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WHO’s primary role is to direct international health within the United Nations’ system and to lead partners in global health responses.

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Examples of Utilitarianism in the workplace

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Examples of Utilitarianism in the workplace

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The core idea of utilitarianism is that an action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people in a society or a group. In the workplace, the idea of this concept is if you conduct yourself properly at work, then you will be able to achieve professional happiness. By making morally correct decisions, your happiness will increase. However, if you choose to do something morally wrong, even though it may be legal, your happiness will decrease.

Utilitarianism creates a black and white of what is morally correct. In the world of someone who uses utilitarian ethics, there are no shades of gray, either something is wrong or something is right. At work, utilitarianism is displayed by working to make sure the workplace is a positive environment for your co-workers to be in, and then make it so for yourself.

Types of Workplace Utilitarianism

There are two types of utilitarian ethics practiced on the job, rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism. Rule utilitarianism is put in place to benefit the most people by using the fairest methods possible. Act utilitarianism makes the most ethical actions possible for the benefit of the people.

Examples of Utilitarian Ethics

One example of utilitarianism in business is the practice of having tiered pricing for a product or service to different types of customers. For example, the airline industry offers first class, business class and economy class seats on many of their airplanes.

Customers who fly in first or business class pay a much higher rate than those in economy seats, but they also get more amenities. However, the higher prices paid for business or first class seats help to ease the airline's financial burden created by making room for economy class seats. This would be an example of rule utilitarianism.

An example of act utilitarianism is a pharmaceutical company releasing a drug that has been governmentally approved with known side effects because the drug is able to help more people than are bothered by the minor side effects. Act utilitarianism often shows "the end justifies the means" mentality.

The main limitation to utilitarian ethics is that it is difficult to achieve in the workplace. People are taught to focus on self before others, making it difficult to practice utilitarianism. However, with hard work and perseverance, you can create the type of work atmosphere that you desire for yourself and those around you.

Author Biography
Keith Miller has over 25 years of experience as a CEO and serial entrepreneur. As an entrepreneur, he has founded several multi-million dollar companies. As a writer, Keith's work has been mentioned in CIO Magazine, Workable, BizTech, and The Charlotte Observer. If you have any questions about the content of this blog post, then please send our content editing team a message here.

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Workplace Example of Utilitarianism Ethics

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The core idea of utilitarianism is that an action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people in a society or a group. In the workplace, the idea of this concept is if you conduct yourself properly at work, then you will be able to achieve professional happiness.

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Reference List

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(Australian Human Rights Commission, n.d.)

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The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (SDA) makes it unlawful to discriminate against a person because of their sex, gender identity, intersex status, sexual orientation, marital or relationship status, family responsibilities, because they are pregnant or might become pregnant or because they are breastfeeding. For more information, see the fact sheet Sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex status discrimination.

In addition, the SDA makes sexual harassment against the law.

The SDA protects people across Australia from discrimination in a number of areas in public life, including employment, education, getting or using services, or renting or buying a house or unit.

Employees and potential employees

Sex discrimination in employment occurs when someone is treated less favourably than a person of the opposite sex would be treated in the same or similar circumstances. It can occur when employers or managers hold assumptions about what sort of work women are capable - or not capable - of performing.

Examples of sex discrimination could include:

not hiring a woman because the employer thinks she won't fit into a 'traditionally' male workplace

not paying a woman the same salary as a man for doing the same work, or not providing the same opportunities for training, mentoring or promotion

allocating work tasks based on a person's sex.

For example, after working for 11 years with an accounting firm, Erin had been promoted to the role of group auditor. However, when a new manager was appointed, he began treating her differently to the male employees working in similar positions. Erin said she was over-scrutinized, excluded from group events and that her salary package was less than male employees in equivalent positions. When she complained to management about these issues, the treatment became worse.

The SDA makes it unlawful to discriminate when advertising jobs, during recruitment and selection processes, when making decisions about training, transfer and promotion opportunities, and in the terms, conditions and termination of employment.

All types of employers and employment relationships are covered under the SDA, including: Commonwealth Government employees and private sector employees, full-time, part-time and casual employees, contract workers and commission agents, as well as apprentices, trainees and those on probation.

It also covers recruitment processes carried out through recruitment, labour hire and employment agencies. However, the SDA does not cover sexual harassment or sex discrimination in employment by state instrumentalities.

Customers

The SDA makes it unlawful to discriminate in the provision of services, such as banking and insurance services; services provided by government agencies; transport or telecommunication services; professional services, such as those provided by lawyers, doctors or tradespeople; and services provided by restaurants, shops or entertainment venues.

