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Q1. The inscriptions on the Rosetta Stone are in two languages, Egyptian and Greek, and three writing systems, hieroglyphics, demotic script (a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphics), and the Greek alphabet, which provided a key to the translation of the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.The Rosetta Stone is thus one of many mass-produced stelae designed to widely disseminate an agreement issued by a council of priests in 196 BC.

Q2.Because the inscriptions say the same thing in three different scripts, and scholars could still read Ancient Greek, the Rosetta Stone became a valuable key to deciphering the hieroglyphs.

Q3.The Rosetta Stone holds the key to understanding Egyptian hieroglyphs—a script made up of small pictures that was used originally in ancient Egypt for religious texts.

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Q1. The mummies of such pharaohs as Djoser, Khafre and Menkaure were carefully placed in a chamber where they layed until discovery. between 2700 and 2500 bce, egyptian pharaohs were burried in the pyramids and mummified because the egyptians believed it was a home and resting place for soul and spirit.

Q2.The stones were moved with Ramps and levers there were also lots of people moving the stone.

Q3. The pyramids were tombs for pharaohs, symbolizing divine power and afterlife beliefs. They demonstrated architectural prowess, played a role in funerary practices, and reflected cultural identity and astronomical knowledge.

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Machu Picchu is a world-famous landmark located in the Andes Mountains of South America at an altitude of over 7,000 feet. It was built by the Incan Empire during the year 1450 AD. Some of their achievements were things such as the development of sophisticated calendars or clocks, and their knowledge of medicine.

From recent scientific studies, archeologists think that the reason for Machu Picchu was to provide a safe place and shelter for the Inca emperor whose name was Pachacuti.

The Incas people used techniques to help create the buildings of Machu Picchu. They used terracing to make the steep slopes of the mountains smoother and easier to work with turning them into places for farming and building.

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1. How did the architectural style and artworks show the values and beliefs of the society?

The Parthenon is represented as a symbol of democracy. The idea of 'ruling by the people' was established in Greece as a political system at the same time as the Parthenon was built, in the mid-fifth century BC. The Parthenon, is a physical symbol of perfection and the ideal for the Greeks at the time, proving that when one achieved true perfection, they would attain power and status. The fact that the Parthenon's construction was finished in less than fifteen years, with all its complexities and artistic designs, is a testament to Athenian power, unity, and it's mythological history.

2. What role did the site play in the political and cultural life of the city-state?

The Parthenon is often regarded as a monument to democracy, which was founded in Athens during this period, (492–449 BCE).The Parthenon also represents Athenian dominance over both the Delian League and all of Greece.

3. What is the primary function of this and who were the main gods and goddesses who worshipped here?

When the Parthenon was built it was dedicated to the twelve gods and to the living Sovran. The main goddess that was worshiped and prayed over at the Parthenon was Athena. A stature stands of Athena at the site of Parthenonn and she continues to be worshipped by many today.

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1. Who is Tutankhamen and what is known about his reign and death?

Pharaoh Tutankhamen was born in 1341 BC in Ancient Egypt. He was made the pharaoh at the age of 11 in 1332 BC and died in 1323 BC. King Tut was important because he brought the traditional Egyptian religion back to Egypt

2. What does the wealth of items in his tomb tell us about Egyptian beliefs & practices concerning the afterlife?

The Egyptians believed that there was an afterlife that was like Earth but not all people could get into the afterlife. They put many items in King Tut's tomb and they believed specific items could get them into the afterlife, this included Shabits and Amulets to get them through the hard journey of getting to the afterlife.

3. How has this discovery influenced our understanding of ancient Egyptian history and culture?

The tomb was the only intact tomb in modern times so it helped archaeologist's learn more about ancient Egyptians beliefs, practices and gods because of the contains inside the tomb

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Question 1: What are the most common theories about the purpose of this site (e.g., astronomical, ceremonial)?

The theories of Stonehenge say it could be a burial monument, a meeting place between chiefdoms, or even an astronomical “computer.”

Question 2: What do the stones and the construction techniques tell us about the builders knowledge and skills?

It shows a great skill of engineering. They dug pits and ramps and lined with a row of wooden stakes at the back of the hole.

Question 3: How does this site connect to other similar sites or cultural practices in the region?

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Q.1

What is the primary function of this and who were the main gods and goddesses who worshipped here?

When the Parthenon was built it was dedicated to the twelve gods and to the living Sovran. The main goddess that was worshiped and prayed over at the Parthenon was Athena. A stature stands of Athena at the site of Parthenonn and she continues to be worshipped by many today.

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What caused the sudden preservation of this city and how has it contributed to our understanding of ancient life?

Pompeii was preserved in the 18th century because it provided a special source of information for scientists about their life in the ancient world. According to Britannica, there were remains of people sheltering from the eruption, others lay buried and they were still loaves in the ovens. Scientists have found many valuable artifacts preserved in Pompeii such as jewellery that are used to status them, artworks like graffiti and food.

What new knowledge do the artifacts and buildings provide about the social and economic life of the society?

The artifacts and buildings left behind give us information on how people lived in specific times and places. This includes what they believed in, infrastructure, and how they interacted with each other. Finding new ancient writings can provide us with information on what happened during that time. This will then be recorded in our history of languages. Buildings of ancient infrastructure can help us understand how they used to build things and structure layouts compared to the present. Some artifacts did not have any written language on them, so artifacts are the only remains of clues provided for us to understand how ancient people lived. Cultural beliefs/traditions sometimes change over time, we figured this out by using writings and artifacts or even by passing down messages.

How did the city's inhabitants react to the disaster, and what evidence of this has been found?

The people of Pompeii were living their lives unaware of the fact that Mount Vesuvius was a volcano. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ADS buried the town in a thick layer of volcanic ash. The humans killed by the wave of ash were found in positions suggesting desperate attempts to escape or seek shelter.

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Question 1: What are the most common theories about the purpose of this site (e.g., astronomical, ceremonial)?

Stonehenge is a place in southern England. It is a burial monument, a meeting place between chiefdoms, or even an astronomical "computer".

Question 2: What do the stones and construction techniques tell us about the builders knowledge and skills?

Stonehenge is a master piece of engineering, it is built using only simple tools and technologies. Mr Johnson believes the geometrical knowledge eventually used plan, pre-fabricate and erect Stonehenge was learnt empirically hundreds of years earlier through the construction of much simpler monuments.

Question 3: How does this site connect to other similar sites or cultural in the region?

Stonehenge had been inspired by hundred or thousands of artists, poets, photographers and more. In the recent years the monument at Stonehenge has also become central to many alternative/pagan religions, with groups of Druids, Wiccans, Pagans etc. congregating at the solstices.

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On 26th November 1922, the British archaeologist and Egyptologist Howard Carter, holding a candle in one hand, made a tiny hole in the doorway of a tomb. Taking his first look, he peered through a small crevice, revealing for the first time, the contents of Tutankhamun’s tomb. This was an outstanding and legendary discovery that garnered attention from around the world. The disc Tutankhamun himself, was a breath-taking moment.

Origin - The creator of the article is Jessica Brain, a freelance writer specialising in history. She published this article on the 15th of February 2023 and it was written in Kent, UK.

