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About my eyes, my eyes are brown and sometimes they turn light brown in the sunlight. My eyes because I have rhinitis, my eyes and my nose are relatively fragile. We usually say that the seven orificiums are connected, which means that the eyes are connected to the tear duct and the nose, so my eyes are also very sensitive. When my eyes look at the electronic screen for a long time, I get tired. So my eyes blink a lot more often. Went to the hospital to check is allergic conjunctivitis. I often suffer from this, because blinking makes me miserable, but also because it is too dry to blink. My mother also told me to go to bed early and protect my eyes, eyes are so important to us. So I wanted to study the eye, the human eye, the animal eye, the eye of everything.

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Some of these peepers have eyepopping abilities

By Leslie Nemo

The first eyes probably appeared long before the Cambrian explosion that occurred from 541 million to 530 million years ago. Some of the earliest renditions might have been a simple pit eye, a kind of pit of tissue lined with light receptors, or what scientists call an eyespot, a simple region that detects light. Over time, new anatomy appeared. Lenses and corneas, which bend and focus light, developed, with the latter taking on special importance for organisms living on land. "The cornea, which in fish is simply a transparent protective cover for the eye, became an image-forming structure in its own right," wrote the late Michael Land, a biologist at the University of Sussex in England, in a 2005 study in the journal Current Biology, "because it now had air on one side and water on the other."

Some organisms have kept basic structures- flatworms and mollusks still have their simple pit eyes-while others sprouted mirrored components, elaborate pupil dynamics and arrangements that let their owner see above and below a waterline simultaneously. Even in animals that rely primarily on sensations besides sight, incredible eye features persist. Below are a handful of peepers from across the animal kingdom. A few resemble our own, and some have capabilities you may wish you had, too.

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Mossy New Caledonian gecko is the largest gecko species ever recorded-individuals grow up to 14 inches long. Like some of its fellow nocturnal relatives, it will slap its tongue up to its eye to wipe grime away.

The silvery glow circling this bigfin reef squid's eye likely comes from two structures: cells full of tiny plates that reflect light and legions of tiny, pigmented organs that cephalopods selectively contract or relax.

Atlantic nurse shark: The suction feeder gets shut-eye during the day and lies still while snoozing-making it the only shark species that shows multiple attributes of what the rest of the animal kingdom calls "sleep."

Coral-boring scallop: The pictured 11 eyes in this mollusk don't focus light with lenses like most animals' peepers do. These eyes use reflective crystals-also found in carp scales and chameleon skin -to gather and direct the rays.

Gray whale: As most cetaceans cope with changing light intensity as they return to the surface after a dive, their pupils contract from a circle to a bean-shaped crescent at the bottom of the eye and then to a faint crescent connecting two tiny holes.

Parrot: Although light in the ultraviolet range lies outside the boundaries of what humans detect, birds can see these wavelengths, which play a role in their mating and food-finding habits.

Credit: Paulo Oliveira Alamy

Four-eyed fish: A single eye in this species-pictured here-holds two lobes. One sits above the waterline, and one sits below it, lending the "four-eyed" moniker to a fish that cruises the water's surface for floating snacks.

Wood louse spider: This species belongs to a relatively small number of spiders that have six eyes instead of eight. They lack the " principal eyes," which convey color vision and higher spatial acuity in most species.

Indian elephant: Dissections of elephant eyes show that during the day, the gentle giants likely have red-green color blindness just like some humans, meaning they can't distinguish the two colors.

Horsefly: These flies are attracted to polarized light, or rays of light that vibrate in the same direction. Females find prey by locking in on polarized beams coming off its hair.

Tokay gecko: When this slit pupil constricts, the scalloped edges merge to make four diamond-shaped pinholes and four images of an object within the gecko's retina. Whether the images converge into one depends on how far away they are, which probably helps the reptile gauge distance.

Crocodile fish: As the species lurks around sandy ocean floors, the iris lappet, or lacey covering drooping over its eye, obscures the pupil and improves fish's overall camouflage.

A version of this article with the title "Science in Images" was adapted for inclusion in the August 2021 issue of Scientific American.

This article was originally published with the title "Science in Images" in Scientific American Magazine Vol. 325 No. 2 (), p. 22

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See the Most Bizarre and Beautiful Animal Eyes on Earth

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Some of these peepers have eyepopping abilities

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Both humans and animals are naturally sensitive to the eyes, which means life and observation of the world

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I went to the wildlife museum, where I could see models of all kinds of animals

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I went to the wildlife museum, where I could see models of all kinds of animals

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Goats are herbivores and need to be able to protect themselves when a predator comes along. A broad line of sight, aided by wide, rectangular-shaped pupils, allows them to see danger approaching from their peripheral vision.

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What are the common conditions and disorders that affect your eyes?

The types of conditions that can affect your eyes vary depending on the specific part(s) involved. That's because your eyes include a variety of tissue types. It has muscle, connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels and more.

Some of the different types of eye conditions include - but aren't limited to - the following:

Refractive errors. These are problems with how you see because light isn't coming into focus on your retinas correctly. Refractive errors can take many forms, such as focusing too soon (nearsightedness) or too late (farsightedness). They can also involve distortions in your sight, like with astigmatism.

Corneal disorders. These are conditions that affect the cornea itself. They can happen for many reasons, ranging from congenital conditions (which you have at birth) to conditions that don't develop until later in life.

Retinal disorders. These conditions can happen because of problems that affect the retina directly. They can also be secondary effects of another disease, like how lattice degeneration can lead to a retinal detachment.

Optic nerve-related conditions. These affect the nerve that links the eyes and brain. Examples include optic neuritis and optic atrophy.

Age-related eye disorders. These conditions are more likely to happen as you get older, especially after age 65. They range from minor concerns like age-related loss of near vision (presbyopia) to serious concerns like cataracts. Some age-related eye diseases, like macular degeneration or glaucoma, are severe enough to cause permanent vision loss.

Your eyes are also susceptible to more general conditions and issues. Examples of these include:

What are some common signs or symptoms of eye conditions?

Signs and symptoms of an eye condition can vary greatly. One reason for that is the many different parts that affect or contribute to your vision. A common example of this is how a metabolic and circulatory condition like Type 2 diabetes can lead to vision loss over time.

Some symptoms affect the surface of your eye only. Others affect the inside of your eye. Some key types of eye symptoms include:

Eye surface issues.

Eye appearance/alignment.

Eye function and sight.

Eye surface issues

These symptoms affect your eyes' surface or the area immediately surrounding them. They include:

Eye appearance/alignment

Changes in the color of the sclera (such as blue or yellow sclera) or noticeable bleeding into the conjunctiva.

Reflex or appearance changes affecting the iris or pupil (like leukocoria, coloboma, etc.).

Eye misalignment (strabismus), including inward (esotropia), outward (exotropia), upward (hypertropia) or downward (hypotropia).

Eye function and sight

Symptoms from eye-related conditions can also affect your sight itself. The eyes are often a sense you rely on heavily, so sight- or vision-related symptoms are often easier to notice.

Some of them involve changes or disruptions in how or what you see. Examples include - but aren't limited to - the following:

Trouble seeing clearly or properly: Blurred vision from refractive errors, or specific vision issues like night blindness or color blindness.

Decrease or loss of vision: Sudden vision loss or low vision and blindness.

Disrupted vision: Double vision or visible auras (bright haze or splotches in your field of view) like from ocular migraines.

Light sensitivity (photosensitivity or photophobia): This is when bright light causes you pain or discomfort severe enough that you try to avoid brighter surroundings and prefer dimmer areas or light levels.

How the link between your eyes and brain influences symptoms

It's also important to remember that many causes of eye symptoms - especially sight/vision changes or eye movement control symptoms - may not be due to an eye condition. Some might happen due to a condition elsewhere in your body. An example of this is yellowing of the sclera when you have jaundice.

The familiar saying is that "the eyes are a window to the soul." But from the medical perspective, they're also like a window to your brain. Eye-related symptoms are a key way for healthcare providers to find brain conditions and issues. That's why vision changes can be telltale indicators of brain-related issues like concussions or strokes.

What are some common tests to check eye health?

Many tests can detect conditions that affect your eyes directly or that cause eye symptoms. The most important of them is an eye exam. Regular eye exams can detect many eye conditions or concerns before you ever have symptoms. And eye exams can help prevent long-term vision damage or issues when you have other conditions like Type 2 diabetes.

Other common tests include:

There are many tests your eye care specialist or other healthcare provider may recommend depending on your symptoms and the suspected cause(s). They may also recommend tests for other body systems that might influence or cause eye symptoms. Your specialist or provider is the best source of information about test options, what they recommend and why.

What are some common treatments for eye conditions?

There are many possible treatments for eye conditions, and the treatments can vary widely. Some conditions or concerns that are common or not severe may have simpler treatments. Other conditions or concerns need more advanced care options.

Some examples of types of eye care include:

Vision correction. This is the main approach to treating eyesight issues like nearsightedness, farsightedness or age-related near vision loss. Eyeglasses and contact lenses are the most common options. Some people need prescription glasses or contacts, while others may only need reading glasses (sometimes known as "cheaters"). Others may choose to undergo vision correction surgery.

Medications. Medications can treat many conditions that - either directly or indirectly - affect your eyes. The type of medication depends on the specific condition(s) involved and other factors. These include medicated drops or ointments you apply to your eyes or medications you take other ways (by mouth, via injection or infusion, etc.).

Surgery. Many eye conditions are treatable with surgery. These can include a variety of methods, including phacoemulsification (which uses ultrasound to break up cataracts), cryotherapy (which uses intense cold), radiofrequency ablation (which uses intense heat) and laser surgery.

Many other possible treatments can play a role in treating eye conditions or symptoms. Because there are many influencing factors, your eye care specialist or healthcare provider is the best person to tell you more about treatment options. They can explain the options and help you choose one that's most likely to help you.

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Eyes: A Window to the World for Your Brain

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Your eyes are light-gathering sensory organs at the front of your head. They send signals that your brain uses to create the "picture" you see.

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通常对于症状与体征比较明显的干眼患者，眼科医师可以轻而易举地识别出来。 然而，如遇到一些症状不明显的患者，如何区分是干眼、过敏还是感染？ 且听三位经验丰富的眼科医生分享他们对这类疾病的识别和管理。 这三位眼科医师分别是来自休斯顿贝勒医学院卡伦眼科研究所眼表研究中心的主任Stephen C. Pflugfelder教授，肯塔基大学医学中心眼科副教授Bruce Koffler博士、克利夫兰诊所Cole眼科研究所的眼科学教授和角膜研究室主任Steven E. Wilson博士。
正确询问病史很重要
Stephen C. Pflugfelder教授： 在临床上遇到真正难以诊断的患者的情况很少见， 大多数干眼、过敏或感染的患者临床特征比较明显，但偶尔也会出现很难区分的情况。

Koffler Vision Group教授： 如果想得到精准的诊断，对于病史和体征的询问非常重要。 患者主要的眼部不适主诉是什么？ 发生了多长时间？ 有什么感受和症状？ 家里的其他人是否有类似的问题？ 患者是否有任何可能导致这些不适症状的全身性疾病？ 例如类风湿性关节炎、红斑狼疮或血管疾病等免疫系统疾病。 患者是否有严重的过敏性疾病，或与牛皮癣有关的任何皮肤病问题？ 后者表明患者可能有过敏的异常倾向。

当难以确定是干眼还是过敏时，症状能带来一些提示。干眼症通常会产生灼热，眼痒或异物感，并可能产生光敏感；过敏通常与流泪和眼痒有关，并且可能伴随季节性或环境中的过敏原出现一起发生。左图：过敏性结膜炎的急性病例。中间：继发于眼部化妆的过敏性结膜炎，检查时并未立即显现。右图：过敏性结膜炎，结膜水肿。（图片由Bruce Koffler教授提供）

除此以外，询问患者的服药史也非常重要。 患者是否服用抗胆碱能药，抗组胺药或神经毒素类药物治疗神经性疼痛？ 其中一些具有显著的干燥效果。 如果事实证明全身用药会导致患者出现干眼问题，可以要求患者的内科医生将药物转换为不会使眼睛干涩的药物，或者减少剂量，或者停药一小段时间。 积极寻找病因非常重要，这决定询问病史时能否得到非常有用且精准的信息。

随着电子记录管理等新型技术与系统的深入挖掘，针对病因的寻找会带来翻天覆地的变化，医生更容易获得可靠的有价值的信息，甚至能判断出尚未被诊断出的疾病。

Steven E. Wilson教授： 大多数情况下区分过敏或干眼、感染并不难。 仔细的询问病史、检查体征，加上经验丰富的眼科医生便能够确定到底属于哪种情况。 大多数时候这三种情况单独存在并以不同方式呈现。 然而，有时很难确定是干眼还是过敏，或两者兼而有之。 因为一方可能会加剧另一方，并且症状可能会有一些重叠。 患者甚至可能同时患有干眼，过敏和感染。 患者可能患有慢性干眼的睑缘炎，并且每年也会出现过敏症状。

除了症状和体征，荧光素钠染色可以帮助区分干眼和过敏;过敏性结膜炎很少在眼表着染。

左上图：干眼经典的劣质染色。中间和右边：干眼症的表面暴露

在很难确定是干眼还是过敏的情况下，患者的症状能给很多提示。干眼患者通常会有灼热感或眼痒或异物感，甚至还有敏感性，人工泪液可以缓解这些问题。如果是过敏，患者通常会有流泪和眼痒，并且可能会出现季节性恶化，或者当患者受到过敏原如猫或某些草或花的刺激时会恶化。

如果患者有红眼、结膜水肿、水样分泌物和眼痒，可以基本肯定为过敏性结膜炎，这种症状较为明显。那么，如果症状不明显的情况下如何诊断呢？患者眼睛不是很红，但看起来有发炎症状，医生便要怀疑患者到底是过敏还是干眼？此时，就要从 详细病史中探寻蛛丝马迹： 患者有什么症状；眼痒是否属于全身综合症的一部分，这将使判断更倾向于过敏；是否有季节性；眼结膜是否会定期出现非常红的情况，通常干眼并不会多次出现结膜发红。根据病史和检查结果，临床医生对季节性过敏的判断更容易一些，一年中正值过敏高发时间，并且眼痒是主要症状，这种情况不太可能是干眼问题。

尽管干眼也存在潜在的炎症，但这种炎症是从病理层面的诊断。干眼患者眼巩膜部分不一定会看到发红，但是做结膜活检或泪腺活检时，就会看到炎症的基本病理变化。相比之下，过敏患者通常会将充血作为其体征的一部分。结膜的瘙痒和充血可能不是恒定的，会复发。此时，从患者的既往史中寻找他是否有其他过敏史就尤为重要，例如对花草或某些食物过敏，或有其他与过敏相关的疾病，如皮炎或哮喘。有些患者患有严重的眼痒、流泪和发红，但之前从未发生过这种情况，患者不相信自己有过敏反应，只是因为这对他来说是罕见的，但确实每个人都可能患有过敏性结膜炎。

如果症状和体征很不明显，并且在检查后仍然不确定患者是否有干眼或过敏（或两者兼而有之），还有两个选择： 可以进行测试，或观察患者对特定治疗是否有反应。

左：干眼患者的染色较差。右：干眼显示弥漫性染色。

如趋向干眼或趋向过敏都不明显，可以采取保守的方法让患者的患眼润滑起来，暂先不使用皮质类固醇药物，可以使用局部抗组胺药滴剂或联合使用抗组胺药和肥大细胞稳定剂，这些都不会造成任何伤害。

确保任何感染都能被明确诊断至关重要，因为感染可能会对眼睛造成损害并且可能会传染。 常见的眼感染性疾病是病毒性结膜炎。

对于是否按照眼部感染来处理，有一个令眼科医师纠结的情况是难以确诊的早期病毒性结膜炎。 患者刚刚开始出现症状并且只有些许充血。 大多数情况下，不会考虑是干眼，但却会在过敏和早期病毒性结膜炎之间犹豫。

细菌感染通常伴有脓性分泌物。左：乳头状结膜炎伴细菌感染。眼睑有凹凸不平的外观。中间：黏液分泌物的细菌性结膜炎。右：细菌性睑结膜炎腺体堵塞。

如果症状更倾向于病毒感染，可以使用二代腺病毒检测器，这是一种快速的主流的诊断测试，可以证实泪液或结膜中是否存在腺病毒抗原。 如果显示阳性，将更加肯定病毒性结膜炎的诊断。 除腺病毒外，其他病毒性结膜炎唯一存在的病毒是疱疹病毒，非常罕见，也可能使角膜受累。 通常情况下，病毒性结膜炎病程按常规发展会持续7到10天。 实际上时间也是鉴别病毒感染和过敏的重要部分。 如果患者已确定这种症状持续存在，长时间眼痒，那么是过敏而非慢性感染的可能性非常大。 并且，如果用抗组胺药治疗过病毒性结膜炎且不能解决患者存在的问题，那么可以明确地调整方案，在最快时间内诊断并治疗病毒性结膜炎。 如果没有进行过抗组胺药治疗，患者在此时仍有症状，可以做更多的检查，并开始调整用另外的方法治疗。

在难以决断时，仔细回顾病史对病毒性结膜炎的诊断大有益处。 患者可能会反映在工作、学校或家中接触过红眼的人，在病毒性结膜炎流行期间，30％~50％的人会意识到他们接触过红眼的人。 这使得鉴别诊断变得容易一些。

一旦确诊，疱疹病毒的病毒性结膜炎有很好的抗病毒药物治疗，但对于腺病毒感染的结膜炎没有特定的治疗方法。 只能告诉患者他或她有这个病，并警告患者小心不要污染另一只还未发病的眼睛，以及避免传染给其他人。 通常建议患者留在家中工作或学习。

左图：细菌性结膜炎导致睑结膜穹隆位置更低伴随分泌物。右图：细菌性结膜炎中明显的结膜血管充血反应

分泌物可以帮助区分过敏和感染，如果是带有大量黏液的脓性分泌物，更倾向于诊断为感染。 如果是清澈、水样的分泌物并伴有重度眼痒，更倾向于诊断为过敏。

一旦发现脓性分泌物，要考虑使用抗生素。 严重的干眼有时可伴有分泌物，事实上，这些患者可能已经倾向于发展为细菌性结膜炎。 因此，如果干眼并伴随很多脓性分泌物，治疗可用局部抗生素，治疗方式与细菌性结膜炎类似。 否则，应尽量避免使用抗生素，虽然不会造成任何伤害，但价格昂贵，而且日久会增加耐药性。 如果有诊断困难的患者，需要排除某种形式的感染，那么细菌培养会非常有帮助。 在决定是否合适细菌培养时，病程是一个重要的考虑因素。 如患者长期（三个月以上）有这样的症状，可以毫不犹豫地做细菌培养。 如患者只有24小时或48小时的病程，通常不会做细菌培养。

原发性单纯疱疹。区分过敏反应和早期病毒性结膜炎很重要。如果问题是单纯疱疹却错误地使用皮质类固醇治疗，则可能导致问题恶化。

其他辅助区分干眼，过敏和感染的检测手段的实用性还有待观察。 如果泪液渗透压升高并伴有其他发现，如泪膜破裂时间加快或眼睛少许着染，这对干眼来说是非常有意义的补充诊断测试，但是也只有在结果绝对明显的时候才有价值。 如果结果模棱两可，那么治疗仍将基于临床。 同样，如果基质金属蛋白酶9的检测水平很高，它将补充临床诊断。 然而另一方面，过敏或病毒性结膜炎中基质金属蛋白酶9的增加可能也足以使检测呈阳性，它最大问题在于它是非特异性的，因此其测试的特异性还有待确定。 如果有更多特定的分子标记可以进行测试，来充分确诊干眼或过敏，不失为一种良策。

皮质类固醇药物在许多情况下都有帮助，但也有许多弊端。 如果是细菌感染，在考虑使用类固醇之前，需要先在眼睛上滴注抗生素1~2天，这样有助于对患者情况有更好的理解与处理。 在这24小时内，可以从细菌培养中获取信息，进而更好地判断患者的主要问题在于什么，以及处理方式是否正确，稍后再使用皮质类固醇药物。

皮质类固醇药物对于干眼患者效果很好，或者患者是症状较明显的过敏。 皮质类固醇也可以很好地抑制由病毒性结膜炎引起的炎症，但这种做法仍然具有争议。 另一方面，用皮质类固醇药物治疗细菌性结膜炎是不可取的。 细菌性结膜炎非常罕见，它通常只见于患病或老年人或者患有咽炎或中耳炎的儿童。 皮质类固醇激素的作用快速有效，但为什么不能一直使用该药物？ 因为长期使用会引起白内障、青光眼，并增加感染风险等。

过敏性结膜炎有时会导致干眼，患有全年过敏症的患者往往更容易导致干眼。 眼结膜发生持续的特应性改变，并伴有刺激和瘙痒，尽管有时症状并不突出。 但是根据检查提示他们可能患有过敏性结膜炎，同时这种情况下的患者也会出现干眼症，所以必须同时治疗过敏性结膜炎和干眼。

以下这些注意事项可以助力做出正确的诊断、制定合理的治疗计划：

在了解既往史时，询问工作场所和家庭环境。 询问患者是否知道在办公地点是否有通气孔吹风，如果通气孔散布某种过敏原，可能会导致干眼或过敏。家里是否有尘螨或其他过敏原，患者是否常开加湿器。这些都需要深入了解。

询问患者可能正在使用的滴眼液和全身用药。这些信息或许可以解释眼干燥或过敏的原因，有助于避免做出错误的诊断。各种类型的局部滴眼液有可能可引起毒性和刺激，从慢性干眼症状到睑板腺疾病到慢性结膜炎等多种方式。

告诫大众在红眼患者身边要小心。在不确定眼红的原因到底是什么值钱，一定尽量避免和这类眼红患者接触。如果红眼是由感染引起，则很容易传播。

检查耳前淋巴结是否肿大。耳前淋巴结肿大是病毒性结膜炎的典型征兆，衣原体也可能导致这种情况。所以，看到眼红的患者，第一个要检查耳前淋巴结。如果肿胀并且存在其他迹象，诊断相对容易多了。

询问患者是否进行过自我治疗。很多患者会在互联网上搜集治疗或补救措施，乱用药物或在眼睛上涂茶。因此，知道他们对自己做了什么很重要。

如果考虑存在过敏情况，在培养嗜酸性粒细胞时进行涂片。嗜酸性粒细胞增多是过敏的典型表现，也可以进行嗜酸性粒细胞计数，看看数字是否升高，这表明有明显的过敏反应。

如果感染，仔细查看结膜和角膜。细菌感染通常会导致乳头状结膜炎，角膜病变往往呈圆形，白色浸润；单纯疱疹病毒或腺病毒等往往会对结膜造成更多的卵泡反应，在角膜上，腺病毒倾向于产生经典的星状病变，而疱疹病变倾向于产生树突状病变。这些迹象对区分感染是细菌还是病毒非常有帮助。

当治疗过敏性结膜炎和干眼症时，考虑外用环孢菌素A。如果有季节性或全年过敏抗组胺药物治疗无效，或存在类固醇过度使用的危险，局部外用环孢菌素A会非常有益，病情也会得到持续控制。虽然干眼的炎症是由不同的细胞类型介导的，但环孢菌素A的治疗也有卓越效果。环孢素滴眼液可能有助于治疗严重的过敏症状，如春季结膜炎或特应性角膜结膜炎。

并非所有患者都需要治疗。病毒性结膜炎是自限性的，在大多数情况下，病毒性结膜炎会自行好转，对病毒性结膜炎确实没有特别的治疗方法。更多的采取姑息性治疗，如使用人工泪液和冷敷。如果病毒性结膜炎产生角膜问题，如上皮下浸润，那么类固醇或环孢素滴眼液将有所帮助。对于病毒性结膜炎的红眼症状，推迟治疗并在一周左右的时间内重新评估是可行的。事实上，即使没有抗菌治疗，轻微的、非严重的细菌性结膜炎通常也是自限性的。在任何一种情况下，一旦结膜炎已经解决，可以再处理其他残留的症状，如干眼。

适时让其他专业或科室的医师协助治疗。如有必要，可以寻求特定的角膜眼表疾病专家协助诊断和治疗。如果问题是全身性的，考虑向过敏专科医师寻求帮助。通常自己想不到的，该领域的专家可以深入研究，并进行过敏测试。

勤于总结和发现。最终，揭开神秘面纱在很大程度上取决于当前的检查和既往总结的经验，以及对这种疾病的耐心程度。 医生应养成仔细进行裂隙灯检查的习惯，以及检查耳前淋巴结，使用角膜荧光染色并补充检查腺病毒抗原、MMP-9检测或泪液高渗透压试验，根据患者当前的临床表现，结合患者详细的既往史。

（来源：《国际眼科时讯》编辑部）

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送您一份详尽的鉴别诊断攻略--是干眼、过敏还是感染？_患者

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此时，就要从详细病史中探寻蛛丝马迹：患者有什么症状；眼痒是否属于全身综合症的一部分，这将使判断更倾向于过敏；是否有季节性；眼结膜是否会定期出现非常红的情况，通常干眼并不会多次出现结膜发红。根据病史和检查结果，...