This means that it is against the law for a business to discriminate against a person by:

refusing to provide a person with goods, services and facilities

providing them with goods, services and facilities on less favourable terms and conditions, or

providing goods, services and facilities in an unfair manner

because of their sex, gender identity, intersex status, sexual orientation, marital or relationship status or family responsibilities, because they are pregnant or might become pregnant, or because they are breastfeeding.

For example, it could be discrimination if a bank refused to approve a loan because the applicant was unmarried or was divorced.

Direct and indirect discrimination

Discrimination can be direct or indirect.

Direct discrimination happens when a person is treated less favourably than another person because of their sex, gender identity, intersex status, sexual orientation, marital or relationship status, pregnancy or potential pregnancy, breastfeeding or family responsibilities.

For example, it would be direct sex discrimination if a company paid men more than women who are doing the same work.

Indirect discrimination can be less obvious. It can happen when employers or service providers put in place conditions, requirements or practices which appear to treat everyone equally but which actually disadvantage some people because of their sex, marital or relationship status, breastfeeding, pregnancy or potential pregnancy. If the condition or requirement is unreasonable, it could be unlawful discrimination.

For example, a policy that says only full-time workers will be promoted might disadvantage women who are more likely to work part-time because of family responsibilities. If the requirement to work full-time was not reasonable it would be indirect sex discrimination.

Pregnancy discrimination

The SDA makes it unlawful to treat a woman unfairly, or not provide her with the same opportunities, because she is pregnant or might become pregnant.

In general, women who are pregnant should be able to continue to work in the same way and under the same conditions as other employees, unless there are valid medical or safety reasons.

Direct pregnancy discrimination happens when a woman is treated less favourably than another person because she is pregnant or because she may become pregnant.

For example, it would be direct pregnancy discrimination if an employer refused to employ a woman because she was pregnant or because she may become pregnant.

Indirect pregnancy discrimination occurs when there is a requirement or practice that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on pregnant women.

For example, it maybe indirect discrimination if a policy says that all employees must wear a particular uniform if it is difficult for a pregnant employee to wear that uniform.

According to case law and industrial law, a woman who returns to work after maternity leave has the right to return to the same job she had before going on leave, or to a comparable position if her original job has ceased to exist.
Pregnancy discrimination complaint resolved by the Commission
A woman found out she was pregnant and informed the recruitment agency and her future employer. She said the company then withdrew their offer of employment and the recruitment agency did not contact her about other employment opportunities. She claimed that she was discriminated against because of her pregnancy.

The company said that it was a small organisation and the decision to withdraw the employment offer was based on business reasons. The complaint was resolved through conciliation, with the company and agency providing financial compensation to the woman. The company also provided a written apology and developed an Equal Employment Opportunity policy for the workplace.

Breastfeeding discrimination

The SDA makes it unlawful to discriminate against women who are breastfeeding, including those who need to express milk.

Direct breastfeeding discrimination happens when a woman is treated less favourably because she is breastfeeding or needs to breastfeed over a period of time.

For example, it would be direct discrimination if a cafe refused to serve a woman because she is breastfeeding.

Indirect breastfeeding discrimination occurs when there is a policy, requirement or practice that is the same for everyone but disadvantages women who are breastfeeding.

For example, it may be indirect discrimination if an employer does not allow staff to take short breaks at particular times during the day. This may disadvantage women who are breastfeeding as they may need to take breaks to express milk.

Family responsibilities

It is against the law for employers to directly discriminate against a person because of his or her responsibilities to care for a family member. This includes caring for a spouse or de-facto partner, child, grandchild, brother, sister, parent, or grandparent.

For example, it may be discrimination for an employer to refuse to employ a person, demote a person or reduce a person's hours of work because the person needs to care for a family member.

It is good practice to take positive steps to help employees meet their family responsibilities. Workplace practices that don't provide reasonable flexibility around start and finish times and part-time work may also be indirectly discriminatory.

In Song v Ainsworth Game Technology Pty Ltd [2002] FMCA 31 the employer unilaterally changed the employee's status from full time to part time after the employee asked for time off to collect her child from a nearby school at 3.00pm and deliver him to an after school care centre. She needed a half hour break and was prepared to take a shorter lunch in order to make up the time. The Federal Magistrate decided that she was treated less favourably than a person without family responsibilities who would have expected some flexibility in starting and finishing times and in the timing of breaks. It was also found that the unilateral change to part-time employment constituted constructive dismissal, and that one of the grounds for the dismissal was her family responsibilities, in breach of the SDA.

Marital or relationship status

It is against the law to treat a person unfairly or deny a person opportunities because of their marital or relationship status, whether the person is single, married, in a de facto relationship, separated, divorced, widowed or never married. This includes people in same-sex relationships.

Direct marital or relationship status discrimination happens when a person is treated less favourably than a person with a different marital or relationship status would be treated in the same or similar circumstances.

