulation of their social relationships and status (Edith Cowan University, 2009).

Social exclusion can take many forms, with children reporting a range of experiences from being deliberately excluded from a peer group to having rumours spread about them, being called names and being purposefully embarrassed. In any sense, social exclusion fundamentally entails a lack of connectedness and participation from a peer group. Australian research suggests that approximately 1 in 6 children report experiences of social exclusion, however, this may under-represent true prevalence rates given the difficulties in measuring social exclusion which is often undertaken in covert and hidden ways (Edith Cowan University, 2009).

Who does social exclustion affect?

While belonging and connectedness to peers is important at any age, it is particularly relevant in adolescence. Research suggests that adolescents are particularly sensitive to peer rejection and as a group, may experience the most significant mental health effects such as depression and anxiety in response peer rejection. Adolescence is typically a time of increased independence from parents and family and increased dependence on their peer group. Identities are developed in relation to peer groups and peer group differences can become highly salient. The difficulty for adolescents is that ingroup and outgroup rules are fluid and as such, maintaining peer relationships can be fraught with complication (Leets & Wolf, 2005).

Studies on the neurological profile of children suggest that their brain areas for emotion (such as the Anterior Cingulate Cortex) become more activated in response to peer rejection with age, peaking in adolescence. In contrast, adolescents show significantly less activation in the brain regions which govern emotional regulation such as the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex in response to peer rejection in comparison with younger children (Bolling, Pitskel, Deen, Crowley, Mayes & Pelphrey, 2011). This unique neurological profile for adolescents suggests that social exclusion at this age may be particularly distressing and that they may have significant difficulty in managing their distress.

Effects of social exclusion

Research suggests that the physical, emotional and mental health of children exposed to social exclusion can be compromised. For example, lower immune function, reduced sleep quality, reduced ability to calm oneself in times of distress, reduced self esteem, feelings of anxiety, depression and aggression have all been observed in children who have been excluded from a peer group (DeWall, Deckman, Pond & Bonser, 2011).

So what can we do about social exclusion?

Children and adults all have a core need to be loved and valued within secure and lasting positive relationships (DeWall et al., 2011). Helping children develop and maintain these secure relationships both with their family, peers and wider social group is an important part of their development. Research is telling us that children become aware of social rejection from a young age (Leets & Wolf, 2005) and can reason as to why it is wrong to exclude others from preadolescence (Killen, 2007). Thus talking with your child from a young age about the inclusion of others, feelings that occur when exclusion is encountered and strategies to manage social exclusion is important. Some helpful tips are:

For the excluded child:

Be open, available and calm when your child needs to talk with you. Children often worry about upsetting or worrying their parents, so it is important to remain calm and engaged with your child.

Be responsive to your child. Affirm to them that they have the right to be safe and feel secure and that you will help them by talking with the school and providing a safe haven at home. For older children, listen to the action that they would like you to take and negotiate with them when it would be appropriate for you to talk with the school, for example, if they are still being excluded at the end of the week or if things escalate.

Be affirming. Tell and show your child that they are unconditionally loved and valued as a person. Enlist the support of family friends to share positive messages about your child and engage in their gifts, talents and interests. Build a circle of security around your child.

Make your home a safe haven. Minimise the risk of online social exclusion and bullying by monitoring technology use and using privacy settings and parental controls. The change of email addresses and mobile numbers may be necessary.

Help your child manage emotional distress but talking about their feelings and developing some self-copying statements such as "relax, don't take it personally". Help your child focus on their gifts, talents and interests.

Build your child's friendships. Having one close friend has been shown to strengthen a child's connectedness to school and self-esteem. Help your child identify a friend or friends that share similar interests and foster friendship through play dates and scheduled activities.

Use the high five principle. Help your child identify five people that they can seek support from and /or things to do, one for each finger if they are being excluded. For example, seek out a special teacher, find a friend in an older year, go to the library or offer their help to the teacher on duty.