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The Eye of Horus, wedjat eye or udjat eye is a concept and symbol in ancient Egyptian religion that represents well-being, healing, and protection. It derives from the mythical conflict between the god Horus with his rival Set, in which Set tore out or destroyed one or both of Horus's eyes and the eye was subsequently healed or returned to Horus with the assistance of another deity, such as Thoth. Horus subsequently offered the eye to his deceased father Osiris, and its revitalizing power sustained Osiris in the afterlife. The Eye of Horus was thus equated with funerary offerings, as well as with all the offerings given to deities in temple ritual. It could also represent other concepts, such as the moon, whose waxing and waning was likened to the injury and restoration of the eye.

The Eye of Horus symbol, a stylized eye with distinctive markings, was believed to have protective magical power and appeared frequently in ancient Egyptian art. It was one of the most common motifs for amulets, remaining in use from the Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC) to the Roman period (30 BC - 641 AD). Pairs of Horus eyes were painted on coffins during the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BC) and Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC). Other contexts where the symbol appeared include on carved stone stelae and on the bows of boats. To some extent the symbol was adopted by the people of regions neighboring Egypt, such as Syria, Canaan, and especially Nubia.

The eye symbol was also rendered as a hieroglyph (𓂀). Egyptologists have long believed that hieroglyphs representing pieces of the symbol stand for fractions in ancient Egyptian mathematics, although this hypothesis has been challenged.

The ancient Egyptian god Horus was a sky deity, and many Egyptian texts say that Horus's right eye was the sun and his left eye the moon. The solar eye and lunar eye were sometimes equated with the red and white crown of Egypt, respectively. Some texts treat the Eye of Horus seemingly interchangeably with the Eye of Ra, which in other contexts is an extension of the power of the sun god Ra and is often personified as a goddess. The Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson believes the two eyes of Horus gradually became distinguished as the lunar Eye of Horus and the solar Eye of Ra. Other Egyptologists, however, argue that no text clearly equates the eyes of Horus with the sun and moon until the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BC); Rolf Krauss argues that the Eye of Horus originally represented Venus as the morning star and evening star and only later became equated with the moon.

Katja Goebs argues that the myths surrounding the Eye of Horus and the Eye of Ra are based around the same mytheme, or core element of a myth, and that "rather than postulating a single, original myth of one cosmic body, which was then merged with others, it might be more fruitful to think in terms of a (flexible) myth based on the structural relationship of an Object that is missing, or located far from its owner". In the myths surrounding the Eye of Ra, the goddess flees Ra and is brought back by another deity. In the case of the Eye of Horus, the eye is usually missing because of Horus's conflict with his arch-rival, the god Set, in their struggle for the kingship of Egypt after the death of Horus's father Osiris.

The Pyramid Texts, which date to the late Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC), are one of the earliest sources for Egyptian myth. They prominently feature the conflict between Horus and Set, and the Eye of Horus is mentioned in about a quarter of the utterances that make up the Pyramid Texts. In these texts, Set is said to have stolen the Eye of Horus, and sometimes to have trampled and eaten it. Horus nevertheless takes back the eye, usually by force. The texts often mention the theft of Horus's eye along with the loss of Set's testicles, an injury that is also healed. The conflict over the eye is mentioned and elaborated in many texts from later times. In most of these texts, the eye is restored by another deity, most commonly Thoth, who was said to have made peace between Horus and Set. In some versions, Thoth is said to have reassembled the eye after Set tore it to pieces. In the Book of the Dead from the New Kingdom, Set is said to have taken the form of a black boar when striking Horus's eye. In " The Contendings of Horus and Set", a text from the late New Kingdom that relates the conflict as a short narrative, Set tears out both of Horus's eyes and buries them, and the next morning they grow into lotuses. Here it is the goddess Hathor who restores Horus's eyes, by anointing them with the milk of a gazelle. In Papyrus Jumilhac, a mythological text from early in the Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC), Horus's mother Isis waters the buried pair of eyes, causing them to grow into the first grape vines.

The restoration of the eye was often referred to as "filling" the eye. Hathor filled Horus's eye sockets with the gazelle's milk, while texts from temples of the Greco-Roman era said that Thoth, together with a group of fourteen other deities, filled the eye with specific plants and minerals. The process of filling the Eye of Horus was likened to the waxing of the moon, and the fifteen deities in the Greco-Roman texts represented the fifteen days from the new moon to the full moon.

The Egyptologist Herman te Velde suggests that the Eye of Horus is linked with another episode in the conflict between the two gods, in which Set subjects Horus to a sexual assault and, in retaliation, Isis and Horus cause Set to ingest Horus's semen. This episode is narrated most clearly in "The Contendings of Horus and Set", in which Horus's semen appears on Set's forehead as a golden disk, which Thoth places on his own head. Other references in Egyptian texts imply that in some versions of the myth it was Thoth himself who came forth from Set's head after Set was impregnated by Horus's semen, and a passage in the Pyramid Texts says the Eye of Horus came from Set's forehead. Te Velde argues that the disk that emerges from Set's head is the Eye of Horus. If so, the episodes of mutilation and sexual abuse would form a single story, in which Set assaults Horus and loses semen to him, Horus retaliates and impregnates Set, and Set comes into possession of Horus's eye when it appears on Set's head. Because Thoth is a moon deity in addition to his other functions, it would make sense, according to te Velde, for Thoth to emerge in the form of the eye and step in to make peace between the feuding deities.

Beginning in the New Kingdom, the Eye of Horus was known as the wḏꜣt (often rendered as wedjat or udjat), meaning the "whole", "completed", or "uninjured" eye. It is unclear whether the term wḏꜣt refers to the eye that was destroyed and restored, or to the one that Set left unharmed.

Upon becoming king after Set's defeat, Horus gives offerings to his deceased father, thus reviving and sustaining him in the afterlife. This act was the mythic prototype for the offerings to the dead that were a major part of ancient Egyptian funerary customs. It also influenced the conception of offering rites that were performed on behalf of deities in temples. Among the offerings Horus gives is his own eye, which Osiris consumes. The eye, as part of Osiris's son, is ultimately derived from Osiris himself. Therefore, the eye in this context represents the Egyptian conception of offerings. The gods were responsible for the existence of all the goods that they were offered, so offerings were part of the gods' own substance. In receiving offerings, deities were replenished by their own life force, as Osiris was when he consumed the Eye of Horus. In the Egyptian worldview, life was a force that originated with the gods and circulated through the world, so that by returning this force to the gods, offering rites maintained the flow of life. The offering of the eye to Osiris is another instance of the mytheme in which a deity in need receives an eye and is restored to well-being. The eye's restorative power meant the Egyptians considered it a symbol of protection against evil, in addition to its other meanings.

Offerings and festivals

In the Osiris myth the offering of the Eye of Horus to Osiris was the prototype of all funerary offerings, and indeed of all offering rites, as the human giving an offering to a deity was likened to Horus and the deity receiving it was likened to Osiris. Moreover, the Egyptian word for "eye", jrt, resembled jrj, the word for "act", and through wordplay the Eye of Horus could thus be equated with any ritual act. For these reasons, the Eye of Horus symbolized all the sustenance given to the gods in the temple cult. The versions of the myth in which flowers or grapevines grow from the buried eyes reinforce the eye's relationship with ritual offerings, as the perfumes, food, and drink that were derived from these plants were commonly used in offering rites. The eye was often equated with , the Egyptian concept of cosmic order, which was dependent on the continuation of the temple cult and could likewise be equated with offerings of any kind.

The Egyptians observed several festivals in the course of each month that were based on the phases of the moon, such as the Blacked-out Moon Festival (the first of the month), the Monthly Festival (the second day), and the Half-Month Festival. During these festivals, living people gave offerings to the deceased. The festivals were frequently mentioned in funerary texts. Beginning in the time of the Coffin Texts from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC), funerary texts parallel the progression of these festivals, and hence the waxing of the moon, with the healing of the Eye of Horus.

Healing texts

Ancient Egyptian medicine involved both practical treatments and rituals that invoked divine powers, and Egyptian medical papyri do not clearly distinguish the two. Healing rituals frequently equate patients with Horus, so the patient may be healed as Horus was in myth. For this reason, the Eye of Horus is frequently mentioned in such spells. The Hearst papyrus, for instance, equates the physician performing the ritual to "Thoth, the physician of the Eye of Horus" and equates the instrument with which the physician measures the medicine with "the measure with which Horus measured his eye". The Eye of Horus was particularly invoked as protection against eye disease. One text, Papyrus Leiden I 348, equates each part of a person's body with a deity in order to protect it. The left eye is equated with the Eye of Horus.

Horus was represented as a falcon, such as a lanner or peregrine falcon, or as a human with a falcon head. The Eye of Horus is a stylized human or falcon eye. The symbol often includes an eyebrow, a dark line extending behind the rear corner of the eye, a cheek marking below the center or forward corner of the eye, and a line extending below and toward the rear of the eye that ends in a curl or spiral. The cheek marking resembles that found on many falcons. The Egyptologist Richard H. Wilkinson suggests that the curling line is derived from the facial markings of the cheetah, which the Egyptians associated with the sky because the spots in its coat were likened to stars.

The stylized eye symbol was used interchangeably to represent the Eye of Ra. Egyptologists often simply refer to this symbol as the wedjat eye.

Amulets in the shape of the wedjat eye first appeared in the late Old Kingdom and continued to be produced up to Roman times. Ancient Egyptians were usually buried with amulets, and the Eye of Horus was one of the most consistently popular forms of amulet. It is one of the few types commonly found on Old Kingdom mummies, and it remained in widespread use over the next two thousand years, even as the number and variety of funerary amulets greatly increased. Up until the New Kingdom, funerary wedjat amulets tended to be placed on the chest, whereas during and after the New Kingdom they were commonly placed over the incision through which the body's internal organs had been removed during the mummification process.

Wedjat amulets were made from a wide variety of materials, including Egyptian faience, glass, gold, and semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli. Their form also varied greatly. These amulets could represent right or left eyes, and the eye could be formed of openwork, incorporated into a plaque, or reduced to little more than an outline of the eye shape, with minimal decoration to indicate the position of the pupil and brow. In the New Kingdom, elaborate forms appeared: a uraeus, or rearing cobra, could appear at the front of the eye; the rear spiral could become a bird's tail feathers; and the cheek mark could be a bird's leg or a human arm. Cobras and felines often represented the Eye of Ra, so Eye of Horus amulets that incorporate uraei or feline body parts may represent the relationship between the two eyes, as may amulets that bear the wedjat eye on one side and the figure of a goddess on the other. The Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070-664 BC) saw still more complex designs, in which multiple small figures of animals or deities were inserted in the gaps between the parts of the eye, or in which the eyes were grouped into sets of four.

The eye symbol could also be incorporated into larger pieces of jewelry alongside other protective symbols, such as the and signs and various emblems of deities. Beginning in the thirteenth century BC, glass beads bearing eye-like spots were strung on necklaces together with wedjat amulets, which may be the origin of the modern nazar, a type of bead meant to ward off the evil eye.

Sometimes temporary amulets were created for protective purposes in especially dangerous situations, such as illness or childbirth. Rubrics for ritual spells often instruct the practitioner to draw the wedjat eye on linen or papyrus to serve as a temporary amulet.

Wedjat eyes appeared in a wide variety of contexts in Egyptian art. Coffins of the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 BC) and Middle Kingdom often included a pair of wedjat eyes painted on the left side. Mummies at this time were often turned to face left, suggesting that the eyes were meant to allow the deceased to see outside the coffin, but the eyes were probably also meant to ward off danger. Similarly, eyes of Horus were often painted on the bows of boats, which may have been meant to both protect the vessel and allow it to see the way ahead. Wedjat eys were sometimes portrayed with wings, hovering protectively over kings or deities. Stelae, or carved stone slabs, were often inscribed with wedjat eyes. In some periods of Egyptian history, only deities or kings could be portrayed directly beneath the winged sun symbol that often appeared in the lunettes of stelae, and Eyes of Horus were placed above figures of common people. The symbol could also be incorporated into tattoos, as demonstrated by the mummy of a woman from the late New Kingdom that was decorated with elaborate tattoos, including several wedjat eyes.

Some cultures neighboring Egypt adopted the wedjat symbol for use in their own art. Some Egyptian artistic motifs became widespread in art from Canaan and Syria during the Middle Bronze Age. Art of this era sometimes incorporated the wedjat, though it was much more rare than other Egyptian symbols such as the ankh. In contrast, the wedjat appeared frequently in art of the Kingdom of Kush in Nubia, in the first millennium BC and early first millennium AD, demonstrating Egypt's heavy influence upon Kush. Down to the present day, eyes are painted on the bows of ships in many Mediterranean countries, a custom that may descend from the use of the wedjat eye on boats.

Hieroglyphic form

A hieroglyphic version of the wedjat symbol, labeled D10 in the list of hieroglyphic signs drawn up by the Egyptologist Alan Gardiner, was used in writing as a determinative or ideogram for the Eye of Horus.

The Egyptians sometimes used signs that represented pieces of the wedjat eye hieroglyph. In 1911, the Egyptologist Georg Möller noted that on New Kingdom "votive cubits", inscribed stone objects with a length of one cubit, these hieroglyphs were inscribed together with similarly shaped symbols in the hieratic writing system, a cursive writing system whose signs derived from hieroglyphs. The hieratic signs stood for fractions of a , the basic Egyptian measure of volume. Möller hypothesized that the Horus-eye hieroglyphs were the original hieroglyphic forms of the hieratic fraction signs, and that the inner corner of the eye stood for 1/2, the pupil for 1/4, the eyebrow for 1/8, the outer corner for 1/16, the curling line for 1/32, and the cheek mark for 1/64. In 1923, T. Eric Peet pointed out that the hieroglyphs representing pieces of the eye are not found before the New Kingdom, and he suggested that the hieratic fraction signs had a separate origin but were reinterpreted during the New Kingdom to have a connection with the Eye of Horus. In the same decade, Möller's hypothesis was included in standard reference works on the Egyptian language, such as Ägyptische Grammatik by Adolf Erman and Egyptian Grammar by Alan Gardiner. Gardiner's treatment of the subject suggested that the parts of the eye were used to represent fractions because in myth the eye was torn apart by Set and later made whole. Egyptologists accepted Gardiner's interpretation for decades afterward.

Jim Ritter, a historian of science and mathematics, analyzed the shape of the hieratic signs through Egyptian history in 2002. He concluded that "the further back we go the further the hieratic signs diverge from their supposed Horus-eye counterparts", thus undermining Möller's hypothesis. He also reexamined the votive cubits and argued that they do not clearly equate the Eye of Horus signs with the hieratic fractions, so even Peet's weaker form of the hypothesis was unlikely to be correct. Nevertheless, the 2014 edition of James P. Allen's Middle Egyptian, an introductory book on the Egyptian language, still lists the pieces of the wedjat eye as representing fractions of a hekat.

The hieroglyph for the Eye of Horus is listed in the Egyptian Hieroglyphs block of the Unicode standard for encoding symbols in computing, as U+13080 (𓂀). The hieroglyphs for parts of the eye (𓂁, 𓂂, 𓂃, 𓂄, 𓂅, 𓂆, 𓂇) are listed as U+13081 through U+13087.

Works cited

Allen, James P. (2014). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05364-9.

Andrews, Carol (1994). Amulets of Ancient Egypt. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70464-0.

Assmann, Jan (2001) [German edition 1984]. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3786-1.

Darnell, John Coleman (1997). "The Apotropaic Goddess in the eye". Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur. 24: 35-48. JSTOR 25152728.

Eaton, Katherine (2011). "Monthly Lunar Festivals in the Mortuary Realm: Historical Patterns and Symbolic Motifs". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 70 (2): 229-245. doi:10.1086/661260. JSTOR 661260. S2CID 163404019.

Goebs, Katja (2002). "A Functional Approach to Egyptian Myth and Mythemes". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 2 (1): 27-59. doi:10.1163/156921202762733879.

Griffiths, J. Gwyn (1960). The Conflict of Horus and Seth. Liverpool University Press.

Ikram, Salima; Dodson, Aidan (1998). The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05088-0.

Kaper, Olaf E. (2001). "Myths: Lunar Myths". In Redford, Donald B. (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. pp. 480-482. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.

Ritter, Jim (2002). "Closing the Eye of Horus: The Rise and Fall of 'Horus-eye Fractions'". In Steele, John M.; Imhausen, Annette (eds.). Under One Sky: Astronomy and Mathematics in the Ancient Near East. Ugarit-Verlag. pp. 297-323. ISBN 3-934628-26-5.

Teissier, Beatrice (1996). Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age. Academic Press Fribourg / Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen. ISBN 978-3-7278-1039-8 / ISBN 978-3-525-53892-0

te Velde, Herman (1967). Seth, God of Confusion. Translated by G. E. Van Baaren-Pape. E.J. Brill.

"Unicode 13.0 Character Code Charts: Egyptian Hieroglyphs" (PDF). Unicode Consortium. 2020.

Watson, Traci (12 May 2016). "Intricate animal and flower tattoos found on Egyptian mummy". Nature. 53 (155): 155. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..155W. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19864. PMID 27172024. S2CID 4465165.

Wilkinson, Richard H. (1992). Reading Egyptian Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculpture. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05064-4.

Further reading

Rudnitsky, Günter (1956). Die Aussage über "das Auge des Horus" (in German). Ejnar Munksgaard.

Westendorf, Wolfhart (1980). "Horusauge". In Helck, Wolfgang; Otto, Eberhard; Westendorf, Wolfhart (eds.). Lexikon der Ägyptologie (in German). Vol. 3. Harrassowitz. pp. 48-51. ISBN 978-3-447-02100-5.

External links

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The Eye of Horus, wedjat eye or udjat eye is a concept and symbol in ancient Egyptian religion that represents well-being, healing, and protection. It derives from the mythical conflict between the god Horus with his rival Set, in which Set tore out or destroyed one or both of Horus's eyes and the eye was subsequently healed or returned to Horus with the assistance of another deity, such as Thoth.

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The Eye of Providence (or the all-seeing eye of God) is a symbol that depicts an eye, often enclosed in a triangle and surrounded by rays of light or Glory, meant to represent divine providence, whereby the eye of God watches over humanity. A well known example of the Eye of Providence appears on the reverse of the Great Seal of the United States, which is depicted on the United States one-dollar bill.

In 1782, the Eye of Providence was adopted as part of the symbolism featured on the reverse side of the Great Seal of the United States. It was first proposed as an element of the Great Seal by the first of three design committees in 1776, and is thought to be the suggestion of the artistic consultant, Pierre Eugene du Simitiere, and at the time, was a conventional symbol for God's benevolent oversight.

In his original proposal to the committee, Du Simitiere placed the Eye over shields so as to symbolize each of the original thirteen states of the Union. On the version of the seal that would eventually be approved, the Eye is positioned above an unfinished pyramid of thirteen steps (again symbolizing the original States, but also incorporating the nation's potential for future growth). Such symbolism is explained through the motto that appears above the Eye, annuit cœptis, meaning "He approves [our] undertakings" (or "has approved").

Perhaps due to its use in the design of the Great Seal, the Eye has made its way into other American seals and logos, such as, for example:

U.S. currency

The Eye of Providence has been used among various forms of currency throughout U.S. history, including:

The Eye of Providence appears on several Lithuanian insignia, including:

The Eye of Providence appears on the Coat of Arms of Brasłaŭ, Belarus, and of Wilamowice, Poland. The Eye was also part of the flag and coat of arms adopted by the Confederation of the Equator, a short lived 1824 secessionist revolt in the Northeastern provinces of Brazil. In the United Kingdom, the symbol was part of the Guards Division insignia, created in 1915.

In Estonia, the 50 krooni note shows the Eye as part of a depiction of the pipe organ of the Käina church. Likewise, the (old) 500 Ukrainian hryvnia note also depicts the Eye.