Purpose - This source was created to give readers knowledge of the finding of Tutankhamun's tomb. It is intended for the audiences of adults who either work as an historian or if they're interested in it and university students studying for it.

Content - The source provides information on when the tomb was found, who found it and what it meant to the historians and archaeologists to have found a valuable piece of history.

Value - This source is valuable for understanding the past as it gives a backstory of who found it and what he felt after finding it. The source goes into a in-depth story about Howard Carters life which makes the source special because not all sites go into that much depth.

Limitations - The source doesn't tell us much about what they did with the items and what they discovered it just cuts off after they are full of joy finding the tomb.

The source - https://historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Howard-Carter-Tutankhamun/

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The British Museum

The Rosetta Stone is one of the most famous objects in the British Museum. But what is it?

The Stone is a broken part of a bigger stone slab. It has a message carved into it, written in three types of writing. It was an important clue that helped experts learn to read Egyptian hieroglyphs (a writing system that used pictures as signs).

O: Written by a journalist or historian that works in the British Museum, published on the 14th of July in 2017.

P: This source was created to inform different people such as archaeologists and historians as well as curious people who want to know more about the stone, it's intended to give the readers an understanding of what this stone actually symbolises and what it is.

C: This source is meant to provide information on what this stone actually is and why it's such a big deal, what's on the stone and how it can be important.

V: This source can not only inform people about what it is and give them an understanding of it, but the information can also be transferred with your knowledge to other major discoveries involving the Egyptian language and events (like the pyramids, the Rosetta stone made a significant difference to helping understand them better).

L: Unfortunately, this article was officially published in the 21st century, which is 3 centuries after the actual discovery (which was found in 1799 July), so we aren't 100% confirmative with all the details, due to these reasons, it is classified as a secondary source which in most ways, aren't as reliable or strong in evidence as a primary source.

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Origin: This news article was written by Nikola Budanovic and published on July 7, 2018.

Purpose: To inform people who are interested in the Pompeii eruption about a loaf of bread that was found in an oven during the Mount Vesuvius eruption.

Content: The news article, explained how Pompeii was frozen in time and what human remains found at Pompeii have taught the world. Surprisingly, during the Mount Vesuvius eruption, a loaf of bread was discovered in an oven, covered in ash. The new article has shown us It also explained what other artifacts that scientists have found other than the loaf of bread.

Value: this source helps answer our questions by giving us an understanding of what happened to Pompeii and its discoveries that fascinate the world. It shows us the importance of the Mount Vesuvius Eruption and what we have learnt from it.

Limitations: The news article doesn’t state where they got the information from since it’s a secondary source and doesn’t have credible people to back up the information written in the text. The news article didn’t seem trustworthy because it looked sketchy. After all, there were a lot of ads next to the text.

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The violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius is considered to be one of the greatest natural catastrophes of the ancient world, when several cities in the Bay of Naples were covered in ash and rock, and left just as they stood on that fateful day in 79 AD.

The eruption began around midday on August 24th. In the space of just 24 hours, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, along with Stabiae, Oplontis, and Boscoreale, were completely buried.

The ruins of Pompeii were first "discovered" in the late 16th century, even though the existence of an ancient city, hidden for centuries somewhere below the ground, was well known.

With the help of modern archaeology, the remains of more than 1,500 people were recovered, and with them numerous mundane objects, encompassing the daily life of a Roman town - frozen in time.

Herculaneum was engulfed by a fast-moving wave of hot mud, whereas Pompeii was buried by a hailstorm of ash and lumps of rock. The volcanic material solidified into up to 50 feet of rock that preserved all kinds of objects such as furniture, family portraits and mosaics. Because the rock kept out the air, organic materials including leather, wood, and foodstuffs were also saved from decay.

The most amazing human remains have been found at Pompeii. Unable to escape the destruction, it is thought that most of the residents were killed by the intense heat. The petrified bodies decayed to leave hollow impressions in the rock. In around 1860, superintendent of the excavations, Giuseppe Fiorelli, poured wet plaster into the mysterious cavities his team were finding - revealing finely detailed molds of the ancient Pompeians.

One object among the thousands of interesting artifacts has received much attention from both the scientific community as well as the general public. Loaves of bread were found in an oven inside the ruins of a bakery, preserved in charcoal, covered in ancient ash, with their texture and shape looking like they just came out of the oven.

Each is marked with the baker's stamp, which was used as a guarantee of quality and a mark of the bakery in which the loaf was made.

The baker's oven with the bread was first discovered around 1880, and while the loaf has long since been part of museum exhibitions, the bakery remains one of the most popular tourist attractions in Pompeii today.

A portrait depicting the baker, Terentius Neo, and his wife was also found. What makes the portrait even more interesting is the way the wife is depicted - holding a writing plate, indicating that she was literate and standing with her husband as an equal, both in marriage and in business.

Strange Ancient Places Around The World.

Food remains, among other things, were discovered in both cities, giving us a rare and exquisite insight into the diet of an average Roman citizen.

In 1930, archaeologists discovered another carbonized loaf of bread inside an oven in Herculaneum. The Roman bread exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples was later borrowed by the British Museum. For their 2013 live cinema event, "Pompeii Live from the British Museum," London-based Italian chef Giorgio Locatelli was invited to recreate the 2000-year-old recipe.

"In AD 79, a baker put his loaf of bread into the oven. Nearly 2,000 years later it was found during excavations in Herculaneum. The British Museum asked Giorgio Locatelli to recreate the recipe as part of his culinary investigations for Pompeii Live," explains the British Museum.

With recreating the ancient bread recipe, Locatelli and the British Museum offered a glimpse into something quite ordinary, yet it so fascinating to be able to understand how people ate their bread 2000 years ago.
Read another story from us: North of Munich, the oldest continuously operated brewery, founded by monks, is nearing its 1,000th birthday
The objects, the food, the furniture, and − above all − the plaster casts of the people, today serve as a tribute to a time long lost, when life was violently interrupted by the forces of nature and left to be rediscovered centuries later.

Nikola Budanovic is a freelance journalist who has worked for various media outlets such as Vice, War History Online, The Vintage News, and Taste of Cinema. His main areas of interest are history, particularly military history, literature and film.

We hope you are enjoying The Vintage News. Please consider helping us with our journey to bring popular historical content to everyone by becoming a supporter today. Thanks.
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2000-year-old preserved loaf of bread found in the ruins of Pompeii

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The violent eruption of Mount Vesuvius is considered to be one of the greatest natural catastrophes of the ancient world, when several cities in the Bay of Naples were covered in ash and rock, and left just as they stood on that fateful day in 79 AD.

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NIKITA'S LINK TO SOURCE: https://madainproject.com/infrastructure_in_ancient_pompeii

ORIGIN: This source is written by The Editors of the Madain Project. N.D. but an educated guess would be a couple of months after the tragic event.

PURPOSE: This source was created to inform us about the infrastructure of Pompeii and how it was specifically built. It was intended to withstand attacks and provide a formidable barrier against invaders.

CONTENT: This source provides us with an understanding of how the fortifications of Pompeii played a crucial role in protecting its inhabitants from external threats. The infrastructure showcased the Romans expertise in military architecture and urban planning.