Develop ways your child can have some clear boundaries. Help your child communicate their distress and name the inappropriate behaviour of others through statements such as "I don't like what you are doing and you need to stop" , "That is bullying and it is not right". Help your child know that they need to seek support if the social exclusion continues.

Consider programs like the Quirky Kid 'The Best of Friends' program.

For the parents/ school

Develop a tone in your family and school that demonstrates an environment of mutual respect and responsibility.

Have clear and well-communicated policies on bullying and social exclusion and explore these regularly with the school community.

Encourage class-based discussions on the meanings of ingroups and outgroups and common misperceptions, such as "kids who wear glasses are not good at sports". Find examples in everyday life that will challenge these misperceptions. Extend discussions to help children realise the moral and emotional implications of social exclusion.

Facilitate teamwork and an atmosphere of inclusion by choosing working or sporting groups based on arbitrary characteristics such as birth months, favourite animals or having a rotating system by which every half-day, the group rotates by one member.

Develop strong networks between teaching staff and children by including children in lessons, school activity planning and open discussions. Having the principal visible and available can also help develop an atmosphere of inclusion and connectedness.

Get the wider peer group involved. Social exclusion thrives when surrounding peers do not intervene. Help children understand why it is important to help others and strategies to do so, such as saying things like "stop that is not fair, leave her alone, she's my friend" or know a teacher whom they can approach.

Again, programs like 'The Best of Friends' can be offered school-wide to ensure the social skills and communication strategies are consistently applied.

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Social exclusion in the school environment is increasingly being recognised as a form of relational aggression or bullying, in which a child is exposed to harm through the manipulation of their social relationships and status (Edith Cowan University, 2009).

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What do we think we Know about the topic?

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What do we think we Know about the topic?

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In general, social exclusion can occur due to many different factors, such as race, ethnicity, gender identity or socioeconomic background. It affects children and families, leading to feelings of alienation, discrimination and marginalization. Social exclusion can have a detrimental impact on self-worth, sense of community and mental health.

There is some information we might know about social exclusion:

Causes: We understand that social exclusion stems from discrimination and marginalization based on race, ethnicity, gender identity, or socioeconomic background.

Effects: We believe that social exclusion affects children's and families' self-worth, community belonging, and mental health.

Prevalence: We assume social exclusion occurs across demographics, but its prevalence may vary based on region and cultural context.

Risk Factors: We know that living in poverty, belonging to minority groups, and facing systemic discrimination are risk factors for social exclusion.

Protective Factors: We know that supportive family relationships, education access, and community interventions can mitigate the effects of social exclusion.

Existing Interventions: We have some knowledge of existing programs addressing social exclusion, but we may lack comprehensive information on their efficacy.

Long-Term Implications: We understand that social exclusion can impact future opportunities and overall well-being.

Intersectionality: We acknowledge that individuals may experience compounded effects of social exclusion due to intersecting identities.

Cultural Context: We recognize that cultural norms influence experiences of social exclusion within communities.

Barriers to Inclusion: We know that institutionalized discrimination and lack of resources hinder inclusion.

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Identifying social inclusion and exclusion

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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Social Exclusion and Peer Rejection

Social exclusion and peer rejection are pervasive phenomena in children's and adolescents' social interactions. Exclusion and rejection can occur for a myriad of reasons, and although exclusion may not always be intended to cause psychological harm, experiences of exclusion can have detrimental outcomes in terms of emotional and behavioral health ( Buhs & Ladd, 2001; Juvonen et al., 2005; Killen et al., 2008; Killen & Rutland, 2011), academic difficulties ( Buhs et al., 2006), a decrease in prosocial behavior ( Coyne et al., 2011), and low self-esteem ( Stanley & Arora, 1998; Verkuyten & Thijs, 2006). These experiences can be described as either interpersonal or intergroup ( Abrams et al., 2005). Interpersonal exclusion involves rejection from individuals or the peer group because of individual differences, such as attractiveness ( Leets & Sunwolf, 2005), or social deficits, such as temperamental characteristics, including being shy or withdrawn ( Bierman, 2004; Rubin et al., 2006). Intergroup exclusion is marked by rejection by individuals or the peer group because of bias or prejudice regarding the victim's group membership, including characteristics such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, nationality, native language group, gender, culture, or religion ( Killen et al., 2013; Killen & Rutland, 2011). Interpersonal and intergroup exclusion may have different causes, but frequently the outcomes are the same for victims of both types of exclusion.