The Eye was included in the original publication of France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which also borrows iconography from the Ten Commandments. Similarly, the symbol is featured on the front page of the Constitution of Serbia from 1835.

Today, the Eye of Providence is often associated with Freemasonry, first appearing as part of the standard Freemason iconography in 1797 with the publication of Thomas Smith Webb's Freemasons Monitor.

In this use, the Eye, representing the all-seeing eye of God, serves as a reminder that humanity's thoughts and deeds are always observed by God-who is referred to in Masonry as the Great Architect of the Universe. Typically, the Masonic Eye of Providence has a semicircular glory below it, and is sometimes enclosed by a triangle.

Popular among conspiracy theorists is the claim that the Eye of Providence shown atop an unfinished pyramid on the Great Seal of the United States indicates the influence of Freemasonry in the founding of the United States. However, common Masonic use of the Eye dates to 14 years after the creation of the Great Seal. Furthermore, the only Mason among the members of the various design committees for the Great Seal was Benjamin Franklin, whose ideas for the seal were not adopted. Likewise, various Masonic organizations have explicitly denied any connection to the creation of the Seal.

The association of an eye with the concept of Divine Providence is found in Christianity. In late Renaissance European iconography, the Eye, surrounded by a triangle, was an explicit image of the Christian Trinity. The Eye of Providence was later painted over an image of three faces in Pontormo's 1525 Supper at Emmaus. Seventeenth-century depictions of the Eye sometimes show it surrounded by clouds or sunbursts. The Eye of God in a triangle is still used in church architecture and Christian art to symbolize the Trinity and God's omnipresence and divine providence.

The Eye of Providence is notably featured on the following Eastern Orthodox, Mormon, and Catholic buildings, among others:

Commonly in the context of a reference to the Illuminati, numerous video games, TV shows, films, books, and websites contain depictions of the Eye.

University/college insignia and logos of organisations

Several universities and college fraternities use the Eye of Providence in their coats of arms, seals, or badges, notably:

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The Eye of Providence (or the all-seeing eye of God) is a symbol that depicts an eye, often enclosed in a triangle and surrounded by rays of light or Glory, meant to represent divine providence, whereby the eye of God watches over humanity.

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Shawn E. Eyer

Each year, the Memorial Association creates a commemorative holiday ornament featuring a theme from Freemasonry, George Washington, or the Memorial building itself. This year, our holiday ornament is The Eye of Providence (see page 16 for more information). It is a symbol recognized by Freemasons everywhere as a beautiful representation of the watchful care of the Supreme Architect. But its history as a symbol reveals ancient roots that antedate its inclusion in our Craft by millennia. Learning more about those roots can help us to better comprehend what our ancient brethren understood when they contemplated this beautiful emblem.

Drawn from the Great Light

One of the most extensive sources of our symbolism is the Great Light in Masonry. There, we find several references to the all-seeing eye of the Supreme Being, especially in the books classified as "wisdom literature." Some of the earliest are from the Book of Psalms. The majority of the songs in this book were written between 800 and 600 BC, and were used in the ceremonies held at the Temple of Solomon. The symbol recurs numerous times in these beautiful ancient hymns:

The LORD is in his holy temple, the LORD's throne is in heaven:
his eyes behold, his eyelids try, the children of men.

Behold, the eye of the LORD is upon them that fear him,
upon them that hope in his mercy . . . .

The eyes of the LORD are upon the righteous,
and his ears are open unto their cry.

Here, the divine gaze is celebrated as profoundly concerned with justice. According to the Psalmists, the Supreme Being observes his creation from the supernal throne in the celestial Temple, gazing with approval on those who are aware of His presence and who follow the moral law. Similar uses of the symbol of the eye of God may be found in the Book of Proverbs, which introduces the idea that "The eyes of the LORD preserve knowledge."

Another book-The Wisdom of Ben Sira, also known as Ecclesiasticus-may be one of the most important sacred sources for the symbolism with which we are so familiar. It was written in the second century BC, and it reiterates the theme of omniscience:

And his eyes are upon them that fear him,
and he knoweth every work of man.

Later, Ben Sira uses language that more directly evokes the common iconographic depictions of the All-Seeing Eye:

. . . the eyes of the Lord are ten thousand times brighter than the sun, beholding all the ways of men, and considering the most secret parts.

This image of the divine gaze as more luminous than ten thousand suns, is the source in biblical literature for Western iconography's depiction of the eye of God within a brilliant glory.

The theme of the divine gaze is found in the New Testament as well. The Letter to the Hebrews says:

Neither is there any creature that is not manifest in his sight: but all things are naked and opened unto the eyes of him with whom we have to do.

The Emblem in Art & Architecture

The Eye of God became a popular theme in the art of the Late Renaissance, usually appearing surrounded by rays of light (in reference to the words of Ben Sira). The Eye was often depicted as contained within a triangle, with the three sides of the triangle referring to the three divine persons of the Trinity.

During this period, the symbol appears frequently in church architecture and religious paintings. It also is found extensively in emblem books. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, small books containing symbolic engravings and short poems were extremely popular in Europe. Filled with allegorical images that required effort to understand, these books made prodigious use of the All-Seeing Eye as a symbol of the awareness of God.

Early Masonic Appearances

Whether from the biblical references, the artistic and architectural examples, or the frequent depiction in emblem books, it is easy to see that the All-Seeing Eye would have been a familiar symbol to the early Freemasons.
The earliest example of such a symbol just might be on a personal seal of Bro. Robert Moray (1609-1673), a Scottish soldier and natural philosopher who was initiated into the Craft in 1641. A partial wax impression of one of his seals is in the shape of a circle, with an eye at the center, radiating in every direction to the circumference. Was it a Masonic reference? There is no way to be certain, but some historians find it quite possible.
The symbol appears in an unmistakable way in the engraved frontispieces of two books of Bro. Fifield D'Assingy (1707-1744): An Impartial Answer to the Enemies of Freemasonry (1741) and A Serious and Impartial Inquiry Into the Cause of the Present Decay of Free-Masonry in the Kingdom of Ireland (1744). Each depicts the All-Seeing Eye with rays descending. The 1744 example, which is particularly well-drawn, seems to show a group of Freemasons on their way to the lodge under the protection of the divine gaze.

Although the All-Seeing Eye was clearly a symbol in the Masonic vocabulary by this time, it was a rather esoteric one, as it does not appear to show up in the Masonic writings of the era. It was an image that many Masons recognized, but did not much speak about either in their rituals or their interpretations of Masonry. That begins to change in the 1770s, during the ascendancy of the great Masonic lecturer, Bro. William Preston (1742-1818). The symbol appears in numerous places and forms in Preston's degree lectures. For example, in his closing ceremony of second degree, the brethren are admonished:

Then let us consider, that wherever we are, and whatever we do in the character of craftsmen, God is with us, and his all seeing eye observes us: that acting in conformity to our tenets we may declare in his presence that we have endeavored to discharge our duty with fervency and zeal.

The above example was, obviously, not for publication at the time. But other Masons were mentioning the All-Seeing Eye in print. In 1766, Bro. Isaac Head gave a Charge in the Scilly Isles of England, in which he asked that the brethren remain "ever mindful that the Eye which pervades the immeasurable Regions of Space, and sees through the thickest Darkness, is ever present with us."

Many are aware that the common American lodge working came to us from William Preston via Bro. Thomas Smith Webb (1771-1819), who began publishing an American adaptation of Preston's book. The 1802 edition of Webb's Freemason's Monitor documents how the All-Seeing Eye was taking its permanent place among the hieroglyphical emblems of the third degree. In Webb's version, we are urged to remember that:

. . . although our thoughts, words, and actions, may be hidden from the eyes of man, yet that ALL-SEEING EYE, Whom the Sun, Moon and Stars obey, and under whose watchful care even Comets perform their stupendous revolutions, pervades the inmost recesses of the human heart, and will reward us according to our merits.

Reading these words, so familiar to us as American Freemasons, it is easy to see how the symbol of the All-Seeing Eye has retained its ancient meaning from the wisdom literature of the ancient Hebrews, through its role in European art and architecture, into the traditions of our Craft.

Perhaps it is ironic that, today, it is looked upon primarily as a Masonic emblem-even by those outside of our Fraternity. For, in truth, the All-Seeing Eye is a profound symbol that belongs to everyone who perceives the reality of an omniscient and just Supreme Being.

Shawn E. Eyer is the Director of Communications of The George Washington Masonic National Memorial Association.

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The Eye of Providence: A Journey into Masonic Symbolism

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Shawn E. Eyer Each year, the Memorial Association creates a commemorative holiday ornament featuring a theme from Freemasonry, George Washington, or the Memorial building itself. This year, our holiday ornament is The Eye of Providence (see page 16 for more information).

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The eyes are the Windows to our souls and the magical instruments by which we perceive the world. They carry endless wonders and philosophies that make us think deeply about the meaning of life.

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The eyes are the Windows to our souls and the magical instruments by which we perceive the world. They carry endless wonders and philosophies that make us think deeply about the meaning of life.

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Eyes teach us to appreciate beauty, capturing the magnificence of nature, the virtuosity of works of art, and the warmth of human smiles. Through our eyes, we can feel the beauty in life, which makes us cherish everything we have more.

Eyes also tell us the truth. They can recognize the nature of things, distinguish good from evil, and see through hypocrisy. Eyes are the tools of wisdom, they remind us not to believe the superficial appearance, but to look deeply into the nature of things.

Our eyes also teach us to feel emotions. When we look into the eyes of our loved ones, we can read their emotions and experience love, joy, sadness and care. Eyes are the bridge of emotional communication. They bring us closer to others.

Our eyes reveal our gratitude for life. Each blink of an eye is a new beginning and reminds us of the passage of time. The existence of eyes is a miracle, they give us the opportunity to see the world, to explore the unknown, to pursue our dreams.

Therefore, the eye is not only a tool for our vision, but also a window into wisdom, beauty, truth and gratitude. Let us cherish these precious stones and use them to illuminate our inner world and lead us to a deeper philosophical path.

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https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/26662442

http://xhslink.com/hklXFB

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The evil eye symbol (🧿) has been found through thousands of years of history across cultures, including in Latin America and parts of Asia. The symbol, most often depicted as four concentric circles in the shape of an eye, is used to ward off variations of evil intentions. More recently, it’s trended on the pages of fast fashion websites and manifestation TikToks.

In much of the Middle East and North Africa, the symbol wards off “nazar” — a curse motivated by the envy of others that can bring about bad things in your life. This fear of envy can keep you from being boastful, sure, but it can also keep you from celebrating your accomplishments or pursuing success in the first place. It even made me hesitant to make this comic — the evil eye is always watching.

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Medusa is a figure from Greek mythology, the only mortal of the three Gorgons, along with her immortal sisters, Stheno and Euryale. The three Gorgons were born to the sea god of the dangers of the hidden deep, Phorcys, and the goddess of sea monsters and the dangers of the sea, Ceto.

According to Hesiod in his , Medusa and her sisters were the sisters of the Graeae and lived "beyond framed Oceanus at the world's hard edge by Night, where the clear-voiced Hesperides are" ( Theogony, 270). The three sisters are often mentioned together, but it is Medusa who is commonly depicted in both ancient Greek literature and art. The name Gorgon comes from the ancient Greek word γοργός, meaning "grim," "fierce," and "terrible," and Medusa's name derives from the ancient Greek verb μέδω meaning "to guard" or "to protect," which is very fitting given the apotropaic quality of the face of the Gorgon, known as the Gorgoneion.

Medusa is best known from the story of her death, brought upon her by the hero Perseus who decapitated her with the help of the gods Hermes and Athena. The earliest version of Medusa's death is from Hesiod's Theogony, which details her decapitation and describes her children Pegasus, the winged horse, and the great Chrysaor, who sprung from her neck. Mentions of the head of the Gorgon in Homer's and , which were originally part of the Greek oral tradition before being committed to writing sometime in the 8th century BCE, hint at a long history of the story of the complex character of the Gorgon Medusa.

Perseus & Medusa

Earlier poets depicted Medusa as a monster from birth, but later writers say she was turned into a monster by Athena or Minerva.

Over time, Medusa's tale changed between the myriad ancient writers and poets who wrote about her story. She is best known for her hair of snakes and her ability to turn people to stone with a single look. The 8th-century BCE poet Hesiod describes how Poseidon had sex with Medusa in a soft spring meadow, and Ovid (43 BCE to 17 CE), the Roman poet some 700 years later, relates how Medusa was violated in a shrine to Minerva (the Roman equivalent of Athena) by Neptune (the Roman equivalent of Poseidon), and how, in retaliation for desecrating her shrine, Minerva turned Medusa's lovely hair into snakes. Generally speaking, earlier poets depicted Medusa as a monster from birth, alongside her immortal sisters, but later writers say she began as a beautiful maiden but was turned into a monster by Athena or Minerva.

Medusa is best known for her death at the hands of Perseus, and Pseudo-Apollodorus relates the story in the greatest detail. According to him, Perseus was the son of Zeus, who took the form of a shower of gold), and Danaë, who had been locked up by her father Acrisius after he was told by an oracle that he would be killed by Danaë's son. When Acrisius learned that Perseus had been born and was the son of the king of the gods, he put both Danaë and her son Perseus into a chest and hurled it into the sea. The chest eventually came ashore at the island of Seriphos, and Perseus was raised by Dictys, the brother of Polydectes, the king of Seriphos. Polydectes fell in love with Danaë, but Perseus was quite protective of his mother, and so the king made a plan to trick Perseus. He gathered his people to a banquet under the ruse of collecting contributions for the marriage of Hippodamia, who tamed horses. When Perseus arrived without horses for a gift as was requested by Polydectes, Polydectes instead asked Perseus to retrieve for him the head of Medusa, the only mortal Gorgon, in the hopes that he would not succeed.

Perseus was guided by the god Hermes and the goddess Athena on his journey. It is said that Athena helped in the killing of Medusa because the girl had been willing to have her beauty compared to Athena. By some nymphs, the hero was given winged sandals, a sack known as a kibisis to store the head of the Gorgon, and the invisibility cap of Hades. Additionally, Hermes had given him an adamantine sickle. Perseus arrived at the home of the Gorgons while they slept. As he stood over the sleeping creatures, Athena guided Perseus' hand while he looked into the reflection of a bronze shield so as not to be turned to stone by the gaze of the Gorgons if they awoke, and he cut off the head of Medusa with the sickle. From her severed head sprang Pegasus, the winged horse, and Chrysaor. Perseus placed the head of Medusa in his kibisis, but as he was leaving, the remaining two Gorgons woke up and tried to pursue him, but since he was wearing the invisible cap, they could not see him.

Medusa's Head

After slaying Medusa, Perseus uses her head multiple times. Some versions of the tale of Ariadne, Theseus, and Dionysus say that Ariadne was killed by Artemis, and others say that she was accidentally turned to stone by Perseus after Dionysus made war on Perseus. Another use of Medusa's head was to save Andromeda, who had been tied to a rock as an offering to the sea monster Ketos. Her mother had claimed she was more beautiful than the Nereids, who flew into a rage upon hearing this and had Poseidon, the god of the sea, on their side. The only way to stop the sea god's floods and the sea monster was to give up Andromeda. Perseus fell in love with her the moment he saw her; he slew the sea monster and set her free. The only issue was that Andromeda was already engaged to be married to her uncle Phineus. Perseus made short work of Phineus by turning him to stone with the head of Medusa. When Perseus returned to the Island of Seriphos, he turned Polydectes and his people to stone with the Gorgon's head and made Dictys the king. Then he gave the head of Medusa to Athena, who placed it in the centre of her shield, known as the aegis, to terrify her enemies.

The Transformation of Medusa in Literature & Art

There was no uniform description of Medusa and her fellow Gorgons, and her characteristics transformed across writers and regions. Hesiod, in his Theogony, does not mention any physical features of the Gorgons, but Homer, in his Odyssey, mentions "the monsters head, the Gorgon" (11.636), and in the Iliad, he describes the Gorgoneion on Athena's aegis as "the head of the grim gigantic Gorgon, a thing of fear and horror" (5.741-742). Aeschylus, the 6th/5th century BCE tragedian, describes the women in his Greek tragedy Prometheus Bound as the "three winged sisters, loathed enemies of humankind, the snake-haired Gorgons, whom no man can see and live" (798-799). Then there is Pindar, who, in his Twelfth Pythian Ode, mentions the "fierce Gorgon's deathly dirge," the "snaky heads of the maidens" and the head of the "beautiful-cheeked Medusa" (12.7-16). Pindar also tells us of Athena's invention of the aulos in order to recreate "with instruments the echoing wail that was forced from the gnashing jaws of Euryale" (12.20-21) as Medusa's immortal sisters pursued her killer.

Later in the Roman period, we have the Greek writer Pseudo-Apollodorus, who described them with "heads with scaly serpents coiled around them, and large tusks like those of swine, and hands of bronze, and wings of gold which gave them the power of flight; and they turned all who beheld them to stone" (11.4). According to Ovid in his Metamorphoses, which is the main source for the beautiful-maiden-turned-monster narrative, it was only Medusa of the three Gorgons who had snakes for hair. He tells the story of how Medusa, who had an enviable head of hair, was pursued by many suitors until she was raped by Neptune inside a shrine to Minerva, after which the goddess punished Medusa by transforming her beautiful hair into snakes. As Perseus moved towards the home of the Gorgons, he passed many statues - men and beasts turned to stone by Medusa - before he cut off her head while she slept.

As Medusa was described differently in literature, from a hideous beast to a beautiful maiden, so she was depicted differently in ancient Greek art. The head or face of Medusa was a common feature of Greek pottery, art, and architecture, and is known as a Gorgoneion. What was so unique about her depiction is that more often than not she was depicted facing front. This is quite uncommon compared to most other ancient Greek art, where faces were depicted in profile. In the Archaic Period, from the 8th to the early 5th centuries BCE, the Gorgoneion could be found on temple pediments and antefixes, in statues, and in pottery. She was depicted with a large round face, a beard, fangs or tusks, wings, and often with an open mouth and stretched tongue.

Medusa continued to be depicted on vessels and pottery, and even on shields and breastplates, facing front with wild hair, but her features became more feminine and human-like over time. Medusa can be found all over ancient Greek, Hellenistic and Roman art, and as she became more human-like primarily on ancient Greek pottery, she often still retained the wings, especially if her whole body was depicted. The image of Medusa's face and, in particular, her death became not only a popular image but also the Gorgoneion became an apotropaic device, meaning that the image was believed to be able to ward off evil.

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Medusa is a figure from Greek mythology, the only mortal of the three Gorgons, along with her immortal sisters, Stheno and Euryale. The three Gorgons were born to the sea god of the dangers of the hidden...

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On October 18, 2019, Chilean people clashed with riot control during a protest against the government's increase in public transport fares and economic injustice. Hundreds of people suffered eye injuries as a result of the use of repression aimed at people's faces. In December of the same year, two Chilean artists, Liliana and Aranda, launched the Ojos para Chile(Eye of Chile) project to collect eye-themed ornaments in 8x8cm sizes from artists and craftspeople around the world. In total, the event received more than 300 works made of ceramics, cardboard, felt, burris, horse hair, bullets, copper, bronze, silver, plaster, cement, lace, tear gas, stone, shells, wool, fabrics, from more than 200 creators around the world. Liliana and Aranda hope to reveal the collective power from the collection of these fragments, reflecting on the relationship between art, politics and society. Although this artistic planning cannot objectively make up for the physical and psychological trauma of the victims, the symbolic meaning of art has the ability to awaken public awareness. The organizer said, "llevar nuestras luchas a todos los espacios que habitamos." The article has been posted for several days, but has been stuck in censorship.

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http://xhslink.com/LcgXFB

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Neurons in low level brain regions extract basic features such as line orientation, depth and the color of local image elements. They send the information to several mid-level brain areas. Neurons in these areas code for other features, such as motion direction, color and shape fragments.

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https://www.sightsavers.org/protecting-sight/how-do-the-eyes-work/

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The chiasma is a magical place that acts like a logistics sorting station, reassembling the signals from the two eyes:

1:The right field of view of the left eye, and the right field of view of the right eye, are packed together and passed to the left side of the brain

2:The left field of view of the left eye, and the left field of the right eye, are packed together and passed into the right brain

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If we collected the whole evolutionary history of animals in a book, we'd start with the original common ancestor and before we knew it, even if we managed to fit a million years on each page, we'd still end up with over 600 pages!

There's a lot of important stuff spread throughout The Grand Evolutionary History of Animals.

But one of the most foundational chapters would come fairly early on.

For the animals we know today, with very few exceptions seeing means being an animal.

In fact, we wouldn't even make it 10% of the way through the book before seeing, well, seeing!

The earliest known fossil with eyes is Spriggina, a bilaterian from over 550 million years ago.

Seeing or vision is the ability to interpret your environment based on how light interacts with it.

And about 96% of all animal species have eyes, the organ or collection of tissue and cells that make vision happen.

Even many animals that have evolved to be "eyeless" or have eyes that don't function to their full capacity still have some ability to sense light.

In fact, vision is so evolutionarily advantageous, it's evolved multiple times and in multiple ways across all Metazoans, and it took eyes a surprisingly short time, evolutionarily speaking, to be seen all over the animal tree of life.

I'm Rae Wynn-Grant, and this is Crash Course Zoology.

INTRO Eyes can be intricate structures or simple collections of cells, but basically eyes detect light and process that information into signals that their nervous system understands.

And there are two minimum requirements for an eye to work.

Photoreceptors, which are cells that react to light by sending electrical signals, and a nervous system made of special cells that can process those signals into colors, brightness, darkness, and other visual information.

Everything else you've heard eyes have -- like lenses, pupils, corneas -- is extra to make the signal from the photoreceptors and its interpretation by the nervous system more effective.

So there are lots of different types of eyes.

But we can split animal eyes up into two big categories: eyepatches and image-forming eyes.

Animals with eyepatches can have something as basic as a flat cluster of a few photoreceptors.

They can perceive light and dark, and if that patch is in a small 'cup', tell vaguely where the light is coming from.

But they can't see shapes, details or patterns at all.

To really take advantage of the sense of vision, animals need an image-forming eye, which not only detects light, but, thanks to some extra eye-machinery, uses it to make an image in the back of the eye.

The most basic image-forming eyes form dim, blurry images.

To see fine and faraway details, animals need a lens, or a transparent, crystal-like structure that focuses incoming light onto the retina, the specialized layer of photoreceptors located in the back of image-forming eyes.