For example, it may be direct discrimination for a company not to employ a married woman because it assumes she will want to start a family.

Indirect marital or relationship status discrimination occurs when there is a requirement or practice that is the same for everyone but has an unfair effect on people of a particular marital or relationship status.

For example, a company that offers only married employees working in remote locations allowances and leave to visit their families may be disadvantaging employees who are single or in de facto relationships.

When discrimination is not unlawful

Like other anti-discrimination laws, the SDA says that, in some circumstances, it is not unlawful to discriminate against a person on the basis of their sex in employment or in the delivery of services. This can include excluding people of a particular sex from participating in certain competitive sports, acts done under statutory authority and reasonable differences in the provision of insurance and superannuation. In relation to employment, there are limited exemptions from the SDA for religious institutions in relation to employment, and voluntary bodies in relation to membership and services. There may be some circumstances where it is appropriate to hire only a man or a woman for a particular position because the person's sex is a genuine occupational qualification. For example, providing welfare services to a single-sex client group, or when selecting a person to perform body searches or fit clothing or undertake domestic duties at someone's home. There is also a permanent exemption in relation to superannuation in certain circumstances.

The SDA also permits the Australian Human Rights Commission to grant temporary exemptions from some provisions of the SDA in certain circumstances.

Special measures

Special measures have the goal of fostering greater equality by supporting groups of people who face, or have faced, entrenched discrimination so they can have similar access to opportunities as others in the community.

The SDA provides for special measures that improve equality of opportunity for people based on their sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, intersex status, relationship status, pregnancy or potential pregnancy status or family responsibilities.

What is sexual harassment?

Sexual harassment is unwelcome sexual behaviour which a reasonable person would anticipate would make someone feel offended, humiliated or intimidated. It has nothing to do with mutual attraction or consensual behaviour.

Both men and women can experience sexual harassment, however it is most commonly experienced by women.

Sexual harassment can happen at work, at school or university and in the provision of goods and services.

Examples of sexual harassment include:

staring, leering or unwelcome touching

suggestive comments or jokes

sexually explicit pictures or posters

unwanted invitations to go out on dates or requests for sex

intrusive questions about a person's private life or body

unnecessary familiarity, such as deliberately brushing up against a person

emailing pornography or rude jokes

displaying posters, magazines or computer screen savers of a sexual nature

communicating content of a sexual nature via social media, such as sending sexually explicit text messages.

Complaint of sexual harassment in employment via social media resolved by the Commission
The complainant worked in a sales role with a car dealership. The complaint posted a photo of herself wearing a bikini and displaying tattoos on a social networking site. The complainant alleged the owner of the dealership sexually harassed her by posting comments of a sexual nature on the site in relation to the photograph. The complainant said she resigned because of the comments.

The dealership owner confirmed that he made the alleged comments but said he did not anticipate the complainant would feel offended or intimidated by the comments. He said he did not believe the complainant resigned because of the comments.

The complaint was resolved with an agreement that the owner of the dealership pay financial compensation to the woman and provide her with a written apology. The parties agreed to have no further contact with each other, including through social media.

Sexual harassment is prohibited in all work-related activity, including at the workplace and at work-related activities such as training courses, conferences, field trips, work functions and office Christmas parties. It is also prohibited between employees and customers.

A person who sexually harasses someone else is primarily responsible for their behaviour. However, in many cases, employers can also be held responsible - or vicariously liable - for acts of sexual harassment by their employees or agents.

Some types of sexual harassment may also be offences under criminal law. These include:

physical molestation or assault

indecent exposure

sexual assault

stalking

obscene communications (telephone calls, letters, etc)

sexually explicit physical contact, and

sexually explicit emails or SMS text messages.

If an employer suspects that a criminal incident has occurred, the individual should be advised to report the matter to the police. There should be a person nominated in the organisation's harassment policy and procedures to whom the incident can be reported. This person should provide any necessary support and assistance to the individual who is the subject of the alleged criminal incident. For more information, see Good practice guidelines for internal complaints processes.

Employers' obligations

Employers have a legal responsibility not to discriminate against employees and to take all reasonable steps to prevent sex discrimination and sexual harassment.

'Reasonable steps' will vary based on the size of the organisation. It may include putting in place policies and procedures to create a discrimination-free environment. It could also include procedures to deal with allegations of discrimination and harassment made by employees or customers.

It is against the law to victimise a person for making, or proposing to make a complaint to the Australian Human Rights Commission alleging discrimination or harassment under the SDA.

Employers can also be held legally responsible for sex discrimination or sexual harassment by their employees. For more information, see Vicarious liability. An employer can also be responsible as an accessory to the discrimination.