Are Rejection and Social Exclusion Bullying?

Many individuals assume that social exclusion and rejection are expected parts of growing up and do not constitute bullying or aggression. This is an important consideration because not all instances of rejection or exclusion are bullying or even unwarranted ( Mulvey et al., 2010). For instance, excluding a child from the basketball team because she has trouble dribbling and passing the ball may be perfectly acceptable, but excluding her from the basketball team because she is shy or because she is Muslim would not. Thus, it is important to first consider the reasons for exclusion in evaluating whether the rejection or exclusion is, in fact, bullying. For instance, even young children think about social exclusion differently depending on the context. They might reference the importance of group functioning when discussing excluding an unskilled player from the team, but might reference psychological harm or prejudice when discussing excluding someone from the team because of their temperament or religion ( Mulvey, 2016).

However, even social exclusion or rejection that causes psychological harm may not always constitute bullying. In order for aggressive behavior to be deemed bullying, the aggression needs to involve a power imbalance and to occur repeatedly ( Espelage & Colbert, 2016). It is important to clarify that while, operationally, bullying must include these distinct dimensions, children often report peer victimization that does not meet these bullying criteria ( Vaillancourt et al., 2008). Thus, researchers and practitioners should work carefully to understand how children describe and experience different types of peer rejection and social exclusion, including both interpersonal and intergroup manifestations. Although some instances of social exclusion or peer rejection may not technically constitute bullying, excluding behavior frequently causes psychological harm and can have negative outcomes for emotional and behavioral health ( Killen & Rutland, 2011). These negative outcomes, including internalizing symptoms such as depression and externalizing symptoms such as aggression, can result from a range of types of social exclusion and rejection, including both interpersonal and intergroup exclusion ( Killen et al., 2013).

Interpersonal Rejection

Children and adolescents may experience interpersonal rejection if they demonstrate shy, withdrawn, or anxious behavior or if they struggle with externalizing behavior such as aggression that may lead to a cycle of bullying followed by victimization ( Killen et al., 2013; Rubin et al., 2006). Children who are shy, withdrawn, or anxious are often the victims of interpersonal rejection because their peers perceive these temperamental differences as social deficits that mark these children as nonthreatening and unlikely to retaliate ( Olweus, 1993, 2001). Additionally, these children may struggle with social interactions and peer group processes, leading to rejection and exclusion ( Rubin et al., 2006). Research demonstrates that children who are socially withdrawn and who do experience peer rejection and exclusion are likely to become more socially withdrawn over time ( Oh et al., 2008). Thus, exclusionary behavior can reinforce shy and withdrawn personality traits that are already present.

Similarly, children and adolescents who exhibit high levels of externalizing behaviors that include aggression, hyperactivity, or disruption ( Liu, 2004) are often the victims of social exclusion. These children, who are rejected because of their own aggressive behavior, are often called bully-victims and show distinct trajectories of negative outcomes ( Pouwels et al., 2016; Salmivalli & Peets, 2009; Yang & Salmivalli, 2015). For instance, children who are rejected because of externalizing behaviors are more likely to continue to exhibit externalizing symptomology at increasing rates over time ( Broidy et al., 2003; Ladd, 2006; Laird et al., 2001). Moreover, bully-victims are more likely to perceive the neutral or ambiguous actions of others as bullying, suggesting that they may struggle with social information processing ( Pouwels et al., 2016). Individuals who do struggle with social information processing may exhibit hostile attribution bias, whereby they assume negative intent on the part of others, even in situations that are neutral ( Dodge & Coie, 1987). There is evidence that exhibiting hostile attribution bias is related to heightened aggression in response to experiences of exclusion ( DeWall et al., 2009). Thus, individuals can experience interpersonal rejection because of patterns of both internalizing and externalizing symptomology, and these rejection experiences can heighten or reinforce the maladaptive behaviors that originally resulted in the exclusion and rejection ( Ladd, 2006).