But while it's convenient to divide animal eyes into eyepatches and image-forming, it doesn't truly reflect the diversity of animal vision.

Like box jellyfish, octopuses, fireworms, horseshoe crabs, and parrots all have image-forming eyes.

But even if they were all looking at the same object, they'd all see very different things because some have stronger lenses or more sensitive retinas than others, and some build a picture of the world in a fundamentally different way.

So it's not so easy to compare eyes, and it's hard to not be biased by how we humans see.

Animal eyes are specialized to see in a way that's evolved to match their lifestyle and environment, not necessarily ours.

So we have to be more specific.

Like by looking at how animals perceive fine details, called acuity or resolution.

Visual acuity depends on lots of factors like how many photoreceptors are packed into the retina, eye size, and how the structures of the eye focus light into a picture.

The compound eyes of crustaceans, insects, and some molluscs are made of multiple, sometimes even thousands, of light-sensitive eye-units, called ommatidia, that combine their information to form an image.

These eyes generally have poorer visual acuity than camera-type eyes, which focus light onto a single, much larger, retina.

BUT because they require less space, compound eyes can wrap around an animals' head, giving them a wider field of view, or how much of their environment an animal can see without moving their eyes or head.

And compound eyes are great at detecting movement!

So if resolution is the most important to us, we'd want camera-type eyes.

But if we wanted to see a larger area, maybe to keep a look out for predators, we could go with compound eyes, especially if our animal is tiny.

This trade-off between seeing a small area in lots of detail, and seeing a larger area in less detail, is really common in animal eyes.

Some animals take it to the extreme.

Like jumping spiders have evolved telescope eyes.

Two of their eight camera-type eyes have two lenses instead of one, which magnifies the image and really bumps up the resolution⁠!

But their field of view is tiny, so the spider's six other eyes see a wide area to compensate.

We can also compare eyes based on how much light they need to work, called sensitivity.

Most animals see in different lighting by having two types of photoreceptors -- rods, which are so sensitive to light that they get overwhelmed in daylight, and cones, which pick up finer details and color.

Animals can also change how much light gets in their eyes with other adaptations, like pupils, the hole in the center of some eyes that grows and shrinks to let more or less light in.

Or with tapetum lucidum, a layer of reflective tissue at the very back of the eye that bounces light so it passes the retina twice, giving the photoreceptors a second chance to catch the light.

So if we're working in a low light environment, we'd want wide-open eyes with a tapetum lucidum to maximize light sensitivity.

The last property of vision we'll talk about to distinguish animals' eyes -- because there are others!

-- is what types of light they see.

First there's the wavelength, which is based on how much energy the light has.

We humans can only see light with wavelengths from about 380 to about 750 nanometers, so we named that the visible spectrum.

But most animals can see light outside that range ⁠- like infrared and ultraviolet light ⁠- or even polarization, which is the direction that light waves are vibrating in.

By evolving to be more sensitive to specific wavelengths, animals can more easily notice things that are important to them, like camouflaged predators or the colors of tasty food.

So the best set of eyes are...well, that depends on what you need them for.

But the wildest eyes, and one of the most complex visual systems discovered yet can be found in the ocean...punching things.

Let's live a day in the life of... a mantis shrimp!

Allow me to introduce you to the peacock mantis shrimp.

This technicolor boxer has a pair of compound eyes that are set on stalks and can look two places at once.

As he swims through shallow coasts of the Indo-Pacific, not only does he see both ultraviolet and polarized light, but while we have just three types of cones, our mantis shrimp has at least 12.

But even with all that visual firepower, he doesn't distinguish colors nearly as well as we'd expect.

Which is weird, because he definitely lives a colorful life.

He scares off other males of his species by flashing a bright patch of color on his clubs, called a meral patch.

Though 12 cones still seems like overkill.

Lot's of other animals put on colorful displays with only 3 or 4 cones.

It might come down to what goes on in our crustacean's brain when he sees color.

Instead of comparing the signals from a few cones to perceive different colors, our shrimp uses a limited, 12-piece palette of finely-tuned photoreceptors that only respond to very specific colors.

One cone reacts to UV, one reacts to violet, one reacts to blue, another for turquoise, and so on, spanning a rainbow -- and more -- of wavelengths.

With our 3 cones there's a slight delay as our brains do the math to figure out the color we're looking at.

But instead, a mantis shrimp knows pretty quickly how much UV or violet or whatever light he's seeing.

He isn't very good at telling apart small color differences, but he doesn't need to wait long for his brain to process, so he can grab a snack or chase off an intruder at lighting speed.

Have a great day, mantis shrimp!

Eyes, especially ones as tricked out as what mantis shrimp have, might seem to be an overwhelmingly complicated structure to have evolved.

In fact, many animals that live exclusively in underground habitats like caves have evolved to have little or no sense of vision, likely because eyes are too expensive to maintain if they're not being used.

But even though evolution doesn't always lead to more complexity, eyes are one of the best examples of how tiny changes in structure and function can build into sophisticated traits over time.

In 1994, Swedish zoologists Dan-E Nilsson and Susanne Pelger proposed a sequence of events where a camera-type eye evolved from a light-sensitive patch of photoreceptors in... well, the blink of an eye (evolutionary history-wise).

Nilsson and Pelger used something similar to the maximum-likelihood approach.

Assuming that eyes with sharper resolution always helped animals survive and reproduce, they calculated how many steps -- or mutations -- it would take to go from this eye to this eye.

First, the flat patch of light-sensitive cells develops into a depression, then a cup, and finally a pinhole shape like in a Nautilus.

Eventually, the eye area evolves to be enclosed with a membrane and filled with fluid to keep junk out, and in more complex systems, take advantage of how fluids bend light to focus it more sharply on the retina.

Next, the lens develops as another structure to help focus light on the photoreceptive patch.

Then we get an iris and pupil for fine control of light going into the eye.

And what they found was that it might take 364,000 years or less to evolve all the complicated eyes out there today -- including the ones mantis shrimp have.

Which sounds like a long time, but it took tens of million years for feathers to go from this to this.

And once eyes did evolve, they were an evolutionary game changer, which might explain why they seem to have become wildly popular almost overnight.

Instead of relying mostly on close-proximity senses like touch, animals could literally see other animals coming!

Today, most known animal species have eyes, but like other senses, eyes are fine tuned to an animal's lifestyle, so they all see very different things.

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Crash Course Zoology | How Animals See | Episode 6 | PBS

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We walk through the history of eyes, how they work, and vision's evolutionary advantage.

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Animals see the world differently - from simple eyes that can only tell the difference between light and dark, to complex eyes that can see colours and depth perception.

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Watch: How Animals and People See the World Differently | National Geographic

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http://xhslink.com/Doa0FB

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https://www.studiokite.com/mechanical-eyes

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Studio Kite was contracted by Johnson & Johnson to create an artificial  eye for testing contact lenses. It involved an enormous amount of research and developing over two years. 

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8101718/

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https://www.my-iclinic.co.uk/articles/camera-obscura-bp

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A look at how the camera compares to the human eye. How did the camera come to be and how far off is it being almost human?

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Scientific American Magazine Vol. 27 No. 17 | Scientific American

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Scientific American is the essential guide to the most awe-inspiring advances in science and technology, explaining how they change our understanding of the world and shape our lives.

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Each pair has a natural emotional expression

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Each pair has a natural emotional expression

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You may have read the news about someone having a whole eye transplant, but what exactly does that mean? While one group of researchers hope to perform vision-restoring, whole eye transplants within a decade, it can't be done at this time. When someone receives a transplant today, they are probably having a corneal transplant. Donor corneas make this amazing, sight-saving surgery possible.

Your eye is a complex organ connected to your brain by the optic nerve. The optic nerve sends visual signals from the eye to the brain, which interprets them as images. The optic nerve is small. It is between 1.3 and 2.2 inches long and only a fraction of an inch wide. Yet the optic nerve has more than one million tiny nerve fibers, much like a fiber optic cable. Once these nerve fibers are cut, they cannot be reattached. The transplanted eye can't send signals to the brain through the optic nerve. That is why it is not currently possible to restore vision with a whole eye transplant.

Corneal Transplants

Corneal transplantation is not only possible, it has been used for nearly a century.

You need a healthy, clear cornea for good vision. If your cornea is injured or damaged by disease, it may become swollen or scarred. This can cause glare or blurred vision. In a corneal transplant, a surgeon removes the damaged cornea and replaces it with a clear donor cornea. There are several corneal transplant surgery options, depending on the case.

What Other Kinds of Eye Transplants Are There?

Corneal transplantation is the most common type of eye transplant. But it is not the only one.

Amniotic membrane transplantation (AMT)

Sometimes, doctors can use part of a human placenta, donated after childbirth, to heal the cornea. They can use the innermost layer of the placenta, called the amniotic membrane, to create a healing bandage. This bandage can be temporary or permanent. These membranes help heal and regrow surface tissues of the eye. Ophthalmologists have long used AMT to heal the sclera and the conjunctiva.

Eyelash transplants

Surgeons have succeeded in transplanting eyelashes. This can restore eyelashes lost due to burns, injury and other medical conditions.

Eyelid and tear duct transplants

Doctors continue to explore whether it is possible to transplant other parts of the eye. In July 2010, French doctors transplanted eyelids and tear ducts during a full-face transplant. Eyelids have been included in other face transplants in recent years as well.

The future of retina cell transplants

Today, researchers are replacing damaged retina cells with healthy transplants. In clinical trials, researchers have used human stem cells to grow retinal cells that are destroyed by conditions like macular degeneration or Stargardt disease. One day, surgeons may use these stem cells to replace damaged retinal cells and treat these conditions.

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What Parts of the Eye Can Be Transplanted?

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What does it mean to have an eye transplant? When someone gets an eye transplant, they are usually getting a healthy, clear cornea to replace a damaged or scarred cornea.

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Is eye color determined by genetics?: MedlinePlus Genetics

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Eye color is determined by variations in a person’s genes. Learn more about genetics role in eye color.

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A pair of soulful eyes can make the viewer empathize and get sucked in. When he looks at you, it's as if he knows all about the life and story in the painting.

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British Birds | Bird Watching | Garden Birds | Bird Spot

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Advice to help you get started bird watching including how to watch birds in your garden and information on the best places in the UK to go birding.

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"When I Was Born" revisits the adventure of discovering the world for the first time in simple and engaging language. Breathing, seeing, hearing, tasting and touch are encountered afresh in this beautifully illustrated, poetic tale, opening young eyes and minds to the richness and delight of life.

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"When I Was Born" revisits the adventure of discovering the world for the first time in simple and engaging language. Breathing, seeing, hearing, tasting and touch are encountered afresh in this beautifully illustrated, poetic tale, opening young eyes and minds to the richness and delight of life.

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Surgeons have performed the world's first ever whole-eye transplant, a feat hailed as a breakthrough despite the patient not yet regaining his sight.

Doctors "never expected it to work at all", patient Aaron James said, but the eye has shown signs of health, such as functioning blood vessels and a promising retina.

It has been six months since the 21-hour surgery, performed during a partial face transplant in New York, but the surgeon who led the procedure said Mr James, 46, may yet see out of his left eye again.
Warning: This article contains a graphic picture of the patient
"I don't think anyone can claim that he will see. But by the same token, they can't claim that he will not see," Dr Eduardo Rodriguez said.

"The mere fact that we transplanted an eye is a huge step forward, something that for centuries has been thought about, but it's never been performed."

Mr James, a military veteran from Arkansas, survived a work-related high-voltage electrical accident that destroyed the left side of his face, his nose, his mouth and his left eye in June 2021.

He said he knew he might not regain his vision, but he had hoped that surgeons could "learn something to help the next person".

"Hopefully this opens up a new path," he said.

"It feels good. I still don't have any movement in it yet. My eyelid, I can't blink yet. But I'm getting sensation now," he added.

Until now, doctors have only been able to transplant the cornea, the clear front layer of the eye.
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Initially, doctors were just planning to include the eyeball as part of the face transplant for cosmetic reasons, Dr Rodriguez said.

"If some form of vision restoration occurred, it would be wonderful, but... the goal was for us to perform the technical operation," Dr Rodriquez said, adding they aimed to have the eyeball survive.

"At this point, I think we're pretty happy with the result that we were able to achieve with a very technically demanding operation."

Mr James's eye will continue to be monitored, but right now it is not communicating with the brain through the optic nerve.

To encourage connection between the donor and recipient optic nerves, surgeons harvested adult stem cells and injected them into the optic nerve during the transplant, hoping they would replace damaged cells.

Transplantation of a viable eye opens many new possibilities, Dr Rodriguez said, even if sight is not restored in this case.

Other research teams are developing ways to connect nerve networks in the brain to sightless eyes through insertion of electrodes, for example, to allow vision, he said.

"If we can work with other scientists that are working on other methods of restoring vision or restoring images to the visual cortex, I think we're one step closer," he added.

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World's first whole-eye transplant hailed as breakthrough - but sight not yet restored

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After a 21-hour surgery, doctors at New York University Langone Health were able to perform a whole-eye transplant. Aaron James can't yet see out of his left eye, but his surgeon believes he still has a chance.

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By emphasizing the body and the senses, and at the same time involving non-human perspectives, this exhibition is no longer limited to the human perspective of the film, through the animal perspective, becomes a new perspective.

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About Paravel & Castaing-Taylor

Véréna Paravel (1971, Neuchâtel, Switzerland) and Lucien Castaing-Taylor (1968, Liverpool, England) are both anthropologists, artists and filmmakers. Castaing-Taylor is the founder and director of the Sensory Ethnography Lab (SEL) at Harvard University in the United States, an experimental laboratory for research into the relationship between anthropology and cinema, where they work together. Their work is held in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art in New York and has been presented at Tate, Whitney Biennial, MoMA and documenta 14. Their award-winning films and videos have been screened in Berlin, Locarno, New York, Toronto, Venice and other film festivals.

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Paravel & Castaing-Taylor | Eye Filmmuseum

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The museum for film and the art of the moving image in The Netherlands. Visit the exhibition or cinema and discover our collection with more than 55.000 films.

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The human eye has been a symbol for good or evil from earliest times. This thesis shows that the Mesopotamians focused mainly on the negative aspects of the eye in their belief system, while the Israelites focused on its positive aspects.

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The human eye has been a symbol for good or evil from earliest times. This thesis shows that the Mesopotamians focused mainly on the negative aspects of the eye in their belief system, while the Israelites focused on its positive aspects.

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https://scholars.wlu.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1093&context=etd

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The symbol of the eye derives meaning from our shared understanding of these feelings.

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Vision makes our lives richer, filling us with emotions ranging from wonder and joy to fear and anger. The symbol of the eye derives meaning from our shared understanding of these feelings. Often, they suggest a higher power - one that sees all, knows all, and wishes us good or evil.

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The eye is a symbol of different cultures and arts

Why do people pay more attention to the eyes than to other organs?

Why do people use the eyes as important symbols and not other organs?

The eyes are the most important thing for us, but are the eyes the most important thing for other creatures?

Why is the eye symbol such a powerful symbol in any culture and era?

What does the eye symbol represent in different cultures?

What kind of existence are eyes to animals?

Are there many works that use eyes to express emotions in art?

In addition to seeing things from a human perspective, what are the other perspectives?

Why is the eye the most vulnerable human organ?

Why is the eye the most complex human organ?

Has there been any major scientific discovery about the eye?

Why does Michelangelo's David have a heart in his eyes?

Why does it feel like the Mona Lisa is looking straight at you from every Angle?

What is the most famous part of art about the eyes?

Why can the eyes always show different emotions?

Why are the descriptions and aesthetics of eyes so different in China and the West?

What role do eyes play in different cultures?

Why was the eye chosen as a cultural symbol?

Where else do eyes play a role besides being different symbols in culture?

What are some myths, superstitions and cultural beliefs about eyes?

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I think in my FMP I need to choose the most likely breakthrough project among all the ideas I put forward. I always come up with a lot of different ideas, a lot of divergent ideas, but in the end, I can't connect them together, so I will choose a topic and not change it, but continue to research it further. In my previous professional work, what I used most was the research on a3 paper. I tend to be trapped by myself in completing a3 paper research, filling it up as much as possible and limiting myself. Sometimes my research gets sidetracked, and when I need to get my mind back, I start all over again. In terms of research, I need to raise more special questions, so that my topic can have a more unique perspective, rather than the first explanation when I search for information.

I was often limited by watercolor in my finished products. In the legs and 2me2you projects, I realized that I could use more different materials to finish the finished products, and I could also finish the finished products in 3D. We used a lot of cardboard, tape and of course paint to complete the legs, which made each of our belongings become three-dimensional and bigger, while they still contain unique meanings. In 2me2you, my partner and I chose to use cloth to complete our scene design. We used cloth in one small scene, and we must also use cloth to make the picture unified.I still lack diversity in my experiments. I always confine myself to what I have, and I often shut myself in a comfort zone. My works are probably always very similar. Although I have booked the workshop, I think I still need to try some new things to put into my test. Always using the same material will gradually deviate from the concept of visual communication. Having a variety of visual feelings can better express what you want.

So I think I still need to try, experiment.

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My eyes will be the starting point for my FMP. Because it is related to my own eyes, my eyes began to blink frequently when I was in high school. I also went to see a doctor, and the doctor said that my eyes would be very itchy and dry, so I had to blink to moisten my eyes, and I often needed to use eye drops. This has also become a vexing problem for me. Eyes are also the most important part of my body, so I started my research on eyes. At first I focused my attention on the differences between human and animal eyes. I noticed that our pupils go in different directions, like the typical goat, whose pupils are the most distinctive, rectangular ones that give a wider view. Octopuses also have unusual pupils. Then I began to investigate other eyes, and I also photographed the eyes of many friends around me; I came across pictures of eyes on the road; The eyes of animals in museums; We also investigated why the eyes are made into special symbols; Why people use eyes as symbols; The emotion revealed by the eyes; And breakthroughs in the science of eye transplantation. After that, I chose to start my theme from a certain point. I found that many symbols are related to eyes, so I started a new research from eye symbols. I began to turn the theme to the symbol of the eye for different cultures and arts. In the process of investigation, I got a deep understanding of why it is so valued by people and why people choose the eye. As one of the most important organs of human beings, the eye is an organ we use to perceive the outside world, and it is also an organ for observation. Imagine if an eye appeared in front of us, our first reaction would be fear, a feeling that we are being watched. There's so much you can see with your eyes, so I guess that's one of the reasons why it's used as a symbol of so many cultures.

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10 ways cultures around the world are obsessed with eyes

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10 ways cultures around the world are obsessed with eyes

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https://listverse.com/2022/03/25/10-ways-cultures-around-the-world-are-obsessed-with-eyes/

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There is one part of the human body that has been the greatest source of numerous myths, legends, and superstitions-the eye. The symbolism of the human eye has been found in cultures around the world for thousands of years, and many of these symbols still exist today.

The eyes have long been considered the windows to our soul, the omniscient presence of God, of prophecy, and as symbols of inner spirituality and the cosmos. Here is a list of ten ways cultures around the world are obsessed with eyes.
Related: 10 Body Parts That Are Secretly Awesome
10 The Evil Eye

Most cultures around the world have some version of the evil eye. Whether it's the "mal de ojo" in Mexico, the "mati" in Greece, or the "ohlo gordo" in Brazil, all of them share one thing in common-that a person could be cursed or harmed with an unwanted gaze or stare given out of jealousy or envy.

Believed to have originated in ancient Greece or Rome, the eyes were considered to have strong powers which could be used to curse or hurt someone with merely a glance. Over the centuries, the superstitious belief of the power of the evil eye took hold across the world, taking unique elements from the various cultures that embraced it.

Various methods and cultural artifacts were used to ward off the evil eye. Brides used veils to escape the glare of jealous people. Newborn boys, prized in ancient cultures, were given protective amulets with blue beads. And, in India, babies' eyes were lined with kajal, a form of powdered charcoal.

Wherever you find yourself in the world, ancient symbols of the evil eye are sure to be found.

9 The Eye of Horus

Look no further than the Eye of Horus, which originated in ancient Egypt, as an eye symbol still seen around the world today. According to Egyptian myth, Horus lost his eye in a battle to avenge his father's death. After his eye was magically restored by an Egyptian goddess, the symbol of his eye-the Eye of Horus-became a talisman that represented protection, health, and restoration. It was one of the most frequently used symbols in ancient Egypt and has been discovered in tombs dating back to the Fourth Dynasty (c. 2613-2494 BC).

The Eye of Horus is made up of six parts, each one representing a fraction of a geometric formula. Amazingly, when superimposed over an image of the human brain, each section corresponds to one of six major sensory centers. These sections are believed to represent the six senses-smell, sight, thought, hearing, taste, and touch. Many sources believe the RX symbol we see on all our doctors' prescriptions today evolved from the Eye of Horus due to its connection with healing powers.

Even today, the Eye of Horus can be seen in many homes, used as a symbol for protection from danger or threats.

8 Ocular Opals

Opals are the only gemstones that naturally refract light, in a process eerily similar to the way the human eye sees color. In the human eye, light travels through a prism, and wavelengths separate into the different colors we see. In opals, the white light splits into the colors of the spectrum and bounces back to give each gemstone its distinct color pattern.

For some, the stones were prized for their magical qualities. They were thought to protect them from eye diseases and could possibly even make them invisible. The opposing view, however, was that they were evil incarnate. Witches were said to use black opals to increase their powers or to possess people they wanted to harm, and some linked the opal to the eyes of detested creatures like toads and snakes.

In the Harry Potter book series, JK Rowling references opals three times. Using the folkloric belief that opals provide "eyes" to see the future, she uses them as a powerful symbol of vision and to predict what might befall the witches and wizards of her fictional world.

7 Fill in the...Daruma Dolls

Look at a daruma doll, a traditional Japanese doll, and the first things you notice are its eyes.

When first purchased, the odd-looking dolls, featuring a bearded man's face, contain oversized, blank, white circles for eyes. The big eyes are only left blank temporarily, however-an eyeball will be painted in one of the eyes upon receipt of the doll as a gift. The second eye will only be filled in when a determined life goal or wish has been attained.

The dolls are modeled after a 5th-century monk named Bodhidharma, who, legend says, faced a cave wall in deep meditation for five years. He was so committed to his search for enlightenment that eventually, his body atrophied, but his spirit remained steadfast. The eyes on the doll represent his determination and the eye-on-the-prize mental strength needed to accomplish his goal.

Unsurprisingly, the expression "Both eyes open" is commonly used in Japan to wish someone the best of luck and success.