VALUE: The advanced thinking in Roman times were fascinating. This source illustrates how they were specifically created for military use, and what makes it special is that we continue to use them to this day.

LIMITATIONS: The weakness of this source is that it doesn’t tell us specifically who wrote it. Instead, they put “The editors of the Madain Project” Which isn’t clear enough.

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Britannica

Parthenon, temple that dominates the hill of the Acropolis at Athens. It was built in the mid-5th century bce and dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena Parthenos (“Athena the Virgin”). The temple is generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order, the simplest of the three Classical Greek architectural orders.

O- Written by Alicja Zelazko. Last updated in 2024.

P- To inform and educate the reader.

C- This paragraph is about what the Parthenon is, when it was built, why it was built, the architecture, and what it represents.

V- This source is important to help understand what the Parthenon is, when it was built, why it was built, the architecture, and what it represents.

L- This text doesn't tell us much about why it was built and how it was built. It is very short and limited amount of text with points with little explanation.

Source-https://www.britannica.com/topic/Parthenon

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Parthenon | Definition, History, Architecture, Columns, Greece, & Facts

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Parthenon, temple that dominates the hill of the Acropolis at Athens. It was built in the mid-5th century bce and dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena Parthenos (“Athena the Virgin”). The temple is generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the Doric order, the simplest of th…

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Origin: Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia, created and edited by volunteers around the world and hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. It was created in 2001 January 15

Content: The source provides information about how and when the Rosetta stone was found and why it is important. It also shows what the stone is used for and how unique the information on the stone is.

Purpose: 2001. In January 2001, Wikipedia began as a side-project of Nupedia, to allow collaboration on articles prior to entering the peer-review process. The name was suggested by Sanger on 11 January 2001 as a portmanteau of the words wiki (Hawaiian for "quick") and encyclopedia. The purpose of the text is to explain how useful the Rosetta stone is to Egyptian hieroglphs.

Value: Wikipedia helps us by giving huge amount of information about anything that is "special". It helps us by informing Comprehensive stats about a certain object.

Limitations: Because this source is open to not only the creater but also volunteers, this means the information given might not be that accurate. It won't tell us where its stats are from and therefore some might be fake.

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Origin :This is a photo from Wikipedia, and the last edit was made on the 10th of August. The image that was taken in Machu Picchu itself captures the scenery of Machu Picchu, with its beauty and historical significance.

Purpose :The purpose of this text is to inform the reader of the historic landmark Machu Picchu and its rich past. This tells us that Machu Picchu is an incredible archaeological site that showcases the engineering and architectural skills of the Inca civilization.

Content The web page has images and text to back up their facts such as Machu Picchu is an old Incan city located in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It is often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas" and was built in the 15th century but abandoned during the Spanish Conquest. The site was rediscovered in 1911 by American historian Hiram Bingham.

Value :The value of this source is very helpful for people to know a basic understanding of the topic but the is a great chance that there are way better websites with reliable info. For this task it has been very helpful.

Limits : Since the source is from Wikipedia it is not certain that its very reliable some things may be true though.

The website

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machu_Picchu

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DIYA: https://www.britannica.com/place/Pompeii

Origin: the source is written by Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski (a writer) on the website Britannica and was published on August 12th 2024

Purpose: to inform people who are interested in the Pompeii eruption about where and how it erupted.

Content: This source provides us with an understanding of where Pompeii is and how the nature around it is and how it is supported by many inhabitants at the time of the destruction

Value: this source helps give us an understanding by investigating the human remains of Pompeii. These remains help scientist understand the environment Pompeii at the time

Limitations: It doesn’t give us many information about the daily lives of the people of Pompeii before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Their should be more information on this so we get a better understanding of how they were living.

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Link:

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/stonehenge-1

Stonehenge in southern England ranks among the world's most iconic archaeological sites and one of its greatest enigmas. The megalithic circle on Salisbury Plain inspires awe and fascination—but also intense debate some 4,600 years after it was built by ancient Britons who left no written record.

Origin: James Owens created the source on National Geographic. It was created in the recent years or months.

Purpose: The source was created to let people know more about Stonehenge

Content: The source provides where Stonehenge is located and who built the Stonehenge and some more information.

Value: The source might be useful for knowing where it located or who it was created but mostly it isn't really useful.

Limitation: The weakness of the source is it doesn't tell us much about the history of Stonehenge and some cultural in the region.

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Origin: The article was published by The Washington Post in 2014, based on a study from the University of Amsterdam published in Physical Review Letters. The study involved researchers investigating ancient Egyptian techniques for transporting massive pyramid stones.

Purpose: The purpose is to explain a recent scientific discovery about how Egyptians might have moved large stones for pyramid construction by reducing friction using wet sand, making the process more efficient.

Content/Value: The article presents a simplified explanation of a scientific study, making complex research accessible to a general audience. It highlights how ancient Egyptians might have used a clever technique to reduce friction when moving stones, supported by experiments and historical evidence, like a tomb painting.

Limitations: The article may oversimplify the scientific details and does not critically examine alternative theories or potential flaws in the research. It is also limited by its focus on making the topic engaging for a broad audience, potentially sacrificing depth for readability.

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Please remember the following text:

O: This source is a document from the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, with an unknown publisher.

P: The purpose of this source is to inform the public, especially individuals aged 18 and above, historians, and researchers, about the significance of Machu Picchu, including its purpose and the people responsible for its construction. The article aims to provide an understanding of the importance and uniqueness of the Machu Picchu structure.

C: The article contains various types of information, including a long, detailed essay and a short section with bullet points about Machu Picchu's location and significance.

V: The website was quite informative due to the amount of detail they used however some of the vocabulary was aimed at older viewers rather than children.

L: Some of the downsides of this article were that it didn't mention how the Inca people lived and what their lives were like at the time of the build.

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Origin- Philip R Davis wrote the news article. This was published on August 2nd, 2024.

Purpose- This article was created to inform people about the past. People interested in history would love to read this article.

Content- This article explains when the Dead Sea Scrolls were found, where they were made, where they are now, and much more.

Value- This source is very useful for people who are interested in history and interesting artifacts from the past.

Limitations- The article has great information about the Dead Sea Scrolls, but I think Philip should've made the information more clear.

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The Parthenon stands proudly as the centrepiece of Centennial Park, Nashville's premier urban park. The re-creation of the 42-foot statue Athena is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. The building and the Athena statue are both full-scale replicas of the Athenian originals.

O - the piece is written by 2024 Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County, Tennessee

P - the purpose of this source is to provide information about the Parthenon to different people such as historians, archaeologists or just anyone interested about the topic.

C - this sources provides information on where the discovery is, a detailed description of the appearance, and its origin.

V - this source is important and valuable to inform everyone how important this archaeological discovery is and why. it helps people understand where when and why it was built, and the architecture.

L - This source doesn't really tell us about what the Parthenon represents. I think the importance of the Parthenon really includes the democracy it created and I think if people are interested in the Parthenon, that is what they should read about first.

source - https://www.nashville.gov/departments/parks/parthenon

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The Parthenon stands proudly as the centerpiece of Centennial Park, Nashville's premier urban park. The re-creation of the 42-foot statue Athena is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. The building and the Athena statue are both full-scale replicas of the Athenian originals.