Intergroup Exclusion

Although peer rejection and exclusion are often due to interpersonal reasons, both can also be the result of negative intergroup relations or of interactions with others who do not share one's group membership ( Killen et al., 2013). Research demonstrates that children identify with groups through gender, ethnicity, or language early in life and that individuals exhibit a desire to enhance their group identity and positively promote their in-group ( Bennett & Sani, 2008; Dunham et al., 2011; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This can lead to a desire to maintain homogenous social groups and can result in exclusion or rejection of those who do not share your group membership from your activities or group ( Killen & Rutland, 2011; Levy & Killen, 2008; Rutland & Killen, 2015). Thus, children are, at times, rejected from peer groups because of their gender, ethnic, national, religious, language, or school identity.

Similar to interpersonal exclusion or rejection, intergroup exclusion can lead to negative outcomes in terms of internalizing and externalizing behaviors ( Killen & Cooley, 2014; Rutland & Killen, 2015). However, intergroup rejection or bullying is often rooted in bias and discrimination, and research demonstrates that the likelihood of negative outcomes for bias-based bullying are higher than the odds of negative outcomes for general harassment, rejection, or exclusion ( Russell et al., 2012). For example, youth who report bias-based discrimination such as exclusion and rejection also display higher incidences of substance use/abuse, risky behaviors, mental health concerns (such as depression), and negative school-related outcomes in terms of achievement and truancy ( Russell et al., 2012). Research also indicates that adolescents who experience intergroup bullying that is intersectional (based on more than one category, such as discrimination because of race and weight) are more likely to engage in self-harm and suicidal ideation, and to experience higher rates of depressive symptoms than those who do not experience these forms of intergroup conflict ( Garnett et al., 2014). Thus, intergroup exclusion or rejection can also be marked by serious, negative outcomes in terms of emotional and behavioral health for youth.

Responses and Interventions to Interpersonal and Intergroup Rejection and Exclusion

School systems have taken different approaches to responding to and intervening in instances of peer victimization and bullying. Many of these approaches have targeted rejection and exclusion as well. These approaches often focus on interpersonal rejection and exclusion and take a social-deficits approach whereby interventions target improving the social skills of victims or children at risk for rejection and exclusion, with the goal of helping them to improve their social competence ( Bierman, 2004; Rubin et al., 2006). This approach assumes that children who experience interpersonal rejection are behaving in ways that invite their own rejection and that improving their social skills will reduce the victimization ( Hodges et al., 1999). Although some studies of the effectiveness of social skills training have noted positive outcomes, a systematic review documented mixed results or no positive outcomes for almost half of the studies examining social skills training ( Moote et al., 1999). Moreover, researchers have called for approaches that move beyond an exclusive focus on social skills training and that instead attend more carefully to the peer group context, such as peer norms and social dominance hierarchies that encourage rejection and exclusion ( Mikami et al., 2010).

Social Skills Training and Intergroup Exclusion.