6 Third Eye of Shiva

Legend has it that the Hindu god Shiva opened his third eye after being shot at with an arrow by Kama, god of lust. He burned Kama to ashes out of anger and frustration at being tempted by him. In the Buddhist and Hindu religions, "awakening one's third eye " is a metaphor for achieving inner clarity, as Shiva did in order to crush his temptation.

Commonly seen on women worldwide, the bindi -a colored dot or sticker placed on the forehead-is linked to the importance they put in the symbolism of the third eye. It is said to be placed on the spot of the sixth chakra, or energy points, located slightly above and between the eyes and is linked to wisdom.

Scientists describe the pineal gland as a dormant "third-eye" controlling the hypothalamus, which plays an important role in releasing hormones and regulating behavior. Famed scientist René Descartes also referred to the pineal gland as a third eye, the place where all of our thoughts are formed and the principal location for the soul.

5 Unmatching Eyes

We all know about Alexander the Great, the legendary king of Macedonia who changed the course of history, but did you know he had two different colored eyes-one blue and the other one brown? He is said to have had heterochromia-a condition that occurs when a melanin imbalance occurs in the irises.

There was a time when people with two different colored eyes were feared. In some Eastern European cultures, a child born with heterochromia was thought to have had one eye replaced the eye of a witch. People with the condition were considered evil and were connected to supernatural events. Today, heterochromia is regarded as a unique, intriguing trait. Some recognizable people with the condition are Kate Bosworth, Dan Akroyd, Jane Seymour, and New York Mets pitcher Max Scherzer.

Some animals such as dogs and cats are also affected by the condition, making for a dramatic appearance. Some Native Americans called dogs with two different colored eyes "ghost dogs" and believed they could see heaven with one eye and Earth with another.

Although it affects less than one percent of the world's population, there is a day-July 12th, National Heterochromia Day -when we can all obsess about the beauty of people with different eyes!

4 The Eye of Providence

The earliest example of the symbol of the Eye of Providence, an open eye set within a triangle, was found in the religious art of the Renaissance as a representation of God's omnipresence. Artist Pontormo's 1525 painting, Supper at Emmaus, features the divine eye, a symbol of God the Father, within the trinity triangle.

In 1782, the Great Seal of the United States was unveiled, featuring the Eye of Providence. It was Charles Thompson, Secretary of the Continental Congress, who came up with the image of a pyramid along with the eye, representing God's oversight over the new nation. Some people contend that the symbol was linked to Freemasonry, but that has been proven incorrect. Benjamin Franklin was the only Mason on the committee that decided on the seal, but the all-seeing eye only became a Masonic symbol in 1797, fourteen years after the adoption of the seal by Congress.

The all-seeing eye symbol has been the source of conspiracies involving the Illuminati, other "secret elites," and even pop star conspiracies with Madonna, Kanye West, and Jay Z using it in their art. But all of this is more likely part of the obsession we all have for a powerful symbol of the eye.

3 The Eyes of the God Tāwhirimātea

The Maori New Year revolves around the Matariki constellation, sometimes known as Ngā mata o te ariki Tāwhirimātea, or the eyes of the god Tāwhirimātea. The Maori name of the constellation comes from the legend of the sky-mother Ranginui and the earth-father Papatūānuku, who are split up by two of their unhappy children. They recruit Tane Mahuta, the god of the forest, to banish their parents, and he succeeds. Their other child, Tāwhirimātea, the god of wind, is angered by the events. Out of contempt for his siblings and love for his parents, he gouges out Tane Mahuta's eyes, crushes them, and throws them into the sky. These "eyes" are now called the Matariki constellation.

Each of the nine stars of the Matariki is a separate "eye" that forms a connection of importance to the Maori people. The nine stars include the "mother of all the other stars" of the constellation; the star that connects to their ancestors; the ones that connect to food from the ground, trees, freshwater, or saltwater; the stars that connect to the rain and the wind; and the youngest star where wishes are sent.

The celebration of Matariki, for the Maori, is a time to unite people, share memories and make plans for the future. And the inspiration for this comes from the eyes in the sky of Tāwhirimātea.

2 Two Eyes-On a Platter

Santa Lucia, or St. Lucy, the patron saint of light, is often represented with her two eyes...on a platter. This bizarre symbolism reflects the devotion to her, among people of the Christian faith, as a protector of sight.

How Lucy ends up holding her eyeballs on a platter is a tragic story. She was born to noble parents in Sicily, Italy, in AD 283. Her father died, leaving a young Lucy and her mother alone. She dedicated her life to God and spent her dowry on helping the poor. To Lucy's chagrin, her mother arranged her marriage to a pagan man who disagreed with her charitable endeavors. Her husband turned her over to an evil Roman governor who forced her to make sacrifices to his idols, which she refused to do. Her stubbornness frustrated the governor, and he had her tortured until a) the Romans removed her eyes or b) she gouged out her own eyes, depending on the version of events.

The stories of St. Lucy inspired many Renaissance artists, known for their flair for the dramatic, and paintings of her are most often painted with a side of eyeballs. In the painting Saint Lucy by Francesco del Cossa, Lucy holds a branch with two eyeballs, instead of flowers, at their tips. In another painting by Francisco de Zurburán, also titled Saint Lucy, she is portrayed holding a pewter dish topped by a pair of realistic-looking eyeballs.

1 The Whites of the Eyes

When George Ohsawa correctly predicted the death of President Kennedy in an August 1963 interview, he credited his prediction to his belief that the president had Sanpaku eyes-to him, a sign of ill fate and sickness.

Sanpaku, roughly translated from Japanese as "three whites," is when the white is visible above or below the iris. According to the same George Oshawa, the first step of Oriental Physiognomy is the observation of the eye and if and/or to what extent Sanpaku is present. Ohsawa says those with Sanpaku eyes are physically and/or emotionally distressed and can be untrustworthy, suspicious, and fearful, as well as prone to accidents and death. Examples of Sanpaku eyes can be seen on Princess Diana, Abraham Lincoln, Charles Manson, and Sylvester Stallone.

Sanpaku is based on unproven theories and superstitions-something to keep in mind next time a person you meet gazes at you with some extra white in their eyes.

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10 Ways Cultures Around the World Are Obsessed with Eyes - Listverse

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There is one part of the human body that has been the greatest source of numerous myths, legends, and superstitions-the eye. The symbolism of the human

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Eye Symbol Meaning: What Does It Mean And History

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Art has long been a medium through which emotions, ideas, and messages are conveyed. Among the various elements used in artistic expression, the depiction of eyes holds a special place. The eyes, often referred to as the windows to the soul, have captivated artists throughout history.

In this article, we delve into the symbolism of eyes in art, exploring their significance and the diverse meanings they convey.

In many artworks, eyes are depicted as powerful conveyors of emotions. The subtle nuances of a gaze, the intensity of a stare, or the melancholy in a pair of eyes can evoke a wide range of emotions within the viewer. Artists skillfully capture the depth and complexity of human emotions through the portrayal of eyes, allowing us to connect with the subjects on a profound level.

" The Mona Lisa" by Leonardo da Vinci is a great example of this. The enigmatic smile and the subtle gaze of the subject's eyes evoke intrigue and a sense of mystery, inviting viewers to interpret the emotions behind the smile.

In certain cultures and religious traditions, the concept of the all-seeing eye has profound symbolic meaning. Often associated with divinity or higher consciousness, the all-seeing eye represents omniscience, wisdom, and spiritual insight. Artists have incorporated this symbol into their works, suggesting a deeper understanding or universal awareness beyond the physical realm.

"" in ancient Egyptian art symbolizes this. The symbol of the eye represents protection, royal power, and good health.

Eyes play a significant role in defining a person's identity. They serve as a unique feature that distinguishes individuals from one another. Artists depict eyes as a means of highlighting individuality, capturing the essence and personality of the subjects. Through the intricacies of eye depictions, artists convey the complexity and diversity of human existence.

" Self-Portrait with Two Circles" by Rembrandt: The artist's deeply introspective eyes reflect his inner thoughts and personal journey, capturing his unique identity and self-perception.

The act of seeing and perceiving is a fundamental aspect of human experience. Eyes in art can symbolize not only literal vision but also metaphorical perception. They represent the ability to perceive the world, gain insights, and develop a deeper understanding of oneself and others. Artists employ this symbolism to explore themes of self-discovery, enlightenment, and personal growth.

" The Persistence of Memory" by Salvador Dalí: The melting clocks and the distorted eyes in the painting suggest the fluidity of perception and the subjective nature of time.

The gaze of a subject in an artwork can be captivating and evocative. Artists utilize the gaze of their subjects to establish a connection with the viewer, creating an intimate and immersive experience. The direction of the gaze can evoke curiosity, intrigue, or even a sense of discomfort. Through the gaze, artists invite us to explore their world and share in their narratives.

" Girl with a Pearl Earring" by Johannes Vermeer: The direct and engaging gaze of the subject creates a sense of intimacy and connection, drawing viewers into her world.

To Sum Up...

The symbolism of eyes in art is rich and multifaceted, reflecting the depths of human emotion, spirituality, identity, perception, and connection. Artists throughout history have harnessed the power of eyes to convey powerful messages and engage viewers on both a visual and emotional level. The eyes truly are windows to the soul, inviting us to contemplate the mysteries of human existence and glimpse the profound depths of the artistic imagination.

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Exploring the Symbolic Power of Eyes in Art | OBN

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Art has long been a medium through which emotions are conveyed. The depiction of eyes holds a special place among other artistic expressions.

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Artists have long been drawn to the eyes. And for good reason. Eyes are often associated with focus, truth, clarity, light, vision, prophecy, awareness, and observation - and so are a perfect symbol for artists striving to evoke imagery that surfaces these concepts to the conscious mind. Offered in no particular order. The image above is the False Mirror, by René Magritte.

1 | The False Mirror

by René Magritte, 1929
Magritte and other surrealists working in the aftermath of World War I were fascinated by the eye, and saw it as a portal "between inner, subjective self and the external world." The visual artist Man Ray, also a surrealist, once owned Magritte's False Mirror, and is said to have described it as "a painting that sees as much as it itself is seen."

2 | Swayambhunath Stupa

Kathmandu, 460 AD
Also known as the "Monkey Temple," the Swayambhunath Stupa is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Nepal. Each day, hundreds of pilgrims begin a series of clockwise circumambulations of the stupa. The eyes are said to represent wisdom and compassion. Above the eyes is a third eye, from which, it is said, cosmic rays emanate when Buddha preaches, carrying a message to "heavenly beings so that those interested can come down to earth to listen to the Buddha."

3 | Eye

by M.C. Escher, 1946
One of the most famous graphic artists in the world, Escher drew this image of his own eye while looking at it through a convex shaving mirror. Of the drawing Escher wrote, "As the viewer always sees himself in the eye he is looking into, I decided to show a skull reflected in it...because we are all forced to look at Death, whether we like it or not. Or he looks at us."

4 | The Japanese Footbridge

by Claude Monet, 1922
Monet, diagnosed with cataracts in 1912, initially refused to undergo surgery. Over time, his ability to see critical detail was reduced, and his paintings - such The Japanese Footbridge - took on a more muted, brown hue devoid of the vibrant use of color found in his earlier work. Eventually, Monet had cataract surgery, and over time his sense of color returned.

5 | De la Conquista a 1930

by Diego Rivera, 1929-1935
Celebrated artist Diego Rivera, one of the most important muralists of Mexico, painted a vast mural at the Palacio Nacional in Mexico City that describes the history of Mexico. In this section of the mural, we see the Viceroy Luís de Velasco, who was an emissary sent by the Spanish king to rule over Mexico in the late 1500s. Velasco, pictured in the center, is thought to be the first person on the American continent with eyeglasses.

6 | Eye of Horus

Tomb of Sennedjem, ca. 1250 BC
Located on the West Bank of the Nile, lies the tomb of a local artisan named Sennedjem. The walls of his tomb, like that of many artisans from the area, are adorned with mythological symbols. The Egyptian sky god Horus is the son of Isis and Osiris; his eye - The Eye of Horus - is a symbol for well-being, healing, and protection.

7 | The Eye

Salvador Dalí, 1945
Filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock commissioned Spanish surrealist Salvador Dalí to create a series of paintings for the psychological thriller, Spellbound, starring Ingrid Bergman and Gregory Peck. The paintings were used during a dream sequence where Gregory Peck's character describes being in a gambling house that had curtains adorned with eyes, which were then cut with a giant pair of scissors. Spooky!

8 | The Old Guitarist

by Pablo Picasso, 1903
The deeply shadowed eyes of the blind guitar player are typical of Picasso's Blue Period, which began after he learned of the death of a dear friend. As Picasso's depression deepened, his paintings took on somber blue tones, and many of his subjects depicted "the miseries of the poor, the ill and those cast out of society." Art historians believe that Picasso may have also been influenced by the literature of the Symbolist movement, which included "blind characters who possessed powers of inner vision."

9 | Charcoal and Ink Eyes

by Bryce Olson, 2020
No top ten list would be complete without an entry from one of our talented students! This charcoal and ink drawing by 2nd year student Bryce Olson was created for the California Optometric Association to celebrate 2020. There wasn't much to celebrate that year after all, but we think this piece is beautiful! For models, Bryce used friends, family members, optometry students, and Dr. Ron Seger of the COA.

10 | C-Stunners

by Cyrus Kabiru, 2013
"I really love trash," says Cyrus Kabiru, a painter and sculptor living in Nairobi, Kenya. "I try to give trash a second chance." C-Stunners is a collection of eyewear fashioned from mostly electronic waste. Each frame is cleverly named with reference to its previous life. A salvaged set of speakers is "Big Mouth," a desktop computer became "The Fatherboard."

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Top Ten Works of Art Featuring Eyes or Vision - UC Berkeley School of Optometry

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Artists have long been drawn to the eyes. And for good reason. Eyes are often associated with focus, truth, clarity, light, vision, prophecy, awareness, and observation - and so are a perfect symbol for artists striving to evoke imagery that surfaces these concepts to the conscious mind. Offered in no particular order.

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Key points

The eyes express all the emotions and states of mind and body.

Eyes soften in love, harden with anger, widen in fear, narrow in suspicion, roll in exasperation, glaze with boredom, and weep in sadness.

Experimental research with microphotography examining pupil dilation, blinking, and tearing might indicate if someone is lying.

The eyes are "the windows of the soul," we are told. They may also be curtains, hiding the soul and the self. Belief in the evil eye is widespread.
The Eye and the I
Through windows, we can see the self. Even Hegel, in his Aesthetics (1835), trusted the window theory of the soul, writing that "in the eye, the soul is concentrated"; thus, "through the eyes, we look into a man's soul." And: "a man's glance is what is most full of his soul, the concentration of his inmost personality and feeling" (1975:153, 434, 732). In this, eyes have unique importance. No other organs of the body have such power.

Eyes flash and blaze, sparkle and twinkle, stare, glare and glower, glance, peer, leer and ogle, and goggle. There are flirtatious eyes, laughing eyes, bedroom eyes, and occasionally blank, expressionless, dead eyes, which we might avoid.

The eyes express all the emotions and states of mind and body. They soften in love, harden with anger, widen in fear and horror, narrow in suspicion, roll in exasperation, glaze with boredom, weep in sadness or joy. The "far-away look in her eyes," the cold stare of contempt, the hot glare of anger, the cheer-up wink, the come-hither glance, the guilty look. Eye language is as eloquent as verbal language, but if the two conflict, believe the eye language, remembering that it too can lie.

In his amusing The Art of Love (Bk 1:573-4), Ovid pioneered eye language:

Let your eyes gaze into hers, let the gazing be a confession

Often the silent glance brings more conviction than words

Shakespeare understood this language clearly:

There's language in her eye, her cheek, her lip,

Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirits look out

At every joint and motive in her body.

(Troilus and Cressida, Act 4, Scene 5)

The Eye and the Lie
Still, the eye may lie. Lady Macbeth ordered her husband:

...bear welcome in your eye,

Your hand, your tongue; look like the innocent flower,

But be the serpent under it.

The Eagles sang that "you can't hide your lyin' eyes." But Ekman says you can. So the eyes may not always be the windows of the soul. They may be the curtains of the soul.

But lying successfully with the eyes and the body is not easy. Body language often negates verbal language; if you can use your eyes and not trust your ears, the truth will come out.

Freud said that:

He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips; betrayal oozes out of him at every pore (1977:114).

Experimental research with microphotography indicates that inexperienced liars may give the game away by, for instance, gaze aversion; others, aware of this and better able to monitor their actions, may employ the frank and open gaze as a deception behaviour.

In Telling Lies (1985), Paul Ekman suggested that "leakage" may occur through other eye language such as pupil dilation, blinking, and tearing. However, expert liars and psychopaths are extremely hard to detect, he said; so are people who believe their own lies.

There is a struggle of skills between the hider and the seeker. Some training in perceiving micro-expressions (fleeting "leaks" lasting less than one-quarter of a second) can be helpful. He insisted, "A lie catcher should never rely upon one clue to deceit; there must be many" (1985:147). But he cautioned: "Most liars can fool most of the people most of the time" (1985:162).

The credibility of the entire justice system rests on the perception of the difference between lies and truth. Both issues: disbelieving the truth, and believing the lie, have put the justice system on trial.
The Evil Eye
Belief in the evil eye has been widespread throughout history and around the world, as The Evil Eye by F.T. Elworthy (1989 [c.1900]) and C. Maloney (1976) attest. In the end, the eye can kill. The evil eye is known and feared in most cultures and is widely believed to be as effective as the eye sighting down the barrel of a rifle unless one takes precautions.

In the modern West, the belief may be dismissed as superstition, for the eyes are not "seen" as weapons, but if words can wound, then perhaps looks can kill.
The Eye and Evolution
The eye is a magnificent organ: beautiful, expressive, and useful. Indeed, the eye is often cited as proof not only of the existence of God but especially as proof of the truth of creationism. Evolution, it is argued, could never have created the eye.

In The Origin of Species, Darwin discussed the eye:

To suppose that the eye, with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus for different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest possible degree. (1968:217)

Absurd, maybe, but "any sensitive nerve may be rendered sensible to light, and likewise to those coarser vibrations of the air which produce sound." Hence, through "numerous gradations...useful to an animal under changing conditions of life," each of these variations being inherited over time, then "the difficulty of believing...can hardly be considered real" (1968:217). ·

In Climbing Mount Improbable (1997), Richard Dawkins explained that about a dozen different types of eyes exist today. While the path of ocular evolution cannot be traced exactly since there is no fossil record of soft tissue, it probably all began with light-sensitive single-celled organisms, perhaps like such creatures as jellyfish and leeches today.
Conclusion
What are the eyes? Obviously organs of sight and emotional expression, and thus very useful and highly valued, but also possibly windows of the soul, or perhaps curtains of the soul, or maybe evil weapons; but certainly wonders of evolution over millions of millennia. ¹

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How the Eyes Express Emotions and Bodily States

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Windows of the soul, or perhaps curtains of the soul, or maybe evil weapons.

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Eye Myths, Superstitions and Cultural Beliefs

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Eye Myths, Superstitions and Cultural Beliefs

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Did your parents ever tell you not to sit too close to the television or not read at night because it would cause eye strain? Perhaps they encouraged you to eat your carrots because they'd improve your eyesight? Did they tell you to wear an accessory to protect you from the evil eye?

Cultural myths around eyes and eyesight are very diverse, and impact the way we understand our vision, how we care for our eyes, and what we consider beautiful or desirable. Some myths are harmless, whether they're scientifically accurate or not, whereas others could lead to the wrong kind of care, or delaying treatment.

What some of us assume to be right when it comes to eyes and eye care may sound totally wild to people from other cultures, and vice versa. Here are some pervasive, and interesting, myths, legends and old-wives tales from around the world.

Many of us growing up in Western cultures are told to eat carrots if we want to see in the dark. There is some truth to this, but only to a point.

The Vitamin A (retinol) in carrots is indeed necessary for the body to create rhodopsin, the pigment that helps you see in low-light conditions. If you're deficient in Vitamin A, your ability to see in low light will be impaired. However, if your Vitamin A stocks are adequate, eating carrots won't help.

By all means, snack on a healthy carrot. But don't be under the illusion that it'll help you see in the dark.

In mountainous Nepal, kids are told to eat their greens to improve their sight and avoid eye strain, and this isn't bad advice at all. Leafy greens like spinach and kale contain lutein and zeaxanthin. These carotenoids help prevent age-related macular degeneration, cataracts and macular pigmentation. This is good news for Nepalis (and everyone else!), as spinach and other leafy greens grow abundantly there.

Many cultures have superstitions around the 'evil eye'. These curses are prompted by jealousy or frustration, and are said to be placed on victims through a sinister stare.

In Hindu cultures, many people believe beautiful babies are especially vulnerable to the evil eye because, well, they're beautiful. To deflect the evil eye, parents will often smear a dash of black soot or paste onto a baby's forehead. This creates a 'blemish' so the baby isn't quite so beautiful, thus deflecting the evil eye.

In Turkey, the distinctive nazar amulet is used to ward off the evil eye. The blue eye-shaped amulet is hung everywhere, from window frames to handbags. It's become internationally fashionable in the last few years, with designer shoe lines even featuring the motif, but the nazar is definitely not just a fad: it's believed to have originated around 3300 B.C.!

You've probably heard the phrase 'green-eyed monster' relating to jealousy and envy. Green eyes have long been associated with this emotion in Western culture, at least since Shakespeare's time.

Different cultures have various thoughts about green eyes, but they're almost always considered mystical. Ancient Egyptians associated green eyes with good health and rebirth. In Japan, green-eyed shore nymphs warm children of the dangers of water.

Green eyes' otherworldly associations may be down to the fact that on a global scale, green eyes are very rare, only making up about 2% of the population. Ethnic Northern Europeans, such as Irish and Scandinavian people, are more likely to have green eyes than other people.

Other superstitions regarding eye colour are related to heterochromia, a rare condition that causes eyes to be different colours.

Some Native American cultures believe that people or animals (especially dogs) with different coloured eyes have the ability to see heaven and earth at the same time. This sounds like a blessing, but in the pagan traditions of Europe, having different coloured eyes was associated with witchcraft.

It's annoying when your eyelid or area underneath your eye starts to twitch, but you may not read too much into it, other than you need to get more sleep or cut back on the coffee. The scientific causes for eye twitching or fluttering are conditions called myokymia, blepharospasm or hemifacial spasm. But in some cultures, an eye twitch is a sign of good or bad luck coming your way.