Originally built for Tennessee's 1897 Centennial Exposition, this replica of the Parthenon in Athens, Greece serves as a monument to what is considered the pinnacle of classical architecture. The plaster replicas of the Parthenon Marbles found in the Naos are direct casts of the original sculptures, which adorned the pediments of the Athenian Parthenon dating back to 438 B.C. The originals of these powerful fragments are housed in the British Museum in London.

The Parthenon also serves as Nashville's art museum. The focus of the Parthenon's permanent collection is a group of 63 paintings by 19th and 20th century American artists donated by James M. Cowan. Additional gallery spaces provide a venue for a variety of temporary shows and exhibits.
Visit the Official Parthenon website

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The Parthenon stands proudly as the centerpiece of Centennial Park, Nashville's premier urban park. The re-creation of the 42-foot statue Athena is the focus of the Parthenon just as it was in ancient Greece. The building and the Athena statue are both full-scale replicas of the Athenian originals.

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King Tutankhamun is one of the most famous rulers who ever lived thanks to the 1922 discovery of the pharaoh’s tomb in Egypt’s Valley of the Kings. The find stirred the imaginations of millions who were fascinated by the boy king’s golden-masked mummy. (How was Tut's tomb discovered 100 years ago? Grit and luck.)

But what do we know about Tut? Although many details of his reign remain lost to time, historians have spent years trying to piece together the pharaoh’s life and legacy. Here’s what they’ve learned—and the biggest questions that remain.

Origin

the creator of the article was written by Amy Mckeever. She published the article on the 19th of October 2022. Amy Mckeever is a National Geographic writer. She is also known as a Digital editorial manager at the national geographic.

purpose. the source was created to give readers ideas and knowledgeable information about Tutankhamun's tomb. this intends for the audiences of adults or historians and even high school kids to find out more about Tutankhamun's tomb and are interested to find more.

content

the source provides pieces of information on when the tomb was found, who found it, and what it means to the historians or archaeologists who found valuable pieces of information.

value The source is valuable for understanding the past as it gives us a back story of the original who discovered it and how he felt when he found the tomb. the source goes into depth about the writes life.

limitation the source doesn't tell us alot what happened with the items and how and what they discovered the tomb.

the source https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/king-tutankhamun

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King Tutankhamun is one of the most famous rulers who ever lived thanks to the 1922 discovery of the pharaoh's tomb in Egypt's Valley of the Kings. The find stirred the imaginations of millions who were fascinated by the boy king's golden-masked mummy. (How was Tut's tomb discovered 100 years ago? Grit and luck.)

But what do we really know about Tut? Although many details of his reign remain lost to time, historians have spent years trying to piece together the pharaoh's life and legacy. Here's what they've learned-and the biggest questions that remain.

A young Tut ascends to the throne

Born during ancient Egypt's 18th Dynasty-which stretched from 1550 B.C. to 1295 B.C.-Tut began his life under a different name: Tutankhaten.

In the years before Tut rose to the throne, Egypt was going through a period of great upheaval. King Amenhotep IV, who is believed to be Tut's father, had turned away from his culture's many gods to worship a sun god called the Aten. In honor of the new deity, he changed his own name to Akhenaten and named his son Tutankhaten, meaning "living image of Aten." (Learn about King Tut with your kids.)

But around 1336 B.C., King Akhenaten died after about 17 years on the throne-and nine-year-old Tut ascended to power. The boy king restored the old ways of the kingdom, bringing back its many gods and opening new temples. (See the enduring power of King Tut as never before.)

Tut also changed his name to Tutankhamun, which meant the "living image of Amun," the Egyptian god of the air. He also took on the throne name, Nebkheperure, which was a nod to the old sun god Re. He married a woman named Ankhesenamun, a daughter of Akhenaten and Queen Nefertiti. While the couple are not thought to have left any surviving children, two mummified fetuses found in Tut's tomb were likely their stillborn daughters.

Tut's legacy

The rest of Tut's short reign was fairly unremarkable. Ruling for only about nine years, Tutankhamun was one of the lesser known pharaohs of his time. Some scholars theorize that royal advisers and priests may have even used the boy king as a puppet to reclaim power for themselves. Others suggest that Tut's successors removed his name from monuments and records because of his association with the reviled Akhenaten.

But there was one upside to that erasure: While most of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were looted over the centuries that followed, Tut's was left relatively unspoiled. When its treasures were finally brought to light, they inspired modern investigations into Tut's life and what it reveals about the time of the pharaohs. (Learn about the mysteries of the Valley of the Kings.)

King Tut's death

One of the puzzles that has most vexed historians and scientists alike is how Tut died.

Theories have abounded ever since British archaeologist Howard Carter discovered Tut's tomb in 1922. Some suspect that he was murdered or died from malaria or another devastating disease. Others have hypothesized that Tut's chest-which is missing ribs and a sternum-might have been crushed in an accident or fall from his chariot. Still others argue that he likely died an invalid, pointing to evidence of a clubfoot and canes that he may have used to walk. (Discover King Tut's 5,000 treasures, by the numbers.)

One thing scholars do know is that Tut was young when he died-still a teenager by most accounts-and his death was unexpected. Tut's final resting place was in fact an unfinished tomb intended for some other courtier, and evidence suggests that it was prepared for the king's body in a hurry.

It's unclear whether we will ever fully understand the life of Tutankhamen, the boy king. But his memory continues to captivate the world, centuries after his short reign.

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King Tutankhamun did more in death for the knowledge of ancient Egypt than he accomplished in his short life. Here's what you need to know about the boy king.

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Origin: This news article didn’t tell us the editor's date that it was published.

Purpose: The purpose of this news article is to show how the human remains of the Pompeii people show scientists their daily lives.

Content: this source tells us about the people who got covered in ash because of the volcano and their backstory.

Value: this source helps us know what they ate how they lived a long time ago and what was their home like because their food and everyday objects got covered in ash, so it was preserved. So, people now can see what they ate or what they used.

Limitations: it doesn’t give us any information about the two maidens or how scientists know the age is accurate.

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There is much to learn from the plaster casts that lie at Pompeii, recreating the last moments of the city's most unfortunate citizens.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D caused over 20,000 deaths in the thriving city of Pompeii. The city was buried in a thick layer of volcanic ash, covering the city and its citizens until it's rediscovery in 1599. It is a completely preserved ancient city, with buildings, artefacts, and human bodies found in the wreckage. Archaeologists have unearthed 1,150 bodies out of 2,000 in Pompeii's wreckage, showing the past lives and final moments of Vesuvius's victims. Unfortunately, the building that the plaster casts were originally housed in suffered extensive damage in World War II, and are now located in several places around the city. Here are just a few of the noteworthy attributes of the citizens of Pompeii.

The People's Great Smiles

After studying all the remains in Pompeii, archaeologists found that all the remaining individuals had a nice set of pearly white teeth. Despite dentistry not yet being a common practice, the victims of Mount Vesuvius's victims were surprisingly healthy. With just the odd cavity, scientists have put down the remarkable condition of these people's teeth down to their healthy diet. Rich in fruit and fibre, the citizens of Pompeii were consuming very low levels of sugar which were doing their teeth and bodies credit. The city's water also had high levels of fluoride, another contributor to their strong teeth, as fluoride helps prevent cavities, in other words, tooth decay. This is something we could incorporate into our modern day lifestyles which are too often full of fizzy drinks, snacking and convenience food.