Moving away from social skills training is particularly important, given that these types of approaches are especially unlikely to be helpful when the exclusion is based on group membership and not social deficits ( Killen et al., 2013; Rutland & Killen, 2015). In instances of intergroup exclusion and rejection, however, the focus should be placed on the role of stereotypes, bias, and prejudice ( Hitti et al., 2011; Killen & Cooley, 2014; Mulvey et al., 2010; Sunwolf & Leets, 2004). For instance, research demonstrates that children and adolescents do, at times, justify exclusion of their peers based on stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, language, or culture ( Killen & Rutland, 2011). In instances of exclusion and rejection based on group membership, the focus should be not on providing social skills training for the victims, but, rather, on working to create inclusive environments where fair and equal treatment of others is the norm, where children are encouraged to take the perspective of others, and where prejudice and bias are not tolerated ( Killen et al., 2013; Mulvey et al., 2013). Specifically, intergroup exclusion and rejection should be addressed through school-level support for positive intergroup contact, which is marked by equal status among groups, collaboration and cooperation, and the setting of common goals ( Allport, 1954). Meta-analyses of research on intergroup contact demonstrate positive outcomes for children in terms of prejudice reduction and improvement in attitudes ( Tropp & Prenovost, 2008).

Bullying Prevention Programs.

Some research has indicated that bullying prevention programs implemented school-wide are effective in reducing bullying and victimization, including rejection and exclusion ( Farrington & Ttofi, 2009). Program characteristics that may be particularly effective include sharing information with parents, increasing supervision during playground time, using both punitive and nonpunitive responses to bullying, and using technology such as videos and games to increase awareness of bullying ( Farrington & Ttofi, 2009). More recent meta-analyses suggest that such interventions have very limited success in U.S. contexts, likely because current bullying interventions do not attend to the heterogeneous nature of most U.S. schools ( Evans et al., 2014). Thus, research on bullying interventions and responses to rejection and exclusion in the United States and in other diverse settings should aim to harness the findings from research on intergroup contact and seek to create school environments that foster not only positive peer interactions (generally), but positive intergroup contact as well ( Killen et al., 2013; Rutland & Killen, 2015; Tropp & Prenovost, 2008).

KiVa, a bullying intervention consistently identified as one of the most effective, takes a peer group and school-wide approach with attention to encouraging bystander responses involving defending and supporting victims of bullying, including rejection and exclusion ( Yang & Salmivalli, 2015). The KiVa program teaches children how to engage in bystander intervention through role-playing and video game simulations ( Salmivalli et al., 2011). Results from the KiVa program indicate that fostering bystander behaviors reduces bullying in school environments ( Salmivalli et al., 2011). Although KiVa was initially developed and implemented in Finland, the model is being tested in new settings, with promising results observed in Italy ( Nocentini & Menesini, 2016) and the United Kingdom ( Hutchings & Clarkson, 2015). Although the settings where KiVa has currently documented evidence for success are still largely homogenous, testing is underway in more heterogeneous settings, such as in the United States.

Bystander Intervention and Inter-group Contacts.

Moving forward, schools should look to programs both that promote bystander intervention and that encourage positive intergroup contacts to create optimal environments for reduced peer rejection and social exclusion based on interpersonal factors and intergroup dimensions. Additionally, research has examined the importance of true bystanders who are not part of one's peer group. Future interventions should aim to encourage children and adolescents to challenge rejection and exclusion perpetuated by their own peer group, because they may be more influential in regulating the behavioral norms of their close friends than of their classmates. Research does find that peer group exclusion is stressful not only for those being excluded, but also for adolescents who witness the exclusion of others ( Sunwolf & Leets, 2004). Studies also demonstrate that children and adolescents do want to encourage fair treatment of others by their peer group ( Mulvey & Killen, 2015, 2016; Mulvey et al., 2016), that they feel regret when they do not intervene ( Sunwolf & Leets, 2003), and that they can influence their peers to act in nonprejudicial ways ( Paluck, 2011).

A Positive School Climate.