In Chinese culture, eye twitching can signal bad luck or good fortune, depending on which eye is affected! A twitching left eye signals good luck, whereas a twitching right eye bad luck. In India, a twitching eye means different things depending on your gender.

Whichever way you look at it, cultural beliefs relating to the eyes and eye care are fascinating, and shouldn't always be dismissed as unscientific hocus pocus. But it's always a good idea to consult your eye care professional for the best, most up-to-date eye health information.

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Eye Myths, Superstitions and Cultural Beliefs

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Did your parents ever tell you not to sit too close to the television or not read at night because it would cause eye strain? Perhaps they encouraged you to eat your carrots because they'd improve your eyesight? Did they tell you to wear an accessory to protect you from the evil eye?

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| Eye Symbolism in Cultures

Eyes have represented various things among different cultures for centuries. The symbolism can range from beauty to strong emotional connotations and spiritual connections...it just depends on the context.

There are even noteworthy eye-related sayings such as, "an eye for an eye," "the eye of the tiger," "a sight for sore eyes" and many more. But what makes eyes so remarkable in various cultural practices?

Eye symbols across different cultures

From the "evil eye" to the Eye of Providence, here is a brief guide to understanding eye symbolism in different cultures.

Symbolism of the Jewish evil eye

One belief in Judaism is that a person or other being can wreak havoc or harm with the power of a simple gaze, or a look in their eyes. It can represent envious and evil connotations as well. What we're referring to is called the "evil eye."

The superstition of the evil eye is referenced several times in the Torah and other texts, making it a significant element of the Jewish religion. It is believed that if the evil eye is directed at a person or thing, it can cause some form of harm or damage.

Some special practices are believed to ward off the evil eye, such as:

Spitting three times after a mention of the name of a person believed to be in danger.

Protecting someone's soul by stating, "let it be without the evil eye," when discussing their upcoming events or goals.

Wearing Hamsas or other amulets that feature an image of an eye, which is designed to protect against the figurative evil eye. Hamsas are also embraced by the Islamic culture. (See more about this below.)

Although the evil eye is discussed widely in Judaism, the concept has been adopted by other cultures and has made its way to mainstream society. You can often find versions of a Hamsa or other images of an eye to ward off the evil eye in jewelry, clothing, decor and other textiles in regular stores or vendors. Some people even get permanent tattoos of the image.

Hamsa vs. Hand of Fatima

Also called the Hand of Fatima, a Hamsa is an image of a human hand with an eye in the center of the palm, often surrounded by other patterns throughout the palm and fingers. This symbol is believed to protect against the evil eye.

The image is recognized in both Judaism and Islamic cultures. It may be referred to as either name (the Hand of Fatima or a Hamsa), depending on the individual describing it.

When referencing the image as the Hand of Fatima, it's important to recognize that the name Fatima comes from the daughter of the Prophet Mohammad, who founded Islam. The number five is also significant, as it represents the five pillars of Islam. This is reflected in the Hand of Fatima, given the five fingers of the hand.

Hamsas or Hands of Fatima can be found in jewelry, keychains, wall hangings and other materials and are often displayed in the households of those who follow the practices of Islam and/or Judaism. Some may also call it the Eye of Fatima.

Third Eye of Shiva

An Indian legend tells the story of the Hindu god Shiva and how he opened his third eye. In the story, Kama, the Hindu god of love and lust, concealed himself behind a tree and fired an arrow at Shiva, directing it toward his heart.

Kama was trying to tempt Shiva with lust, but Shiva fought back by opening up his third eye - known as a fiery eye - burning and reducing Kama to ashes. As Shiva resisted the temptation, he found clarity within himself. The message of the story is that by "awakening your third eye," you, too, can find inner clarity.

It's common for those who do yoga to acknowledge the third eye, which is located just above and between the eyes. At the beginning and/or end of yoga sessions, yogis place their hands in a prayer position in front of the third eye to acknowledge the clarity achieved during practice. The hands are then lowered in front of the heart.

Pineal gland: The third eye by another name

The pineal gland is a small gland within the endocrine system that secretes melatonin, which is commonly called the "sleep hormone." It helps regulate your 24-hour sleep-wake cycle, also called your circadian rhythm.

The pineal gland is located in the deep center of the brain. Both the gland and your circadian rhythm also rely on light, whether artificial or natural daylight, for balance. Because of this connection to light, and its deep placement in the brain, the pineal gland is believed to connect the spiritual and physical worlds within a person. Furthermore, the pineal gland is sometimes called the "third eye" because of its location and function.

There's no medical proof that the pineal gland serves more of a purpose than sleep regulation, but many believe there is a spiritual connection.

Eye of Providence

The Eye of Providence, also known as the Eye of Horus, is another well-known symbol in both ancient and modern cultures. With origins tracing back to Classical Greece, the Eye of Providence is said to be a symbol of divine providence. Its meaning translates to God watching over humanity. In more general terms, it refers to the protective eye of a deity.

The Eye of Providence has been found in cultural references such as:

You can also find the Eye of Providence on the reverse side of a U.S. dollar bill. It sits on the opposite side of the Great Seal of the United States. In terms of symbolism, the seal and the eye in the dollar bill were meant to represent watchfulness and protection.

"The eyes have it"

No matter what culture(s) you identify with, it's likely that you'll find some symbolism in the eyes. Aside from religious texts and stories, there is significance in the basic ways the eyes look and how they move. For example, some members of society may find importance in:

Though some examples are superficial, they can be quite important in communication - and just as important when it comes to identifying the symbolism behind the eyes.

READ NEXT: The importance of eye contact for child development

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Eye Symbolism in Cultures: Meanings & Interpretations

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Eye symbols have depicted good or evil. Discover the symbolism of eyes across cultures, from the Eye of Providence to the Jewish evil eye.

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Eye Contact Perception in the West and East: A Cross-Cultural Study

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Eye Contact Perception in the West and East: A Cross-Cultural Study

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PLoS One. 2015; 10(2): e0118094.

Nouchine Hadjikhani, Academic Editor

Abstract

This study investigated whether eye contact perception differs in people with different cultural backgrounds. Finnish (European) and Japanese (East Asian) participants were asked to determine whether Finnish and Japanese neutral faces with various gaze directions were looking at them. Further, participants rated the face stimuli for emotion and other affect-related dimensions. The results indicated that Finnish viewers had a smaller bias toward judging slightly averted gazes as directed at them when judging Finnish rather than Japanese faces, while the bias of Japanese viewers did not differ between faces from their own and other cultural backgrounds. This may be explained by Westerners experiencing more eye contact in their daily life leading to larger visual experience of gaze perception generally, and to more accurate perception of eye contact with people from their own cultural background particularly. The results also revealed cultural differences in the perception of emotion from neutral faces that could also contribute to the bias in eye contact perception.

Introduction

The eyes have a universal language. Humans use information from gaze direction to understand others' attentional focus and mental state [ 1] and to maintain social relationships with others [ 2]. It has been proposed that the structure of the human eye evolved under the pressure of the need for coordinated behavior with others [ 3]. In contrast to the eyes of other primates, the human eye has a distinctive structure consisting of a white sclera and dark iris. This allows the discrimination of direct and averted gaze and easy recognition of others' attentional focus.

The function of direct gaze and its impact on other social cognitive functions throughout human development have been extensively investigated [ 4]. Experimental studies have indicated that a face with a direct gaze rapidly attracts our attention [ 5]. Human infants prefer faces with a direct gaze over those with an averted gaze since birth [ 6]. Previous studies have also demonstrated that observing the direct gaze of others elicits higher skin conductance responses [ 7], enhanced heart rate deceleration responses [ 8], greater visual event-related brain potentials [ 9, 10], and greater left-lateralized frontal EEG activity [ 11]-a pattern of EEG activity associated with approach motivation-than observing an averted gaze. Furthermore, it has been shown that a direct gaze enhances various social cognitive functions such as face memory [ 12], joint attention [ 13], and empathy [ 14]. These findings suggest that the detection of a direct gaze has great significance for human social interaction.

The detection of a self-directed gaze is often the starting point for social interaction, and eye contact plays a crucial role in regulating face-to-face interaction. Cultural differences in eye contact perception appear to be a relevant topic for research because of the increase in mobility and social interaction among people of different cultural backgrounds. However, it currently remains unknown whether eye contact perception differs among people with different cultural backgrounds. Previous studies have investigated how accurately people, in general, can discriminate another individual's gaze direction. These studies have shown that humans can quite accurately discern where a person is looking [ 15, 16]. Consistent with the importance of eye contact in social interaction, other studies have demonstrated that observers can discriminate gaze direction more accurately when the stimulus face is directly looking at them than when the gaze is directed toward other directions [ 17]. However, when observers were asked to judge whether they felt another person's gaze was directed at them, they accepted considerable deviations from the "true" (direct) eye contact as a direct gaze [ 18- 21].

There are well-motivated reasons for expecting the bias in detecting a self-directed gaze to vary among people of different cultural backgrounds. First, although a direct gaze universally serves important social functions, attention to faces with a direct gaze differs across cultures. Studies using eye-tracking methodology have demonstrated that East Asians look at the center of a face, while Westerners alternate their focus along a triangle formed by the eyes and mouth when they are required to learn and recognize facial identity [ 22, 23]. However, when recognizing facial expressions Japanese participants attend to the eyes, while Americans focus on the mouth [ 24, 25]. These studies also suggest that the cultural differences in attention to faces with a direct gaze are task dependent.

Second, eye contact behavior differs among cultures. Maintaining eye contact during social interaction is a more important principle for Western Europeans than for East Asians [ 26]. While maintaining eye contact is positively evaluated by Western Europeans, it is not the case with people of East Asian cultural backgrounds [ 27]. In fact, in Japanese culture, people are taught not to maintain eye contact with others because too much eye contact is often considered disrespectful. For example, Japanese children are taught to look at others' necks because this way, the others' eyes still fall into their peripheral vision [ 28]. Consistent with this, previous studies have demonstrated, for example, that the Japanese show less eye contact than Canadians during face-to-face interaction [ 29, 30]. These findings suggest that Western Europeans may be more motivated to search for and detect others' direct gaze during social interaction, and because of their considerable visual experience in perceiving eye contact, they might be less biased in considering slightly averted gazes to be self-directed. This may hold particularly true for faces from their own cultural background relative to faces from other cultural background (with whom they have less visual experience).

Third, it is possible that cultural differences in discerning information about others emotions might also exert an effect on eye contact perception, even when the face in question does not clearly express any emotion. It has been observed from previous research that the perception of gaze direction is modulated by factors not related to gaze direction. For example, observers are more likely to perceive an averted gaze as direct when the face stimulus expresses a happy or angry emotion than when it shows a neutral expression [ 31- 34]. Another line of research has indicated that observers with high levels of social anxiety tend to perceive averted gazes as direct [ 19], especially when such gazes appear on angry faces [ 35]. These findings suggest that the emotional expression on the observed face, as well as the observer's subjective evaluation of it, modulates eye contact perception. Previous studies have shown cultural differences in the emotional intensity ratings of others' facial expressions. Some studies suggest that the Japanese infer subjective emotions of others to be stronger relative to the Westerners perception. Japanese observers have been shown to perceive subjective emotions on a model displaying facial emotions as more intense than North American observers [ 36]. Another study also asked Japanese and American participants to rate the intensity of a model's facial expressions and their perceptions of the model's subjective experiences [ 37]. When the model expressed emotion at a low intensity level, Japanese participants gave higher intensity ratings to their perceptions of the model's subjective experience than to the model's external display. A recent study investigated cultural differences in autonomic responses and evaluative ratings when participants observed direct and averted gazes of same-culture individuals displaying neutral expressions [ 8]. They found that Japanese participants rated a face with a direct gaze as angrier, less approachable, and marginally less pleasant than Finnish participants. Further, faces with a direct gaze were rated as sadder than those with an averted gaze by Japanese but not Finnish participants. However, it remains unknown whether Japanese and Finnish participants read emotions differently in neutral faces from their own and other cultures.

This study investigated the cultural differences in eye contact perception among Finnish (European) and Japanese (East Asian) individuals. We presented Finnish and Japanese faces with neutral expressions and various gaze directions (2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, 10° to the left and right, and 0°) to the participants. Finnish and Japanese participants were asked to determine whether the stimulus face was looking at them. People from Western cultures show more eye contact than those from Japan [ 29, 30]. Thus, as Western Europeans have considerable experience processing gazes directed at them in faces from their own cultures, we hypothesized that Finnish participants should be less biased than Japanese participants in considering slightly averted gazes to be directed at them. Moreover, we predicted that Finnish participants would be less biased in considering slightly averted gazes from Finnish faces to be directed at them than gazes from Japanese faces. On the other hand, we expected that the responses of the Japanese participants would not differ between faces coming from their own and others' cultures. To investigate the effect of cultural differences on the interpretation of others' emotions, participants were asked to rate face stimuli in terms of emotion (anger, disgust, fear, neutrality, happiness, sadness, and surprise) and other affect-related dimensions (pleasantness, arousal, dominance, and warmth) after the gaze direction judgment task. Finally, participants were also asked to complete questionnaires investigating their degree of autistic traits and social phobia.

Material and Methods

Ethics statement

The experiment was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. In accordance with Finnish regulations (Act on Medical Research and Decree on Medical Research 1999, amended 2010), specific ethics approval was not necessary for this kind of study in Finland. We also did not obtain specific ethics approval for this research in Japan, but the experimental procedure was approved as a part of another study by the local ethics committee of Kyoto University Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Participants

Participants in this study included 30 Finnish (five males) and 30 Japanese (six males) young adults. The Finnish and Japanese participants were recruited from the student populations of the University of Tampere in Finland and Kyoto University in Japan, respectively. All participants were above 18 years (Finnish: mean ± SD = 22.97 ± 4.60; Japanese: mean ± SD = 21.80 ± 3.37), and there was no difference in the chronological age between the two groups (independent t-test, t (58) = 1.12, p > .10).

Stimuli

Face photographs of eight Japanese (four females) and eight Finnish models (four females) were taken. The models sat on a chair and rested their heads against a wall behind them to stabilize their head orientation. A camera was located in front of the models, approximately 110 cm away from their heads. The center of the lens was at eye level, between the models' eyes. To help create photographs with an averted gaze, a horizontal bar was positioned behind the camera, at the eye level, approximately 155 cm away from the models' heads. Fixation points were attached on the bar at 5.4, 10.8, 16.3, 21.8, and 27.3 cm to right and left of the 0 point, the midline. These fixation points corresponded to a direct gaze and averted gaze of 2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, and 10° to the left and right. During shooting, the models were asked to fixate on each of the markers in turn, alternating in increasing angles from side to side. In the starting 0° gaze condition, the models were asked to fixate on the center of the camera lens because the camera occluded the 0° point on the bar. The models were asked to keep their faces neutral and to change their gaze direction without making any other movement. During shooting, the photographer carefully monitored the models' possible head movements using markers for the eyes and chin position on a camera monitor.

After a couple of sets of photographs, the best set (2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, 10° to the left and right, and 0°) was selected for each model. These images were changed to grayscale and were cropped in an ellipse 10.2° wide and 13.8° high using Photoshop (Adobe). Furthermore, we removed the reflections of lighting in the irises from all the images. Examples of the stimuli are shown in Fig. 1 .

The photograph sessions for the Finnish and Japanese models were conducted in two laboratories in Tampere and Kyoto, respectively, by the same photographer, the first author (S.U.). Although we carefully followed the same procedure in both laboratories, we wanted to confirm that there would be no differences in gaze direction between the Finnish and Japanese faces and that the respective gaze deviations to the left and right would be of the same size. The distance between the center of the iris and the outer corner of an eye was measured for both eyes in each image. We calculated the average gaze deviation of both eyes at each gaze angle (See Table 1 ) and subjected these measures to 2 (cultural background of the stimulus face: Finnish and Japanese) × 2 (gaze direction: right and left) between-subject design ANOVAs run separately for each gaze angle (2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, and 10°). ANOVAs revealed no significant main effects or interactions for any gaze angle (all Fs (1, 28) < 1.01, p s > 0.32). This shows that the degrees of gaze aversion at each gaze angle did not differ with respect to the cultural background of the face and gaze direction.

Design

The gaze direction judgment task was constructed as a three-factor design with the cultural background of the participant (Finnish and Japanese) as an independent-measures factor, and the cultural background of the face stimuli (Finnish and Japanese) and gaze angle (0°, 2°, 4°, 6°, 8°, and 10°) as repeated-measures factors.

Apparatus

Stimulus presentation and data acquisition were controlled by presentation software (Neurobehavioral System) running on a Windows computer (Microsoft). The stimuli were presented on 17-inch CRT monitors (screen resolution: 1024 × 768 pixels; refresh rate: 75 Hz).

Procedure

Gaze direction judgment task

The sequence of events for a single stimulus presentation trial is shown in Fig. 2 . At each trial, a fixation cross was first presented at the center of the screen for 500 ms. Then, a Finnish or a Japanese face with a direct or averted gaze was presented. After 150 ms, the face disappeared and the response window appeared on the screen. Participants were asked to answer whether the face was "looking at me" or "not looking at me" as accurately as possible. At each trial, the response window gave instructions on the use of assigned buttons (right and left button of a mouse) for each response. The instruction remained on the screen until a response was given. If 5000 ms elapsed with no response, the next trial was started.

Each stimulus was presented once for each participant (16 models × 11 gaze directions); thus, the task consisted of 176 trials, presented in two separate blocks. The trials were presented in random order, and the order of the assigned buttons for each response was counterbalanced across the participants. Participants were allowed to rest between the blocks. To familiarize participants with the task procedure, five practice trials preceded the experimental trials.

The rating task

After the completion of the gaze judgment task, participants evaluated the stimuli (Japanese and Finnish faces with direct and averted gaze) using the following scales in three separate blocks. In the first block, participants were asked to look at the stimuli and rate their subjective pleasantness (1 = very unpleasant; 9 = very pleasant), and arousal (1 = very calm; 9 = very aroused) using a 9-point Likert scale. For faces with an averted gaze, only the 10° gaze aversion was shown. Half of the faces (both Japanese and Finnish) had their gaze averted to the left, while the other half had it averted to the right. In the second block, the same stimuli were shown again, and now the task was to evaluate how dominant (1 = submissive, 9 = dominant) and warm (1 = cold, 9 = warm) the person in the picture appeared. In the third block, only faces with a direct gaze were shown, and the participants assessed how intensely the faces reflected each of the following emotions: anger, disgust, fear, neutrality, happiness, sadness, and surprise (1 = not reflecting at all; 9 = reflecting too much). Within each block, a given face remained on the screen while it was being rated along each scale in turn. To avoid any confusion, the scales presented below the stimuli were always named. The order of the blocks was the same for all participants, and the order of the trials was randomized in each block. There was no time limit for the ratings. A face and the name of the scale remained on the screen until a response was made.

Questionnaires

Participants filled out the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS) after completing the experiment. The Japanese version of the AQ [ 38] and the SPS [ 39] were used for Japanese participants. For Finnish participants, these two scales were translated into Finnish. The scores in the AQ (Finnish: mean ± SD 12.90 ± 5.67; Japanese: mean ± SD = 21.70 ± 6.24) and the SPS (Finnish: mean ± SD = 17.80 ± 8.10; Japanese: mean ± SD = 27.30 ± 12.78) were significantly higher for Japanese than for Finnish participants (AQ: t (58) = 5.71, p < .001; SPS: t (58) = 3.43, p = .001).

Data analysis

Trials with no response and those with response times shorter than 150 ms after stimulus presentation were excluded from analyses. Following previous studies [ 32, 33], the results were analyzed from data collapsed across the left and right gaze directions. For the gaze direction judgment task, the participants' percentages of "looking at me" responses in each condition were subjected to a 2 (cultural background of the participant) × 2 (cultural background of the stimulus face) × 6 (gaze angle) mixed-design ANOVA.

Furthermore, we calculated the point of subjective equality (PSE) [ 40], a gaze deviation degree with a 50% probability of eye-contact acceptance for each participant using a binary logistic regression model [ 31, 34]. These values were subjected to a 2 (cultural background of the participant) × 2 (cultural background of the stimulus face) mixed-design ANOVA.

For the rating tasks in the first two blocks (pleasantness, arousal, dominance, and warmth), average scores in each condition were first calculated for each participant, and these average scores were then analyzed using a 2 (cultural background of the participant) × 2 (cultural background of the stimulus face) × 2 (gaze direction) mixed-design ANOVA. For the emotion rating task, each participant's average scores were analyzed using a 2 (cultural background of the participant) × 2 (cultural background of the stimulus face) × 7 (emotion) mixed-design ANOVA. Significant interactions were followed up with simple effects analyses.

When the sphericity assumption was violated, probability values were evaluated with Greenhouse-Geisser adjustments for degrees of freedom. In the preliminary analysis, the scores of the AQ and SPS questionnaires were entered into an ANOVA of gaze direction judgment as covariates. However, the results showed that there were no significant interactions between these scores and the other factors ( p > .10). Thus, we will not report the effects of the AQ and SPS scores in the results section.

Results

Gaze direction judgment task

Looking-at-me responses were subjected to participants' cultural background × stimulus faces' cultural background × gaze direction ANOVA. The main effects of gaze direction ( F (5, 290) = 1079.74, p < .001) and cultural background of the stimulus face ( F (1, 58) = 8.12, p = .006) were observed (see Fig. 3 ). Predictably, the proportion of looking-at-me responses decreased with increasing gaze angles away from the direct gaze. Overall, the proportion of looking-at-me responses was higher for Japanese than Finnish faces. Essentially, there was a significant interaction between participants' and stimulus faces' cultural backgrounds ( F (1, 58) = 5.86, p = .019). A follow-up analysis revealed that, overall, Finnish participants gave more looking-at-me responses to Japanese than Finnish faces ( F (1, 29) = 12.30, p = .002), while the cultural background of stimulus faces had no effect on Japanese participants' responses ( F (1, 29) = 0.11, p = .748).

A significant interaction between gaze direction × stimulus face's cultural background was also found ( F (5, 290) = 5.02, p = .001). A follow-up analysis showed that Japanese faces induced more looking-at-me responses than Finnish faces in the 0° and 2° gaze conditions (0°: F (1, 58) = 8.83, p = .004; 2°: F (1, 58) = 9.11, p = .004). In contrast, Finnish faces induced more looking-at-me responses than Japanese faces in the 8° gaze condition ( F (1, 58) = 4.36, p = .040).