Baby diseases

Archaeologists have examined an array of young people's remains, discovering how some of Pompeii's children barely survived childhood. Upon finding what looked like to be the exact same bones twice over in a cellar, scientists came across childhood twins aged around 10-12 years old. On inspecting the twins' skeletal remains they discovered that the siblings shared the same abnormalities on their teeth, both showing signs of an unexpected disease - congenital syphilis. Unexpected because up until this point historians and other scholars had readily believed that congenital syphilis hadn't reached Europe until the 15th and 16th centuries, with Christoper Columbus's voyages. This would make the twins the first recorded case of syphilis by 1400 years.

The Two Maidens

Famously named as the 'two maidens', are the skeletal remains of an embracing couple. Clasping onto to each other before their demise, their embrace is an everlasting one. They were originally thought to be two women, hence the name the 'two maidens', but following the extensive anthropological tests done on the duo's bones and teeth, it was revealed that one was a young man aged about 18, and the other was an adult male aged 20 years older. Initially, this led to the assumption of a father-son embrace. But when further research showed they were not related, it caused speculation that they were perhaps in a homosexual relationship. Due to the tight embrace, scholars strongly believe that what we are seeing is a strong emotional attachment rather than a last spur of the moment thing caused by the thought of death. Sadly though this mysterious love story is unlikely to ever be solved. We can only guess and hypothesise.

The Shackled Slave

Slavery was a common thing in the historic city of Pompeii. Ranging from sex workers, household servants, and concubines, the evidence of the cruel behaviour towards these victims demonstrate how limited a slave's freedom was. Pompeii's streets are flooded with brothels, as the historic city's most popular activity was said to indulgence in the luxurious houses of pleasure. Although most of the remaining Pompeii artwork depicts these brothels as an erotic and exotic treat, the reality is very different. Majority of the sex workers were slaves, with only a tiny cell for them to please their clients and serve as their sleeping area. Slaves were also common in households, made to clean clothes in large tubs of urine. Salves were even chained, which is illustrated by the remaining bodies which were left shackled to the wall even in death. This victim had no hope of escaping the volcano's eruption. He just had to sit and wait until the trauma hit. Luckily this wouldn't have been long. His body lies face down on the ground, a sad image of a man who has accepted his fate.

The Guard Dog

Another special artefact found in Pompeii's ruins was the cast of a guard dog. He was left chained to a post when his owners must have run to flee the oncoming eruption. He was found outside the house of Orpheus, with the bronze studs around his neck being all that remained of his collar, implying his role as guard dog. As the pumice fall-out deepened, the dog climbed higher - until it eventually ran out of chain and was suffocated. Like other Pompeiians he died almost instantly. What stands out about this cast, is not only that it is of an animal, but that the dog is in such a distorted position, clearly showing his distress. Like other casts, it is the clear pain from these people's figures and face expressions which makes Pompeii such an eery yet fascinating phenomenon.

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The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D caused over 20,000 deaths in the thriving city of Pompeii. The city was buried in a thick layer of volcanic ash, covering the city and its citizens until it's rediscovery in 1599. It is a completely preserved ancient city, with buildings, artefacts, and human bodies found in the wreckage.

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BEN

Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids—especially the Great Pyramids of Giza—are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country’s rich and glorious past.

Origin - The creator of this source is History.com editors, a team of specialized journalists. This article was published on October 14, 2009.

Purpose - This article was created to help People of the modern generation understand the ways of the ancient Egyptians in the pre-history period. Historians can gain a better understanding from a trusted secondary source about the ancient Egyptians.

Content: This source provides information about the tombs and chambers within the pyramids, as well as telling us the period the pyramids were built in, who occupied the pyramids and what their roles were during this time.

Value: This source has a meaningful value with great information about what was in the pyramids and in-depth analysis about when the pyramids were built and how they are valuable, which can be very useful for historians.

Limitaions: This source does not tell us about the size and proportions of the pyramids. It also does not tell us what was found in the pyramids other than tombs of pharaohs which could be useful to historians that were not there to see for themselves.

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Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids-especially the Great Pyramids of Giza-are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history. Their massive scale reflects the unique role that the pharaoh, or king, played in ancient Egyptian society. Though pyramids were built from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period in the fourth century A.D., the peak of pyramid building began with the late third dynasty and continued until roughly the sixth (c. 2325 B.C.). More than 4,000 years later, the Egyptian pyramids still retain much of their majesty, providing a glimpse into the country's rich and glorious past.

The Pharaoh in Egyptian Society

During the third and fourth dynasties of the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity and stability. Kings held a unique position in Egyptian society. Somewhere in between human and divine, they were believed to have been chosen by the gods themselves to serve as their mediators on earth. Because of this, it was in everyone's interest to keep the king's majesty intact even after his death, when he was believed to become Osiris, god of the dead. The new pharaoh, in turn, became Horus, the falcon-god who served as protector of the sun god, Ra.

Did you know? The pyramid's smooth, angled sides symbolized the rays of the sun and were designed to help the king's soul ascend to heaven and join the gods, particularly the sun god Ra.

Ancient Egyptians believed that when the king died, part of his spirit (known as "ka") remained with his body. To properly care for his spirit, the corpse was mummified, and everything the king would need in the afterlife was buried with him, including gold vessels, food, furniture and other offerings. The pyramids became the focus of a cult of the dead king that was supposed to continue well after his death. Their riches would provide not only for him, but also for the relatives, officials and priests who were buried near him.

The Early Pyramids

From the beginning of the Dynastic Era (2950 B.C.), royal tombs were carved into rock and covered with flat-roofed rectangular structures known as "mastabas," which were precursors to the pyramids. The oldest known pyramid in Egypt was built around 2630 B.C. at Saqqara, for the third dynasty's King Djoser. Known as the Step Pyramid, it began as a traditional mastaba but grew into something much more ambitious. As the story goes, the pyramid's architect was Imhotep, a priest and healer who some 1,400 years later would be deified as the patron saint of scribes and physicians. Over the course of Djoser's nearly 20-year reign, pyramid builders assembled six stepped layers of stone (as opposed to mud-brick, like most earlier tombs) that eventually reached a height of 204 feet (62 meters); it was the tallest building of its time. The Step Pyramid was surrounded by a complex of courtyards, temples and shrines where Djoser could enjoy his afterlife.