Interventions should focus on nurturing a positive school climate ( Dessel, 2010) in which peers from different groups have equal status, work together cooperatively, and share common goals ( Allport, 1954). Creating such a positive environment is important because research shows that schools where students perceive high rates of bullying and teasing also have higher dropout rates ( Cornell et al., 2013). School climate can serve as a protective factor against bullying, rejection, and exclusion, including in diverse school settings where bullying is often directed at minority group students ( Connell et al., 2015). Part of creating positive school climates involves shifting school norms toward inclusivity and acceptance of cross-group friendships. One school-wide climate-focused intervention, Creating a Peaceful School Learning Environment (CAPSLE), encourages greater awareness of others' feelings and mental states ( Fonagy et al., 2009). Research shows that implementing the use of CAPSLE was associated with lower rates of victimization and aggression and increases in empathy for others ( Fonagy et al., 2009). Research also suggests that school and peer group norms play a powerful role in establishing inclusive, welcoming school environments for children and adolescents ( Hitti & Killen, 2015; McGuire et al., 2015; Thijs & Verkuyten, 2014; Tropp et al., 2014, 2016).

One way in which school and peer group norms can be shaped is through positive bystander behaviors ( Frey et al., 2015; Malti et al., 2015; Palmer et al., 2015), and there is evidence that schools can help foster climates where bystander behavior is encouraged and supported ( Salmivalli et al., 2011; Yang & Salmivalli, 2015). However, there is also evidence that youth may be hesitant to engage in bystander intervention because of concerns about the social and peer repercussions of standing up for others ( Mulvey & Killen, 2016; Mulvey et al., 2016). These concerns may be unwarranted, however, because although youth may assume their friends will judge challenges to their peer group norms negatively, individually both children and adolescents demonstrate high levels of support for peers who speak out to encourage their group to act in inclusive, equitable, and nonprejudicial ways ( Mulvey et al., 2014, 2016; Mulvey & Killen, 2015, 2016).

Conclusion

Intervention efforts should aim to foster inclusive school environments by encouraging bystander behaviors and by reinforcing school and peer group norms that promote inclusivity. Children struggle with social decisions and are faced with challenging tasks of navigating ever-changing peer groups with a wide range of different norms ( Mulvey et al., 2013). School personnel, parents, and group leaders can help ensure that the school climate more broadly is supportive and inclusive and that it encourages positive intergroup contact and acceptance of peers with a range of temperamental differences.

School mental health professionals should consider whether the causes of the rejection experience are interpersonal or intergroup when responding to situations involving social exclusion. Children and adolescents frequently struggle with both interpersonal and intergroup rejection and exclusion. Although these exclusionary experiences may not always constitute bullying, they frequently do result in psychological harm and can lead to serious consequences for children's behavioral and emotional health and well-being ( Killen et al., 2013).

Nurses, physicians' assistants, doctors, mental health counselors, and health-care professionals should ensure that their care includes attention to issues related to psychological and behavioral health. This is especially important because rejection, exclusion, and bullying can lead to mental health issues for victims, aggressors, and even those who observe these types of aggression ( Espelage & Colbert, 2016).

Practitioners, even those outside of the school environment, can play an important role in addressing the negative consequences of these types of experiences for youth. School personnel may not always be aware of the rejection and exclusion experiences faced by students in their care ( Nansel et al., 2001; Waasdorp et al., 2011). This indicates the importance of having teachers, counselors, school psychologists, and administrators talk directly with students about the harmful nature of these behaviors, both to encourage students to speak up if they are experiencing rejection and exclusion, and also to serve as engaged bystanders who create inclusive spaces for their peers. Schools should look to mitigate exclusion and rejection by seeking multifaceted intervention efforts that target school climate, school norms, intergroup attitudes, and peer norms, and that encourage active, assertive bystanders.

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Causes and Consequences of Social Exclusion and Peer Rejection Among Children and Adolescents

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Social exclusion and peer rejection are pervasive phenomena in children's and adolescents' social interactions.

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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How can we find the answers? List resources and references

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Strategies for the Prevention of Social Exclusion: An Analysis of the Children’sFund

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What new Learning took place? What did we find out?

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What new Learning took place? What did we find out?

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Social exclusion is a complex phenomenon that intersects with various aspects of identity and social structures.

Longitudinal studies suggest that children who experience social exclusion may face persistent mental health challenges into adulthood.

There's a need for more research on the interplay between social exclusion and cultural, economic, and political factors.