An ANOVA on the PSE values revealed the same pattern of results described above (see Fig. 4 ). We found a main effect of stimulus faces' cultural background ( F (1, 58) = 4.99, p = .029), indicating that the gaze deviation degree with a 50% probability of eye-contact acceptance was greater for Japanese than Finnish faces. There was also a marginally significant interaction between participants' and stimulus faces' cultural backgrounds ( F (1, 58) = 3.45, p = .068), indicating that gaze deviation degree with 50% probability of eye-contact acceptance in Finnish participants was greater for Japanese than Finnish faces ( F (1, 29) = 7.13, p = .012). In contrast, stimulus faces' cultural backgrounds had no effect on Japanese participants' results ( F (1, 29) = 0.09, p = .770).

Rating tasks

Subjective pleasantness and arousal

The results for the ratings of subjective pleasantness and arousal are shown in Table 2 . For the pleasantness ratings, ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of participants' cultural background ( F (1, 58) = 4.76, p = .033). Finnish participants gave faces higher ratings for pleasantness than Japanese participants. A main effect of gaze direction was also significant ( F (1, 58) = 4.92, p = .031). A direct gaze was rated more pleasant than an averted gaze, regardless of the stimulus faces/participants' cultural background.

For the arousal ratings, ANOVA showed a significant main effect of gaze direction ( F (1, 58) = 8.99, p = .004), indicating that a direct gaze was rated as more aroused than an averted gaze. There was also a significant interaction between the cultural background of stimulus faces and that of participants ( F (1, 58) = 5.52, p = .022). A follow-up analysis indicated that Japanese participants tended to rate Finnish faces as more aroused than Japanese faces ( F (1, 29) = 3.65, p = .066). The cultural background of the stimulus faces had no effect on Finnish participants' arousal ratings ( F (1, 29) = 1.87, p > .10).

Dominance and warmth

The results of the dominance and warmth ratings are shown in Table 3 . For the dominance ratings, there was a significant main effect of gaze direction ( F (1, 58) = 42.21, p < .001), indicating that a direct gaze was rated as more dominant than an averted gaze. There was also a significant interaction between participants' cultural background and gaze direction ( F (1, 58) = 6.02, p = .017). Follow-up analyses revealed no significant simple main effect of participants' cultural background for a direct gaze ( F (1, 58) = 1.31, p > .10), while Japanese participants rated faces with averted gazes as more dominant than Finnish participants did ( F (1, 58) = 4.41, p = .040). ANOVA also revealed a significant interaction between the cultural backgrounds of the stimulus faces and participants ( F (1, 58) = 13.48, p < .001). A follow-up analysis showed that Finnish participants rated Japanese faces as more dominant than Finnish faces ( F (1, 29) = 8.74, p = .006), while Japanese participants rated Finnish faces as more dominant than Japanese faces ( F (1, 29) = 5.58, p = .025).

For the warmth ratings, there was only a significant main effect for participant's cultural background ( F (1, 58) = 7.85, p = .007), indicating that Finnish participants rated faces as being warmer than did Japanese participants.

Emotion

The results of the emotion ratings are shown in Table 4 . Overall, Japanese participants rated neutral faces as more emotional than did Finnish participants ( F (1, 58) = 16.16, p < .001). Importantly, the ANOVA revealed a significant three-way interaction between the cultural backgrounds of participants and stimulus faces and emotion ( F (6, 348) = 10.93, p < .001). Thus, we divided the data and conducted a 2 (stimulus faces' cultural background) × 7 (emotion) ANOVA for Japanese and Finnish participants separately.

For Japanese participants, a significant main effect was found for stimulus faces' cultural background ( F (1, 29) = 15.22, p < .001) and emotion ( F (6, 174) = 19.25, p < .001). There was also significant interaction between stimulus faces' cultural background and emotion ( F (6, 174) = 8.06, p < .001). Finnish faces were rated as more expressive of anger, fear, and surprise than Japanese faces (anger: F (1, 29) = 23.99, p < .001; fear: F (1, 29) = 9.79, p = .004; surprise: F (1, 29) = 8.92, p = .006); while Japanese faces were rated as more neutral than Finnish faces ( F (1, 29) = 20.19, p < .001)

For Finnish participants, there were also significant main effects of emotion ( F (6, 174) = 32.79, p < .001) and stimulus faces' cultural background ( F (1, 29) = 6.33, p = .018). There was also a significant interaction between emotion and stimulus faces' cultural background ( F (6, 174) = 11.21, p < .001). The follow-up analysis showed that Finnish faces were rated as more expressive of fear, sadness, and surprise than Japanese faces (fear: F (1, 29) = 20.60, p < .001; sadness: F (1, 29) = 18.74, p < .001; surprise: F (1, 29) = 9.63, p = .004). In contrast, Japanese faces were rated as more expressive of anger and disgust than Finnish faces (anger: F (1, 29) = 9.48, p = .005; disgust: F (1, 29) = 8.43, p = .007).

Discussion

This is the first study to investigate the effects of participants' and stimulus faces' cultural background on eye contact perception. Finnish and Japanese participants were asked to judge whether Finnish and Japanese faces were "looking at me" or "not looking at me." The stimulus faces' gaze direction was either direct or averted to a varying degree from the direct gaze. The results revealed that the highest frequency of looking-at-me responses was observed for the "true" direct gaze, and there was no abrupt decrease in the looking-at-me responses as the stimulus faces' gaze direction deviated in 2° increments from 0° to 10°. Previous studies have also shown a similar pattern of looking-at-me responses without an abrupt decrease [ 20, 31- 33]. These findings suggest that the perception of eye contact is not categorical but follows a graded function.

There was no overall difference in the percentage of looking-at-me responses between Finnish and Japanese participants. Contrary to our expectation, no evidence was found that Finnish participants were less biased toward considering slightly averted gazes to be directed at them relative to Japanese participants, regardless of the stimulus faces' cultural background. In the present study, participants' attention was controlled by fixation to a crosshair, and the stimulus faces were then presented briefly. These task demands might have undermined the differences in eye contact perception for slightly averted gaze between participants coming from different cultural backgrounds.

Interestingly, stimulus faces' cultural background had an effect on looking-at-me responses among Finnish, not Japanese, participants. Finnish participants gave looking-at-me responses more frequently to Japanese faces than to Finnish faces. Consistent with this, an analysis based on the point of subjective equality revealed that Finnish participants accepted greater deviations from the true eye contact (0°) as directed at them for Japanese faces than for Finnish faces. This suggests that Finnish participants have a smaller bias toward considering a slightly averted gaze as directed at them for Finnish than for Japanese faces. Previous studies have shown that considerable visual experience with specific faces throughout development leads to more effective processing of these faces [ 41, 42]. Finnish participants in this study had seen a larger number of Finnish than Japanese faces during their development; thus, their visual systems are likely to have been trained to discriminate the gaze direction of Finnish faces more accurately. However, the judgments of Japanese participants did not differ between Finnish and Japanese faces. If visual experience plays a role here, as suggested above, why did it not influence the gaze perception of the Japanese participants? We suggest that cultural differences in eye contact behavior might modulate the effect of visual expertise. Although some studies suggested that Japanese participants attend to the eye region when explicitly asked to process facial information [ 24, 25], lengthy eye contact with others is avoided in Japanese culture [ 27], and the Japanese demonstrate less eye contact than Westerners in daily communication [ 29, 30]. Developing in this cultural context may have restricted Japanese people's experience in gaze perception to the extent that Japanese participants do not exhibit a same-culture advantage in making gaze direction discriminations between direct gaze and slightly averted gaze directions.

The subjective evaluations of the emotional expressions on stimulus faces provide another way to interpret the effects of the participants' and stimulus faces' cultural backgrounds on eye contact perception. It has been proposed that facial signals reflecting the same motivational tendency are combined and therefore processed effectively [ 43]. Angry or happy expressions, as well as a direct gaze, reflect a desire to approach, while fearful or sad expressions and an averted gaze are signals of a desire for avoidance. Consistent with this, recent studies using the same paradigm as this study have demonstrated that happy and angry expressions reflecting a desire to approach elicit a greater number of looking-at-me responses than neutral and fearful expressions [ 31- 33]. In the present study, Finnish participants rated Japanese faces as expressing more approach-related anger and less avoidance-related fear and sadness than they rated Finnish faces. Thus, Finnish participants' higher number of looking-at-me responses to Japanese than Finnish faces could have reflected the stronger feelings of approach-related emotions perceived in Japanese faces. In contrast, Japanese participants rated Finnish faces as more intensely expressing both approach-related anger and avoidance-related fear than they rated Japanese faces. Therefore, the effects of approach- and avoidance-related emotions might have canceled each other out, which might have led to the absence of a biased eye contact perception for Japanese vs. Finnish faces among Japanese participants.

The results from the emotion-rating task indicated that Japanese participants rated neutral faces as more emotional than Finnish participants. This finding could reflect differences in display rules between the cultures. In general, when feeling negative or positive emotions, the Japanese suppress or neutralize their facial expressions more than Americans [ 44]. It has been proposed that the suppressive display rule helps East Asians maintain social relationships in a collectivist society [ 45]. Thus, Japanese participants might have interpreted neutral expressions as suppressed, and thus interpreted all emotions as more intense. These findings also suggest that because the Japanese are likely to perceive emotion even in the absence of any expressed emotion, the Japanese tendency not to hold eye contact with others may be a way of avoiding high arousal and reciprocal emotional interactions.

The pattern of results from the emotion-rating task might be related to differences in Finnish and Japanese facial structures. Caucasian faces generally have larger eyes than Asian faces. Previous studies have demonstrated that the resemblance of a facial appearance to typical facial expressions modulates the evaluation of neutral faces [ 46, 47]. For example, large eyes enhance the recognition of a fearful expression, while small eyes facilitate that of an angry expression [ 48]. Consistent with this, both groups of participants gave higher fear and surprise ratings to Finnish than Japanese faces. This might have contributed to the lower frequency of looking-at-me responses to Finnish than Japanese faces, specifically at around the 0° condition. However, for the anger and dominance ratings, both groups of participants gave higher ratings to faces from cultures other than their own. A recent study demonstrated that out-group faces are associated with angry expressions even when the out-group is defined by a minimal cue [ 49]. Thus, anger perception in neutral faces from another culture might override the effect of facial structures.

It should be noted that this study has some limitations. First, we did not assess attention allocation in the gaze direction judgment task. Previous studies have demonstrated cultural differences in eye movements while viewing faces [ 22- 24], and the pattern of the cultural differences varies according to task (e.g., identity and expression recognition). To investigate whether cultural differences in attention to faces impact the perception of eye contact, it would be useful for future cross-cultural studies to record eye movements as participants determine gaze direction. Second, although we aimed to investigate cultural differences in eye contact perception, one might ask whether the observed results reflect, in fact, responses to out-group vs. in-group individuals rather than differences between Western and Eastern cultures. Further studies are needed to compare eye contact perception between out-group and in-group members coming from the same cultural background (e.g., Russian vs. Finnish; Chinese vs. Japanese).

Conclusions

In summary, this study found cultural differences in eye contact perception between Finnish and Japanese participants. The result indicated that Finnish participants were more likely to consider a slightly averted gaze as directed at them when viewing Japanese faces than when viewing Finnish faces. The cultural background of the stimulus faces had no effect on the Japanese participants' judgments. We suggest that because the Finnish (Westerners) demonstrate more eye contact in their daily lives than the Japanese (East Asians), this leads to better eye contact discrimination and specifically so for faces of their own culture. Another factor possibly explaining the observed pattern of results relates to cultural differences in perceived facial emotions. Finnish observers could have been prone to perceive a slightly averted gaze on Finnish faces as not directed at them because Finnish observers perceived faces from their own culture as expressing more avoidance-motivation-related emotions associated with averted gaze. The cultural background of the face had no effect on Japanese observers' judgments because Japanese participants rated Finnish faces as more intense than Japanese faces in both approach-related anger and avoidance-related fear. The effects of approach- and avoidance-related emotions thus might have canceled each other out. Therefore, it is possible that cultural differences in facial emotion perception also contribute to the biases in eye contact perception.

Supporting Information

S1 Dataset
Datasets of the gaze direction judgment task and the rating tasks.
(XLSX)

Acknowledgments

We thank our volunteers for participating in the research and Essi Laitinen for her assistance in collecting the data.

Funding Statement

This study was supported by the Academy of Finland [grant number 131 786 to J.K.H.]; the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science [grant number 11J05000 and Institutional Program for Young Researcher Overseas Visits to S.U.]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Data Availability

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

References

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40. Powers KE, Worsham AL, Freeman JB, Wheatley T, Heatherton TF (2014). Social connection modulates perceptions of animacy. Psychol Sci, OnlineFirst, published on September 5, 2014 as doi:10.1177/0956797614547706. [ PMC free article] [ PubMed]

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Producers' Note: A correction has been made to this audio to reflect the wishes of the subject of this story, Paige Abendroth. NPR's Invisibilia's originally included Paige's birth name in this piece due to a miscommunication between Invisibilia's reporter, Alix Spiegel and Paige. We have not been in contact with Paige directly, but NPR has issued t he following statement from Anne Gudenkauf, senior supervising editor of NPR's science desk: "We would never have violated Paige's wishes in this story; it's an unfortunate misunderstanding. Invisibilia's upcoming episode on Paige will be edited to remove references to the name she no longer recognizes. Also the upcoming episode, which focuses on how categories affect us all, will explore in more depth the changes in Paige's life over the two years that she and Alix have spoken and will do that, as always, with attention to bi-gender and transgender reporting guidelines."

Former Radiolab producer Lulu Miller and NPR reporter Alix Spiegel come to the studio to give us a sneak peak of their new show, Invisibilia.

Invisibilia has an upcoming episode about categories, so Alix tells us a story about two very basic categories: boy and girl. We've heard lots of stories about the sometimes blurry boundaries between boy and girl, but Alix introduces us to someone who experiences those categories in a way that was totally, completely new to us.

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The lines between boy and girl can be blurry but NPR's Invisibilia introduces us to someone with a very new idea of how blurry they can be.

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The College was originally formed from the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom and the Faculty of Ophthalmologists. The Society, founded in 1880 by Sir William Bowman, had held a scientific meeting every year with only a few exceptions during the Second World War. The Faculty, formed in 1946 by Sir Stewart Duke-Elder, was the professional organisation for ophthalmologists. The Royal Charter creating the College of Ophthalmologists was granted on the 14 April 1988 and the Royal Licence was granted five years later.

The museum houses thousands of artefacts that provide a rich history of the instruments, innovations and patient care over the last 300 years. At the College, there are glass cabinets that display some of the artefacts. The antiquarian books, numbering over 600, go back to the early part of the 17 th century. The collections are not open to public but can be viewed by appointment. The Honorary Curator welcomes enquiries on any aspect of the history of ophthalmology, please direct your enquiries to [email protected] .

The collections have largely been built up over the years through donations. Offers of equipment and books are welcome but with limited space only items that fill an important gap in the collections can be accepted.

Short History of Ophthalmology

It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that ophthalmology began to be recognised as a speciality in its own right in the United Kingdom.

Until then operations on the eye, mainly for cataract, had been performed by general surgeons and it had a poor reputation. In addition the situation was not been helped by itinerant "oculists" who practiced their art on an unsuspecting public, the best known of these being the quack John Chevalier Taylor.

In 1805 John Cunningham Saunders founded the first specialist eye hospital. This was to become known as Moorfields. Both he and his successor Benjamin Travers established ethical standards that enabled ophthalmology to become a respected profession.

Mention has already been made of Sir William Bowman and the founding of the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom in 1880. This was an enormously important event. For the first time ophthalmologists had a central organisation that provided a platform for learning through meetings and the presentation of papers. Bowman's influence was not confined to the UK. He was an international figure who with Frans Donders, Albrecht von Graefe and Hermann von Helmholtz's, through the invention of the ophthalmoscope, accelerated beyond measure the progress of the ophthalmological profession.

Undoubtedly the use of anaesthetics and Lister's sterilisation of instruments and the operative area were the most significant advances in surgery in the 19th century and ophthalmology was to benefit greatly from these discoveries.

Ophthalmologists today only have to look at the display of 19th century instruments the College's collection to see how far the profession has come since those days.

Hugh Williams: Ophthalmology Documentaries

Hugh Williams, an Honorary Consultant Surgeon at Moorfields Eye Hospital, has created a series of documentaries charting the history of ophthalmology.

Casanova and the Spitfire Pilots

Casanova and the Spitfire Pilots recounts the enormous difficulties pioneer ophthalmologists overcame in the successful evolution of modern cataract surgery and the development of the intra-ocular lens. The author, Hugh Williams, knew personally many of these men including Dr Charles Kelman and Sir Harold Ridley.

The Olympian Ophthalmologist

The Olympian Ophthalmologist is the biography of Henry Stallard. World famous as a surgeon, scientist, army doctor, author, artist and athlete, he was probably the most multi-talented of modern-day ophthalmologists. The film shares Stallard's hitherto unseen memorabilia and celebrates the 25th anniversary of the College.

Turning a Blind Eye: A Story About Strabismus

Turning a Blind Eye is a tribute to John Lee, late President of the Royal College of Ophthalmologists. It presents strabismus from the sociological and historical side, omitting any didactic surgery but using unusual and entertaining illustrations. It also pays tribute to the development of the orthoptic profession.

©2017 The Royal College of Ophthalmologists. No part of any of the videos shown on this page may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Please contact [email protected] for more information.

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Museum - The Royal College of Ophthalmologists

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At 18 Stephenson Way, there are over 200 museum pieces on display, many in the bespoke cabinet donated by The Oxford Ophthalmological Congress. The museum consists of a wide collection of ophthalmic and surgical instruments dating from the 18th century.

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Do blind people dream? Do blind people use computers? Here is a short list with 5 facts about the blind and living with blindness.

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"The eye is like a mirror, and the visible object is like the thing reflected in the mirror." -- Avicenna, early 11th century

The eye has been the subject of conflicting interpretations since antiquity. Many ancient physicians and philosophers believed in the idea of the active eye. Plato, for instance, wrote in the fourth century B. C. that light emanated from the eye, seizing objects with its rays. More metaphorically, Aristotle's disciple, Theophrastus, wrote that the eye had "the fire within." In saying this, he departed from the ideas of his teacher, since Aristotle was among the first to reject the extramission theory of vision. "In general, it is unreasonable to suppose that seeing occurs by something issuing from the eye," he declared. Aristotle advocated for a theory of intromission by which the eye received rays rather than directed them outward.

In the second century A. D., Galen had at least two different theories of the eye to choose from. He chose the extramission theory because it corresponded well with his image of sight as a function of an optical pneuma, flowing forth from the brain to the eyes through hollow optic nerves. Galen defined many of the fundamental features of the anatomy and physiology of the eye until the seventeenth century. Benefiting from the work of the anatomists who dissected in Alexandria, such as Rufus of Ephesus, he described the retina, cornea, iris, uvea, tear ducts, and eyelids, as well as two fluids he called the vitreous and aqueous humors. He noted some of the peculiar features of sight such as binocular vision. Galen paid particular attention to the crystalline lens, which he described as a round lens in the middle of the eye. He concluded: "the crystalline lens is the principal instrument of vision, a fact clearly proved by what physicians call cataracts, which lie between the crystalline humor and the cornea and interfere with vision until they are couched."

The eye was a subject of special interest in medieval Islamic medicine and philosophy. Between the ninth and fourteenth centuries, dozens of specialized treatises on ophthalmology appeared. Influenced by their readings of Galen, the majority of Islamic scholars, such as al-Kindi and Hunain ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) in the ninth century, favored the extramission theory of sight. The latter, in such works as Ten Treatises on the Eye and the Book of the Questions on the Eye, elaborated on the series of tunics behind the vitreous humor, paying special attention to the retina, whose role was to nourish the vitreous humor and conduct visual spirit through the hollow optic nerve. He further reinforced the centrality of the crystalline lens.

Islamic physicians actively debated many details of the eye, among them, the number of tunics and, most importantly, the theory of extramission. In the early tenth century, the great Baghdad clinician al-Razi (Rhazes) noted the pupil's contraction and dilation; a century later, al-Haythan (Alhazen) noted in his Book of Optics that the eye was injured by strong light. Both scholars reasonably concluded that the light affected the eye and not vice-versa. Alhazen's contemporary, Avicenna, offered a more systematic critique of the Galenic account of the eye as part of his overall adherence to Aristotelian theory. While retaining many features of Galen's anatomy -- the hollow nerves and crystalline lens -- he nonetheless argued for intromission.

As this rich body of literature was translated from Arabic into Latin in the eleventh through thirteenth centuries, medieval European medical practitioners had a great deal to puzzle over. Generally, they were le ss taken with the extramission theory than their Islamic predecessors; this was partly due to the importance of Avicenna in the medieval and Renaissance medical curriculum. In the late twelfth century, Master Nicolaus wrote: "The optic nerve, which descends from the brain to the eyes, passes through the center of the eye as far as the crystalline humor, through it comes the visible spirit, and as it emerges through the uveal tonic and the cornea it is mingled with clean air and transports its rays to the body, and thus sight is brought about." Such ideas reflected the intensive reading of Islamic medical texts then underway. Look at the thirteenth-century image of the eye to your left. What features of ancient and medieval optic theory do you see?

Renaissance anatomists learned a great deal about the anatomy of the eye. Leonardo da Vinci, for exam ple, fundamentally transformed his theory of vision. In the 1480s, Leonardo had advocated the extramission theory. By the 1490s, he had reversed his position. In his instance, his shifting viewpoint may have been more theoretical than observational since his image of the eye was basically two concentric spheres -- far less sophisticated than Galen's even. "The eye, the instrument of vision, is hidden in the cavity above, and in that below is the humor which nourishes the roots of the teeth," he wrote rather generically. Yet he was clearly fascinated by the effect of light on the living eye, examining the pupil with some care.

In the sixteenth century, the basic theory of sight remained in place though many physical features of the eye were described differently. Alessandro Achillini, for example, may have been the first to challenge the idea of the crystalline lens as the main organ of sight. Vesalius retained the primacy of the crystalline lens, but strongly denied that the optic nerves were hollow. By mid-century, anatomists had begun to look more closely at the crystalline humor, which no longer seemed round and centered but more oblong and towards the front of the eye. Finally, in 1583 a Swiss physician Felix Platter argued that the optic nerve out to be viewed as the "primary organ of vision." He relegated the crystalline humor to a secondary role, elevating the status of the retina.