After Djoser, the stepped pyramid became the norm for royal burials, although none of those planned by his dynastic successors were completed (probably due to their relatively short reigns). The earliest tomb constructed as a "true" (smooth-sided, not stepped) pyramid was the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, one of three burial structures built for the first king of the fourth dynasty, Sneferu (2613-2589 B.C.) It was named for the color of the limestone blocks used to construct the pyramid's core.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

No pyramids are more celebrated than the Great Pyramids of Giza, located on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River, on the outskirts of modern-day Cairo. The oldest and largest of the three pyramids at Giza, known as the Great Pyramid, is the only surviving structure out of the famed Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops, in Greek), Sneferu's successor and the second of the eight kings of the fourth dynasty. Though Khufu reigned for 23 years (2589-2566 B.C.), relatively little is known of his reign beyond the grandeur of his pyramid. The sides of the pyramid's base average 755.75 feet (230 meters), and its original height was 481.4 feet (147 meters), making it the largest pyramid in the world. Three small pyramids built for Khufu's queens are lined up next to the Great Pyramid, and a tomb was found nearby containing the empty sarcophagus of his mother, Queen Hetepheres. Like other pyramids, Khufu's is surrounded by rows of mastabas, where relatives or officials of the king were buried to accompany and support him in the afterlife.

The middle pyramid at Giza was built for Khufu's son Pharaoh Khafre (2558-2532 B.C). The Pyramid of Khafre is the second tallest pyramid at Giza and contains Pharaoh Khafre's tomb. A unique feature built inside Khafre's pyramid complex was the Great Sphinx, a guardian statue carved in limestone with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was the largest statue in the ancient world, measuring 240 feet long and 66 feet high. In the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.C.) the Great Sphinx would come to be worshiped itself, as the image of a local form of the god Horus. The southernmost pyramid at Giza was built for Khafre's son Menkaure (2532-2503 B.C.). It is the shortest of the three pyramids (218 feet) and is a precursor of the smaller pyramids that would be constructed during the fifth and sixth dynasties.

Who Built The Pyramids?

Though some popular versions of history held that the pyramids were built by slaves or foreigners forced into labor, skeletons excavated from the area show that the workers were probably native Egyptian agricultural laborers who worked on the pyramids during the time of year when the Nile River flooded much of the land nearby. Approximately 2.3 million blocks of stone (averaging about 2.5 tons each) had to be cut, transported and assembled to build Khufu's Great Pyramid. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that it took 20 years to build and required the labor of 100,000 men, but later archaeological evidence suggests that the workforce might actually have been around 20,000.

The End of the Pyramid Era

Pyramids continued to be built throughout the fifth and sixth dynasties, but the general quality and scale of their construction declined over this period, along with the power and wealth of the kings themselves. In the later Old Kingdom pyramids, beginning with that of King Unas (2375-2345 B.C), pyramid builders began to inscribe written accounts of events in the king's reign on the walls of the burial chamber and the rest of the pyramid's interior. Known as pyramid texts, these are the earliest significant religious compositions known from ancient Egypt.

The last of the great pyramid builders was Pepy II (2278-2184 B.C.), the second king of the sixth dynasty, who came to power as a young boy and ruled for 94 years. By the time of his rule, Old Kingdom prosperity was dwindling, and the pharaoh had lost some of his quasi-divine status as the power of non-royal administrative officials grew. Pepy II's pyramid, built at Saqqara and completed some 30 years into his reign, was much shorter (172 feet) than others of the Old Kingdom. With Pepy's death, the kingdom and strong central government virtually collapsed, and Egypt entered a turbulent phase known as the First Intermediate Period. Later kings, of the 12th dynasty, would return to pyramid building during the so-called Middle Kingdom phase, but it was never on the same scale as the Great Pyramids.

The Pyramids Today

Tomb robbers and other vandals in both ancient and modern times removed most of the bodies and funeral goods from Egypt's pyramids and plundered their exteriors as well. Stripped of most of their smooth white limestone coverings, the Great Pyramids no longer reach their original heights; Khufu's, for example, measures only 451 feet high. Nonetheless, millions of people continue to visit the pyramids each year, drawn by their towering grandeur and the enduring allure of Egypt's rich and glorious past.

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Egyptian Pyramids - Facts, Use & Construction

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Built during a time when Egypt was one of the richest and most powerful civilizations in the world, the pyramids-especially the Great Pyramids of Giza-are some of the most magnificent man-made structures in history.

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Pharaoh Khufu was the first Egyptian king to build a pyramid in Giza, a project he began in circa 2550 B.C. His Great Pyramid is the largest in Giza and originally towered some 481 feet (147 meters) above the plateau—it’s a bit shorter now with its smooth casing stones long gone. Its estimated 2.3 million stone blocks each weigh an average of 2.5 to 15 tons.

Khufu's son, Khafre, built the second pyramid at Giza, circa 2520 B.C. His necropolis, or burial ground, stands out on the landscape because it also includes the Sphinx, a mysterious limestone monument with the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh. The Sphinx, which before the 1800s spent thousands of years buried in the sand with only its head visible, may stand sentinel for the pharaoh’s tomb complex, although there’s no definitive proof that he built it.

Origin: This article was written by Brian Handwerk on the 21st of December 2023. Brian Handwerk is an established writer and journalist for the well-known and trusted company National Geographic.

Purpose: This article was created to give readers a strong understanding of how the pyramids were built and who built them. This article was intended for people who want to learn about the ancient pyramids or for people curious to study the topic.

Content: The content this source applies is the ways the pyramids were built and how many people or what species built them.

Value: The value of this source is the very well-known and trusted name it has been going on forever and I think it's probably the most valued website it goes into detail about the topic and has lots of corroboration with other sources.

Limitations: This source doesn't have many limitations although I think they could be a bit more exact with some of their information lot of the time it's just estimated.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/giza-pyramids

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All three of Giza's famed pyramids and their elaborate burial complexes were built during a frenetic period of construction, from roughly 2550 to 2490 B.C. The pyramids were built by Pharaohs Menkaure (front), Khafre (middle), and Khufu (back),

Photograph by Cordon Press

How the ancient wonder was built is one of Egypt's biggest mysteries. But archaeologists do have insight into who built them-and what they hold inside.

The Giza Pyramids, built to endure an eternity, have done just that. The monumental tombs are relics of Egypt's Old Kingdom era and were constructed some 4,500 years ago.

Egypt's pharaohs expected to become gods in the afterlife. To prepare for the next world they erected temples to the gods and massive pyramid tombs for themselves-filled with all the things each ruler would need to guide and sustain himself in the next world.

Each of the three massive pyramids is but one part of a larger complex, including a palace, temples, solar boat pits, and other features. Here's what to know about who built them, how they were built-and the treasures we've discovered inside.

Who built the Pyramids of Giza?

Pharaoh Khufu was the first Egyptian king to build a pyramid in Giza, a project he began in circa 2550 B.C. His Great Pyramid is the largest in Giza and originally towered some 481 feet (147 meters) above the plateau-it's a bit shorter now with its smooth casing stones long gone. Its estimated 2.3 million stone blocks each weigh an average of 2.5 to 15 tons.

Khufu's son, Khafre, built the second pyramid at Giza, circa 2520 B.C. His necropolis, or burial ground, stands out on the landscape because it also includes the Sphinx, a mysterious limestone monument with the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh. The Sphinx, which before the 1800s spent thousands of years buried in the sand with only its head visible, may stand sentinel for the pharaoh's tomb complex, although there's no definitive proof that he built it.

(Who did build the Spinx? 4,500 years later, we took a fresh look.)