In 1604, Kepler, a close reader of Alhazen, offered the first theory of the retinal image. "Therefore vision occurs through a picture of the visible things on the white, concave surface of the retina." The eye was now a camera obscura -- an apt image in an era obsessed with the science of perspective. This image of sight to the left, from Descartes' Dioptrics, suggests how much new theories of sight placed greater emphasis on the fusion of anatomy and geometry in studying the eye. Look at the image of the eye to your right, as depicted by Kepler's contemporary Robert Fludd, who disagreed quite a bit with Kepler's idea of the retinal image as an image that had been reversed and then restored through the process of reflection and refraction. Why do you think it was so difficult to image that the eye operated according to the same principles as the lens in Kepler's telescope, which showed the heavens upside down?
QUESTIONS: WHY DID ISLAMIC MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS MAKE THE EYE A SUBJECT OF SPECIAL STUDY? WHAT CULTURAL REASONS CAN YOU THINK OF THAT WOULD HAVE MADE THE EXTRAMISSION THEORY PREFERABLE? Back to History of the Body main page
Some Additional Readings

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"The eye is like a mirror, and the visible object is like the thing reflected in the mirror." -- Avicenna, early 11th century The eye has been the subject of conflicting interpretations since antiquity. Many ancient physicians and philosophers believed in the idea of the active eye.

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Most blind people have some level of vision, but what they can see differs from person to person. Some may only see light. Others may see blurry shapes, figures, or colors.

People with total blindness cannot see anything, but it is a misconception that they only see black or darkness. For those who have had blindness from birth, the color black is not something they have seen before, so this does not accurately describe their experience.

There are also alternative ways blind people can see, such as via touch, sound, and Braille.

Keep reading to learn more about what blind people see, the different types of blindness, and adaptations.

Most blind people can see to some extent. What they can see depends on their level of vision and symptoms. For example, they may have:

blurry or clouded vision

difficulty distinguishing colors

wavy lines or spots in the center of their vision

difficulty seeing at night

difficulty seeing during the day or in bright light

difficulty seeing small or distant things

limited peripheral vision

Around of people with eye disorders have total blindness. This means they have no light perception and cannot see anything. However, some still report being able to tell whether a room is light or dark, even though they cannot physically see it. Others report sometimes seeing flashes of light, too.

So, it is a misconception that all people with total blindness only see black. This may be true for some people, but for others, it is impossible to describe what they see in terms of color, as they may never have seen it before.

Yes, blind people can see light. Most blind people have some degree of light perception. How much light they can see, and where it is visible in their field of vision, varies from person to person.

A person with light perception may be able to:

tell whether a room is light or dark

identify where light is coming from

see better more generally in well-lit environments

Some blind people can see colors, but others may see colors as faded or find it difficult to tell colors apart.

People with low vision may find it easier to see solid, bright colors because these reflect the most light. They may struggle more with subtle colors or patterns.

People with total blindness cannot see color, but they may be able to imagine it. People who could previously see color may remember what colors look like, so they can recall them when listening to a person describe something.

People who have had total blindness from birth may understand colors as concepts rather than being able to imagine them.

Blindness vs. color blindness

Despite the name, color blindness is a distinct condition from blindness.

Most people with color blindness can see, but they perceive colors differently from others. The most common type of color blindness is red-green color blindness. It causes red and green to look the same.

In rare cases, a type of color blindness known as monochromacy causes a person to be unable to perceive any color. Monochromacy can come with difficulty seeing clearly and light sensitivity.

What a blind person sees in their dreams can vary widely. People who previously had vision may dream similarly to people with sight via visual imagery. But people who developed blindness in early childhood, or who have had it since birth, may dream differently.

According to a 2021 article, some research suggests that people with total blindness do not have visual dreams. However, there is also evidence that they can dream of virtual images that come from a part of the brain responsible for visual representations.

Blind people can also experience other senses in their dreams, such as the sensations of touching, hearing, and tasting.

There are several ways of categorizing blindness. Understanding these terms may help a person understand what blind people and people with low vision can see.

Visual impairment: This describes any impairment that interferes with daily activities, ranging from partial to complete blindness.

Low vision: This means a person has partial sight or partial blindness. For example, a person with low vision blurry vision that is not correctable with medical treatments. They may also have difficulty distinguishing faces or colors, night blindness, or vision loss in the middle or sides of their visual field.

Total blindness: Total blindness means a person has no light perception, which doctors sometimes abbreviate to NLP. It is fairly uncommon.

Legal blindness: This is a term the U.S. government uses to determine who is eligible for assistance due to their visual impairment. The Social Security Administration (SSA) defines legal blindness as vision that glasses or other treatments cannot correct to at least 20/200 in the individual's better eye, or when a person's field of vision is less than 20 degrees wide.

While blind people cannot see as those with sight do, they can still perceive visual stimuli. They may simply do this differently.

For example, people with low vision may use the following tools to see more accurately:

large or bold text

color contrast

brighter lighting

Light perception can also help a person move around. For example, a person may know their surroundings based on where sources of light are in a room.

Similarly, people with total blindness can use alternative methods to visualize and understand the world around them, such as:

touch

sound

audio description

Braille, which is a reading system that uses texture to denote letters

Some people with blindness also learn mobility skills, such as echolocation, to perceive their environment. Echolocation involves making sounds or listening to nearby sounds to compile a mental picture of surroundings. People can use this to perceive:

the size of a room

where objects are

the texture or hardness of an object

Eye disorders can affect vision in many ways. This means there are a variety of ways that people experience blindness and visual impairments. What a blind person can see varies depending on their symptoms.

Most people with visual impairments can perceive light. Many can see colors and shapes or have partial vision. Many blind people can use their vision or other senses to complete activities.

Adaptations such as audio description, Braille, and mobility training can help blind people perceive their environment.

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What do blind people see? Light and color perception

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What blind people see can vary significantly from person to person, as different eye conditions affect sight in different ways. Learn more.

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This Is Not My Hat | Jon Klassen | Kids Books Read Aloud | Quiet Time Book Read Aloud for Kids

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Want to know who will win a World Cup game or Wimbledon match? Look closely at the athletes' eyes - including when it seems they're about to lose.

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Artist Website

Jon Klassen is from Ontario, Canada, and now he lives in Los Angeles and works on animation and book projects. He likes folk tales and the art that goes with them. The work he does on his own doesn't have many themes, but he enjoys thinking about inanimate objects and places where things happen on their own.

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Jon Klassen is from Ontario, Canada, and now he lives in Los Angeles and works on animation and book projects. He likes folk tales and the art that goes with them. The work he does on his own doesn...

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Arlin Cuncic, M. (2023) How to overcome eye contact anxiety, Verywell Mind. Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-i-maintain-good-eye-contact-3024392 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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Arlin Cuncic, M. (2023) How to overcome eye contact anxiety, Verywell Mind. Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-i-maintain-good-eye-contact-3024392 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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Arlin Cuncic, M. (2023) How to overcome eye contact anxiety, Verywell Mind. Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-i-maintain-good-eye-contact-3024392 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. Some people with ASD have a known difference, such as a genetic condition. Other causes are not yet known. Scientists believe there are multiple causes of ASD that act together to change the most common ways people develop. We still have much to learn about these causes and how they impact people with ASD.

People with ASD may behave, communicate, interact, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. There is often nothing about how they look that sets them apart from other people. The abilities of people with ASD can vary significantly. For example, some people with ASD may have advanced conversation skills whereas others may be nonverbal. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others can work and live with little to no support.

ASD begins before the age of 3 years and can last throughout a person's life, although symptoms may improve over time. Some children show ASD symptoms within the first 12 months of life. In others, symptoms may not show up until 24 months of age or later. Some children with ASD gain new skills and meet developmental milestones until around 18 to 24 months of age, and then they stop gaining new skills or lose the skills they once had.

As children with ASD become adolescents and young adults, they may have difficulties developing and maintaining friendships, communicating with peers and adults, or understanding what behaviors are expected in school or on the job. They may come to the attention of healthcare providers because they also have conditions such as anxiety, depression, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, which occur more often in people with ASD than in people without ASD.

Signs and Symptoms

People with ASD often have problems with social communication and interaction, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests. People with ASD may also have different ways of learning, moving, or paying attention. These characteristics can make life very challenging. It is important to note that some people without ASD might also have some of these symptoms.
Learn more about signs and symptoms of ASD "
Diagnosis

Diagnosing ASD can be difficult since there is no medical test, like a blood test, to diagnose the disorder. Doctors look at the child's behavior and development to make a diagnosis. ASD can sometimes be detected at 18 months of age or younger. By age 2, a diagnosis by an experienced professional can be considered reliable. However, many children do not receive a final diagnosis until they are much older. Some people are not diagnosed until they are adolescents or adults. This delay means that people with ASD might not get the early help they need.
Learn more about screening and diagnosis of ASD "
Treatment

Current treatments for ASD seek to reduce symptoms that interfere with daily functioning and quality of life. ASD affects each person differently, meaning that people with ASD have unique strengths and challenges and different treatment needs. 2 Treatment plans usually involve multiple professionals and are catered to the individual.
Learn about treating the symptoms of ASD "
Risk Factors

There is not just one cause of ASD. There are many different factors that have been identified that may make a child more likely to have ASD, including environmental, biologic, and genetic factors.

Although we know little about specific causes, the available evidence suggests that the following may put children at greater risk for developing ASD:

Having a sibling with ASD

Having certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as fragile X syndrome or tuberous sclerosis

Experiencing complications at birth

Being born to older parents

CDC is currently working on one of the largest U.S. studies to date on ASD. This study called the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED), was designed to look at the risk factors and behaviors related with ASD. CDC is now conducting a follow-up study of older children who were enrolled in SEED to determine the health, functioning, and needs of people with ASD and other developmental disabilities as they mature.

How Often ASD Occurs

CDC's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network has been estimating the number of 8-year-old children with ASD in the United States since 2000.

ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. It is more than 4 times more common among boys than among girls.
Learn more about how CDC estimates the number of children with ASD "
If You're Concerned

As a parent, you already have what it takes to help your young child learn and grow. CDC has developed materials to help you track your child's developmental milestones and share that progress, or any concerns, with your child's doctor at every check-up.
Learn more about CDC milestone checklists and other parent materials "
Contact your child's doctor if you think your child might have ASD or if you have any other concerns about the way your child plays, learns, speaks, or acts.

If you are still concerned, ask the doctor for a referral to a specialist who can do a more in-depth evaluation of your child. Specialists who can do a more in-depth evaluation and make a diagnosis include

Developmental pediatricians (doctors who have special training in child development and children with special needs)

Child neurologists (doctors who work on the brain, spine, and nerves)

Child psychologists or psychiatrists (doctors who know about the human mind)

At the same time, call your state's public early childhood system to request a free evaluation, sometimes called a Child Find evaluation, to find out if your child qualifies for intervention services. You do not need to wait for a doctor's referral or a medical diagnosis to make this call.

Where to call for a free evaluation from the state depends on your child's age:

If your child is not yet 3 years old, contact your local early intervention system.
You can find the right contact information for your state by calling the Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) at 919-962-2001.

If your child is 3 years old or older, contact your local public school system.

Even if your child is not yet old enough for kindergarten or enrolled in a public school, call your local elementary school or board of education and ask to speak with someone who can help you have your child evaluated.

If you're not sure who to contact, call the ECTA at 919-962-2001.

Research shows that early intervention services can greatly improve a child's development. In order to make sure your child reaches their full potential, it is very important to receive services as soon as possible.

References

1. Lord C, Risi S, DiLavore PS, Shulman C, Thurm A, Pickles A. Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;63(6):694-701.

2. Hyman, S.L., Levy, S.E., Myers, S.M., & AAP Council on Children with Disabilities, Section on developmental and behavioral pediatrics. (2020). Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 145(1), e20193447.

3. Handleman, J.S., Harris, S., eds. Preschool Education Programs for Children with Autism (2nd ed). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. 2000.

4. National Research Council. Educating Children with Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

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Basics About Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC

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Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. CDC is working to find out how many children have ASDs, discover the risk factors, and raise awareness of the signs.

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美国赌城"威尼斯人酒店球体馆"吸引许多游客目光。（图／Shutterstock）

美国拉斯维加斯一座巨大球体建筑，最近利用遍布的LED面板化身一颗"巨型眼球"，吓坏民众。有人称这像电影"魔戒"的索伦之眼，也有人感觉被这颗眼球盯著看。

福克斯新闻地方电视台FOX 11 Los Angeles报道，拉斯维加斯"威尼斯人酒店球体馆"（Sphere at The Venetian Resort，MSG Sphere）号称是全世界最大球体建筑，吸引了许多目光。

MSG Sphere高112米，宽157米，在7月4日美国独立日那一周的周末首次亮灯，效果不同凡响。为了纪念独立日，当时在这栋球体建筑上秀出了美国国旗，以及璀璨烟火等画面。

英国广播公司（BBC）报道，MSG Sphere是拉斯维加斯最新景点，拥有全世界最大LED萤幕，由大约120万个LED灯组成。

这栋建筑利用球体造型和LED萤幕，可以化身各种不同应景的球形物体，像是之前因应NBA夏季联赛，曾变身成一颗巨大篮球，万圣节可以变成巨大的南瓜灯，圣诞节则可以变成水晶球。不过，它化身为一颗巨大无比的眼睛，确实吓坏部分民众。

有民众拍到，这栋球体建筑投放一颗巨型眼球的影像，眼珠子不断转动及缓慢眨眼，引起当地居民的诸多猜测和担忧。

有网友发文表示："我不知道是不是看了太多科幻电影，但我完全不相信这个该死的东西。这看起来像是死星（Death Star，电影星际大战中的太空要塞）、索伦之眼（Eye of Sauron）、HAL 9000（电影2001太空漫游反派角色）的混合体。我不喜欢。"

Whether it's lighting up the Las Vegas skyline or blowing up social media with memes, the MSG Sphere will be hard to miss. pic.twitter.com/DO5awVdPCS
- CNET (@CNET) August 5, 2023

还有网友说："只有我认为那颗眼睛会怪异地转向我，并盯著我看吗？"

由于MSG Sphere旁边就是全美国最知名，同时也要价最昂贵的高球俱乐部之一"永利高尔夫俱乐部"（Wynn Golf Club）；有网友说，"花大钱到那里打高尔夫，却被这颗眼睛盯著看，他们大概不会高兴吧"。

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美赌城"这颗大球"亮新招 巨型眼球吓坏路人--万维读者网

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美国赌城"威尼斯人酒店球体馆"吸引许多游客目光。（图／Shutterstock）美国拉斯维加斯一座巨大球体建筑，最近利用遍布的LED面板化身一颗"巨型眼球"，吓坏民众。有人称这像电影"魔戒"的索伦之眼，也有人感觉被这颗眼球盯著看。福克斯新闻地方电视台FOX

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02-jul-2023 - Peter Ingham descrubrió este Pin. Descubre (y guarda) tus propios Pines en Pinterest.

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"The eye is like a mirror, and the visible object is like the thing reflected in the mirror." -- Avicenna, early 11th century

The eye has been the subject of conflicting interpretations since antiquity. Many ancient physicians and philosophers believed in the idea of the active eye. Plato, for instance, wrote in the fourth century B. C. that light emanated from the eye, seizing objects with its rays. More metaphorically, Aristotle's disciple, Theophrastus, wrote that the eye had "the fire within." In saying this, he departed from the ideas of his teacher, since Aristotle was among the first to reject the extramission theory of vision. "In general, it is unreasonable to suppose that seeing occurs by something issuing from the eye," he declared. Aristotle advocated for a theory of intromission by which the eye received rays rather than directed them outward.

In the second century A. D., Galen had at least two different theories of the eye to choose from. He chose the extramission theory because it corresponded well with his image of sight as a function of an optical pneuma, flowing forth from the brain to the eyes through hollow optic nerves. Galen defined many of the fundamental features of the anatomy and physiology of the eye until the seventeenth century. Benefiting from the work of the anatomists who dissected in Alexandria, such as Rufus of Ephesus, he described the retina, cornea, iris, uvea, tear ducts, and eyelids, as well as two fluids he called the vitreous and aqueous humors. He noted some of the peculiar features of sight such as binocular vision. Galen paid particular attention to the crystalline lens, which he described as a round lens in the middle of the eye. He concluded: "the crystalline lens is the principal instrument of vision, a fact clearly proved by what physicians call cataracts, which lie between the crystalline humor and the cornea and interfere with vision until they are couched."

The eye was a subject of special interest in medieval Islamic medicine and philosophy. Between the ninth and fourteenth centuries, dozens of specialized treatises on ophthalmology appeared. Influenced by their readings of Galen, the majority of Islamic scholars, such as al-Kindi and Hunain ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) in the ninth century, favored the extramission theory of sight. The latter, in such works as Ten Treatises on the Eye and the Book of the Questions on the Eye, elaborated on the series of tunics behind the vitreous humor, paying special attention to the retina, whose role was to nourish the vitreous humor and conduct visual spirit through the hollow optic nerve. He further reinforced the centrality of the crystalline lens.

Islamic physicians actively debated many details of the eye, among them, the number of tunics and, most importantly, the theory of extramission. In the early tenth century, the great Baghdad clinician al-Razi (Rhazes) noted the pupil's contraction and dilation; a century later, al-Haythan (Alhazen) noted in his Book of Optics that the eye was injured by strong light. Both scholars reasonably concluded that the light affected the eye and not vice-versa. Alhazen's contemporary, Avicenna, offered a more systematic critique of the Galenic account of the eye as part of his overall adherence to Aristotelian theory. While retaining many features of Galen's anatomy -- the hollow nerves and crystalline lens -- he nonetheless argued for intromission.

As this rich body of literature was translated from Arabic into Latin in the eleventh through thirteenth centuries, medieval European medical practitioners had a great deal to puzzle over. Generally, they were le ss taken with the extramission theory than their Islamic predecessors; this was partly due to the importance of Avicenna in the medieval and Renaissance medical curriculum. In the late twelfth century, Master Nicolaus wrote: "The optic nerve, which descends from the brain to the eyes, passes through the center of the eye as far as the crystalline humor, through it comes the visible spirit, and as it emerges through the uveal tonic and the cornea it is mingled with clean air and transports its rays to the body, and thus sight is brought about." Such ideas reflected the intensive reading of Islamic medical texts then underway. Look at the thirteenth-century image of the eye to your left. What features of ancient and medieval optic theory do you see?

Renaissance anatomists learned a great deal about the anatomy of the eye. Leonardo da Vinci, for exam ple, fundamentally transformed his theory of vision. In the 1480s, Leonardo had advocated the extramission theory. By the 1490s, he had reversed his position. In his instance, his shifting viewpoint may have been more theoretical than observational since his image of the eye was basically two concentric spheres -- far less sophisticated than Galen's even. "The eye, the instrument of vision, is hidden in the cavity above, and in that below is the humor which nourishes the roots of the teeth," he wrote rather generically. Yet he was clearly fascinated by the effect of light on the living eye, examining the pupil with some care.

In the sixteenth century, the basic theory of sight remained in place though many physical features of the eye were described differently. Alessandro Achillini, for example, may have been the first to challenge the idea of the crystalline lens as the main organ of sight. Vesalius retained the primacy of the crystalline lens, but strongly denied that the optic nerves were hollow. By mid-century, anatomists had begun to look more closely at the crystalline humor, which no longer seemed round and centered but more oblong and towards the front of the eye. Finally, in 1583 a Swiss physician Felix Platter argued that the optic nerve out to be viewed as the "primary organ of vision." He relegated the crystalline humor to a secondary role, elevating the status of the retina.

In 1604, Kepler, a close reader of Alhazen, offered the first theory of the retinal image. "Therefore vision occurs through a picture of the visible things on the white, concave surface of the retina." The eye was now a camera obscura -- an apt image in an era obsessed with the science of perspective. This image of sight to the left, from Descartes' Dioptrics, suggests how much new theories of sight placed greater emphasis on the fusion of anatomy and geometry in studying the eye. Look at the image of the eye to your right, as depicted by Kepler's contemporary Robert Fludd, who disagreed quite a bit with Kepler's idea of the retinal image as an image that had been reversed and then restored through the process of reflection and refraction. Why do you think it was so difficult to image that the eye operated according to the same principles as the lens in Kepler's telescope, which showed the heavens upside down?
QUESTIONS: WHY DID ISLAMIC MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS MAKE THE EYE A SUBJECT OF SPECIAL STUDY? WHAT CULTURAL REASONS CAN YOU THINK OF THAT WOULD HAVE MADE THE EXTRAMISSION THEORY PREFERABLE? Back to History of the Body main page
Some Additional Readings

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"The eye is like a mirror, and the visible object is like the thing reflected in the mirror." -- Avicenna, early 11th century The eye has been the subject of conflicting interpretations since antiquity. Many ancient physicians and philosophers believed in the idea of the active eye.

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National Research Council (US) Committee on Vision (1988) The aging eye, Eyes on the Workplace. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218971/ (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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National Research Council (US) Committee on Vision (1988) The aging eye, Eyes on the Workplace. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218971/ (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

# data[].attributes.body
National Research Council (US) Committee on Vision (1988) The aging eye, Eyes on the Workplace. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218971/ (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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The good, the bad and the ugly (1966) | the bounty scheme | MGM (2022) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00y8Oajzjs0 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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The good, the bad and the ugly (1966) | the bounty scheme | MGM (2022) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00y8Oajzjs0 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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The good, the bad and the ugly (1966) | the bounty scheme | MGM (2022) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00y8Oajzjs0 (Accessed: 09 May 2024). 

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Signs and symptoms of autism spectrum disorders (2022) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

What is autism spectrum disorder? (2022) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

Arlin Cuncic, M. (2023) How to overcome eye contact anxiety, Verywell Mind. Available at: https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-i-maintain-good-eye-contact-3024392 (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

(No date) The history of the eye. Available at: https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/eyespages/eye.html (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

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Department of Health & Human Services (2013) Eyes - charles bonnet syndrome, Better Health Channel. Available at: https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/eyes-charles-bonnet-syndrome (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

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ITV News (2021) Charles Bonnet Syndrome: Health condition that causes disturbing hallucinations, ITV News. Available at: https://www.itv.com/news/granada/2021-09-02/charles-bonnet-syndrome-health-condition-that-causes-disturbing-hallucinations (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

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National Research Council (US) Committee on Vision (1988) The aging eye, Eyes on the Workplace. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218971/ (Accessed: 09 May 2024).

The good, the bad and the ugly (1966) | the bounty scheme | MGM (2022) YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00y8Oajzjs0 (Accessed: 09 May 2024).