The third of the Giza Pyramids is considerably smaller than the first two-less than half their height at about 218 feet. Built by Khafre's son Menkaure circa 2490 B.C. the pyramid's elaborate complex includes two separate temples connected by a long causeway, and three individual queens' pyramids. Menkaure's chambers include niche decorations unique to Giza and a vaulted ceiling in his burial chamber itself. The pharaoh's elaborate sarcophagus was lost at sea near Gibraltar in 1838.

How were the pyramids built?

The ancient engineering feats at Giza were so impressive that even today scientists and engineers can't be sure exactly how the pyramids were built. Yet they have learned much about the people who built them and the political power necessary to make it happen.

The builders were skilled Egyptian workers who lived in a nearby temporary city sprawling over some 17 acres. The remains of bakeries and piles of animal bones show that they were very well fed for their labor. Archaeological digs on the fascinating site have revealed a highly organized community, rich with resources, that must have been backed by strong central authority.

(Who was the first Pharaoh?)

Archaeological sites across Egypt and records written on ancient papyri show that boatmen used the Nile and a network of artificial waterways to bring materials to the Giza Plateau, including granite from Aswan quarries, copper cutting tools from the Sinai Peninsula, and timber from Lebanon. To sustain the workers, they also delivered cattle from farms near the Nile Delta.

It's likely that communities across Egypt contributed workers, as well as food and other essentials, for what became in some ways a national project to display the wealth and control of the ancient pharaohs.

Scientists and engineers are still debating exactly how the pyramids were constructed. It's generally believed that the Egyptians moved massive stone blocks to the heights along large ramps, greased by water or wet clay, using a system of sledges, ropes, rollers, and levers. Some suggest exterior ramps either zig-zagged or spiraled around each pyramid, while a more controversial theory suggests internal ramps were used.

These secrets of the pyramids' construction may lie below the surface. Perhaps as future imaging technology reveals the arrangements of blocks inside, they will provide a blueprint for how Egyptian builders created these timeless monuments.

The pharaoh's relatives, such as Nefertiabet, Khufu's daughter-depicted on this relief found in her tomb in Giza-were buried beside the sovereign's pyramid.

Photograph by Werner Forman, GTRES

If the pyramids helped to build ancient Egypt, they also preserved it. Giza allows us to explore a long-vanished world.

"Many people think of the site as just a cemetery in the modern sense, but it's a lot more than that," says Harvard University Egyptologist Peter Der Manuelian. "In these decorated tombs you have wonderful scenes of every aspect of life in ancient Egypt-so it's not just about how Egyptians died but how they lived."

(How cosmic rays helped find a tunnel in Egypt's Great Pyramid.)

Tomb art includes depictions of ancient farmers working their fields and tending livestock, fishing and bird hunting, practicing carpentry, wearing costumes, and performing religious rituals and burial practices.

Inscriptions and texts also allow research into Egyptian grammar and language. "Almost any subject you want to study about Pharaonic civilization is available on the tomb walls at Giza," Der Manuelian says.

Many of these unique resources are freely accessible to all at The Giza Project, an enormous collection of photographs, plans, drawings, manuscripts, object records, and expedition diaries from the world's leading institutions, gathered together in an incredible online repository for Giza-related material.

This collection preserves paintings and inscriptions that have since faded away, captures artifacts that have been lost or destroyed, and unlocks tombs not accessible to the public.

And while nothing could ever replicate the experience of a personal visit to Giza, the reconstructions of GIZA 3D may be the closest you can get. Virtual visitors from anywhere in the world can wander the wonders of the plateau and take guided tours of pyramids, temples, and even tombs.

What are we still discovering about the pyramids?

The pyramids of Giza still hold plenty of secrets. And while scientists continue to make new discoveries, many of them also raise new questions.

The ScanPyramids project, an international team under the authority of Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities, has been using modern technology to delve inside the pyramids since 2015 without setting foot inside. Advances in high-energy particle physics have allowed them to use cosmic rays to uncover various empty spaces that had been hidden for 4,500 years-including one void that rivals the size of the pyramid's Grand Gallery and another passage, dubbed the North Face Corridor, to the Pyramid of Khufu.

It's unclear if anything is inside these spaces, but most experts believe they have no ritual significance. Instead, they were likely used during construction, a carefully engineered system to distribute the weight and stress of these iconic structures that have definitely stood the test of time.

Editor's note: This story was originally published on January 21, 2017. It has been updated.

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What are the Pyramids of Giza-and who built them?

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How the ancient wonder was built is one of Egypt's biggest mysteries. But archaeologists do have insight into who built them-and what they hold inside.

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Rosetta Stone: OPCVL Analysis task Rubin

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Rosetta Stone: OPCVL Analysis task Rubin

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Britannica

Rosetta Stone is an ancient Egyptian with inscriptions in several languages and scripts; their decipherment led to the understanding of hieroglyphic writing. An irregularly shaped stone of black granite 3 feet 9 inches (114 cm) long and 2 feet 4.5 inches (72 cm) wide, and broken in antiquity, it was found near the town of Rosetta (Rashīd), about 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Alexandria.

O: It was written in 205-180BC by Ptolemy.

P: It was created so that it could inform people about the Ancient Hieroglyphs

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History.com

The Parthenon is a famous temple that was built around 430 BC when the ancient Greek Empire was at its peak. It was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena. Throughout the years, it has withstood earthquakes, fires, wars and more. Today it is one of the most recognized buildings in the world.

O. Written by a history.com editor, published on the 2nd of February 2018.

P. The purpose of this source is to inform people about the history of The Parthenon. To learn about, how it was built, why it it was built and who were the main people involved in its history.

V. This source is useful to fill in gaps and find out new facts about a piece of history

L. Some weakness this source has is it does not show much of the people who were involved when the Parthenon was built.

Source-

https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/parthenon

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Delian League

The Parthenon was the center of religious life in the powerful Greek city-state of Athens, the head of the Delian League. Developed to thwart the possibility of an attack by the Persian Empire or other foes, the Delian League was a cooperative alliance of Greek city-states founded in 478 B.C. during the invasions of the Persian Wars.

The celebrated Greek statesman Pericles is credited with ordering the design and construction of the Parthenon as a temple for Athena-the goddess of wisdom, arts, literature and war-but it may not have been the first attempt to house the deity.

An earlier structure known as the Older Parthenon or Pre-Parthenon once existed on the site of the current Parthenon. Many historians believe the Older Parthenon was under construction in 480 B.C. when the Persian Empire attacked Athens and destroyed the Acropolis, although some experts dispute this theory.

When Was the Parthenon Built?

In 447 B.C., some 33 years after the Persian invasion, Pericles commenced building the Parthenon to replace the earlier temple. The massive structure was dedicated in 438 B.C.

Sculpting and decorative work at the Parthenon continued until 432 B.C. It's estimated that 13,400 stones were used to build the temple, at a total cost of around 470 silver talents (roughly $7 million U.S. dollars today).

Doric Columns

Pericles commissioned the renowned Greek architects Ictinus and Callicrates and the sculptor Phidias to design the Parthenon, which became the largest Doric-style temple of its time.

The structure has a rectangular floor plan and is built on a 23,000-square foot base, part of which was the limestone foundation of the Old Parthenon.

Low steps surrounded each side of the building, and a portico of Doric columns standing on a platform create a border around it. There are 46 outer columns and 19 inner columns.

The columns are slightly tapered to give the temple a symmetrical appearance. The corner columns are larger in diameter than the other columns. Incredibly, the Parthenon contains no straight lines and no right angles, a true feat of Greek architecture.

Amazon Warriors

Many of the Parthenon's features depict scenes from Greek mythology. Ninety-two carved metopes (square blocks placed between three-channeled triglyph blocks) adorn the exterior walls of the Parthenon. The metopes on the West side depict Amazonomachy, a mythical battle between Amazon warriors and the ancient Greeks, and were thought to be designed by the sculptor Kalamis.

The metopes on the East side show Gigantomachy, mythical battles between gods and giants. Most metopes on the South side show Centauromachy, the battle of mythical centaurs with the Lapiths, and the metopes on the North side portray the Trojan War.

Parthenon Frieze

A broad, decorated horizontal band called a frieze runs along the entire length of the walls of the Parthenon's inner chamber (the cella). The frieze was carved using the bas-relief technique, which means the sculpted figures are raised slightly from the background.

Historians believe the frieze depicted either the Panathenaic procession to the Acropolis or the sacrifice of Pandora to Athena.

There are two sculpted, triangular-shaped gables known as pediments on each end of the Parthenon. The East pediment depicted Athena's birth from the head of her father, Zeus. The West pediment showed the conflict between Athena and Poseidon to claim Attica, an ancient region of Greece which included the city of Athens.

Athena Parthenos

A shrine within the Parthenon housed an extraordinary statue of Athena, known as Athena Parthenos, which was sculpted by Phidias. The statue no longer exists but is thought to have stood about 12 meters high (39 feet).

It was carved of wood and covered in ivory and gold. Historians know what the statue looked like thanks to surviving Roman reproductions.

The Athena statue depicted a fully-armed woman wearing a goatskin shield known as an aegis. She held a six-foot tall statue of the Greek goddess Nike in her right hand and a shield in her left hand that illustrated various battle scenes. Two griffins and a sphinx stood on her helmet and a large snake behind her shield.

It's unclear if the Parthenon served solely as a home for Athena or also as a treasury. It was undoubtedly an awe-inspiring sight for anyone who gazed upon it. Ancient spectators weren't allowed inside the structure but viewed its splendor from the outside.

Parthenon Changes Hands

In the sixth century A.D., the Christian Byzantines conquered Greece. They outlawed pagan worship of the ancient Greek gods and converted the Parthenon to a Christian church. They blocked the East side entrance and, following the custom of Christianity, forced worshipers to enter the church on the West side.

The massive statue of Athena was gone before the Byzantines arrived. In her place, they put a pulpit and marble bishop's chair.

The Parthenon remained a Christian church until 1458 A.D., when the Muslim Ottoman Empire seized Athens. The Ottoman Turks converted the Parthenon into a mosque, yet kept many Christian paintings and artifacts intact.

In 1687, facing attack from the Christian Holy League (an alliance of European powers against the Ottoman Empire), the Ottomans converted the Parthenon into an ammunitions depot and shelter, but it was anything but safe. The structure was bombarded with cannonballs and its ammunition stores exploded causing hundreds of deaths and massive structural damage.

After centuries of being ruled by the Turks, the Greeks fought for independence in the 1820s. The Acropolis became a combat zone and the Turkish Army removed hundreds of marble blocks from Parthenon ruins. They also used the lead-coated iron clamps which held the blocks together to make bullets.

Elgin Marbles

After the Holy League's assault and numerous military campaigns, by the 1800s the Parthenon sat in ruins and was at the mercy of looters and the elements.

In the early 19th century, Thomas Bruce, the 7th Earl of Elgin, removed the marble friezes and several other sculptures and shipped them to London, England, where they remain on public display in the British Museum today.

It's unclear if Elgin had permission to remove the sculptures, and the Greek government has requested they be returned.

Time, weathering and cleaning has caused the Elgin Marbles and other Parthenon sculptures to look white, but they and other parts of the structure were once painted with vivid colors.

Did you know? A full-scale replica of The Parthenon was built in Centennial Park, Nashville in 1897 for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition.

Parthenon Restoration

In the 1970s, the Greek government got serious about restoring the rapidly-deteriorating Acropolis and the Parthenon, which had become one of the country's national treasures. They appointed an archaeological committee called the Acropolis Restoration Project.

With Greek architect Manolis Korres at its helm, the committee painstakingly charted every relic in the ruins and used computer technology to identify their original location.

The restoration team plans to supplement original Parthenon artifacts with modern materials that are weather-resistant, corrosion-resistant and will help support the integrity of the structure. Where needed, new marble from the quarry where the original marble was obtained will be used.

Still, the Parthenon will not be restored to its original glory. Instead, it will stay a partial ruin and will feature design elements and artifacts that reflect its rich, diverse history.

Acropolis Museum

Renovations are ongoing at the Parthenon and the entire Acropolis; however, tourists can still visit the historical site. Areas undergoing a makeover may be off-limits.

Some important artifacts and remaining Parthenon sculptures were moved to the nearby Acropolis Museum. To see many of the Parthenon's original marble sculptures and other Acropolis artifacts, visitors are encouraged to tour the museum.

Sources

Secrets of the Parthenon. PBS NOVA.
The Glorious Parthenon. PBS NOVA.
The Parthenon. Ancient-Greece.org.
The Parthenon. Oxford Bibliographies.
The Parthenon. Reed College.
The Parthenon: Religion, Art and Politics. The State University of New York.

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Parthenon: Definition, Facts, Athens & Greece - HISTORY

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The Parthenon is a marble temple built atop the Acropolis in Athens during the classical age of ancient Greece. It was the largest and most lavish temple the Greek mainland had ever seen.

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Link:

https://www.britannica.com/summary/Stonehenge

Origin: This sours was first issued in 1768,It was published by Colin Macfarquhar.

Purpose: Throughout history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.

Content: The source gives decent

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The Rosetta Stone: Unlocking the Ancient Egyptian Language

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The Rosetta Stone: Unlocking the Ancient Egyptian Language

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By Foy Scalf

Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago

The Rosetta Stone, a symbol for different things to different people, is a dark-colored granodiorite stela inscribed with the same text in three scripts – Demotic, hieroglyphic and Greek. In July 1799, the stone was found in the city of Rosetta (modern el Rashid) by French soldiers during Napoleon’s  invasion of Egypt.

C: This source is providing how the stone was discovered and its significance of it. The source also deeply delves into ancient hieroglyphs and the Egyptian language discovered through this stone. It has many images showcasing the stone and the ancient language and has lots of paragraphs.

O: It was written in 2023 by Foy Scalf in the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago

P: The source was made to provide people with information about the Rosetta stone and how it has changed our perspective on ancient Egypt. It also marvels people by talking about the discovery of the stone.

V: The reason the Rosetta stone is so significant is because it made us able to understand all the ancient carving the Egyptians did and we understood all the artifacts they left for us to see. We could understand inventions the Egyptians made and understood how they lived their life without all of the things we have today.

L: The weakness of the source is that it has no specific date and just says 2023 instead of the day and month. This makes it harder to know if it is as reliable, but it was determined reliable due to it being an organisation.