Useful links
Sex discrimination
Supporting working parents: Pregnancy and return to work national review
www.humanrights.gov.au/pregnancy-discrimination

Male Champions of Change
www.humanrights.gov.au/male-champions-change

Women in male-dominated industries: A toolkit of strategies
www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/women-male-dominated-industries-toolkit-strategies-2013

Supporting carers in the workplace: A toolkit
www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/investing-care-recognising-and-valuing-those-who-care
Sexual harassment
Know the Line
www.knowtheline.com.au

Ending workplace sexual harassment: A resource for small, medium and large employers
www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/ending-workplace-sexual-harassment-resource-small-medium-and-large-employers

Effectively preventing and responding to sexual harassment: A code of practice for employers
www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/effectively-preventing-and-responding-sexual-harassment-code-practice-employers-2008

These documents provide general information only on the subject matter covered. It is not intended, nor should it be relied on, as a substitute for legal or other professional advice. If required, it is recommended that the reader obtain independent legal advice. The information contained in these documents may be amended from time to time.

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The Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (SDA) makes it unlawful to discriminate against a person because of their sex, gender identity, intersex status, sexual orientation, marital or relationship status, family responsibilities, because they are pregnant or might become pregnant or because they are breastfeeding.

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(Alliance of Employers’ Counsel Worldwide, 2022)

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Status of Anti-Discrimination Laws in India

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Status of Anti-Discrimination Laws in India

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04. Anti-Discrimination Laws - L&E Global

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In the context of private sector employment, India currently does not have a comprehensive legislation that addresses workplace discrimination, except in relation to sexual harassment and in the context of persons with disabilities and with HIV, and in the context of protection of transgender persons from discrimination under the Transgender Act.

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Understanding gender discrimination and biasness in the workplace: voice from women segment

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Understanding gender discrimination and biasness in the workplace: voice from women segment

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From all of the evidence that has been presented in the situation, it is clear that workplaces in India discriminate against women by restricting opportunities and not providing equal pay for similar work.

Considering all three ethical theories, the situation is immoral. While the ethical theories differ in nature, their predominant focus is on providing individuals with equal opportunity so that they are motivated, and generate optimal utility and happiness for the greatest volume of people. Therefore, the evidence that the article presents, showing clear signs of discrimination, clearly does not apply considerations from the ethical theories leading to a poorly managed and unfair situation. This is reinforced by India being in the lower 40th percentile globally for gender equality despite their strong geopolitical and economic power.

Furthermore, the immorality of the situation under all three ethical theories  rejects the UN's SDG of gender equality. The article proposes that while there aren't necessarily strong legal issues being missed, the culture within Indian workplaces places a strong preference on male employees despite females being extremely capable.

If the executives and individuals in the business scenario were to apply the ethical theories presented by Kant, ethics of care and utilitarianism, there would be a society in which a large majority of people are happier and the country is working toward sec 5.1 and 5.5 of the UN's SDG.

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Example of Unfair Working Conditions in India

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Example of Unfair Working Conditions in India

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Kantian Ethics In Under 5 Minutes | Theory In 5

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Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.

Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral framework that can be used to justify military force or war. It is also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business because of the way in which it accounts for costs and benefits.

However, because we cannot predict the future, it's difficult to know with certainty whether the consequences of our actions will be good or bad. This is one of the limitations of utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values such as justice and individual rights. For example, assume a hospital has four people whose lives depend upon receiving organ transplants: a heart, lungs, a kidney, and a liver. If a healthy person wanders into the hospital, his organs could be harvested to save four lives at the expense of one life. This would arguably produce the greatest good for the greatest number. But few would consider it an acceptable course of action, let alone the most ethical one.

So, although utilitarianism is arguably the most reason-based approach to determining right and wrong, it has obvious limitations.

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Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that asserts that right and wrong are best determined by focusing on outcomes of actions and choices.

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The journal explores specific evidence to support the idea that women in India are discriminated against in the workplace. Throughout the article, pay discrepancies and gender composition imbalances for categories of roles are used to show that women face significant difficulty in Indian workplaces. The article addresses the idea that while there are laws that have been enacted to combat these issues, the laws alone are not enough and many of the problems are systemic (Singh, 2023).

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This Padlet intends to explore the issue of gender inequality through the critical examination of "The study of the legal and judicial approach in India to the problem of gender inequality in the workplace"

The goal is to explore the drivers behind gender equality to determine how it manifests itself in modern culture and analyse the impact of critical policy decisions. The findings will be interpreted through the lens of utilitarianism, ethics of care and Kantian ethics to determine if the issue is unethical under the principles that govern their respective theories.

Once applied, these ethical ideologies will assist in examining whether the UN's SDG of gender equality is being met, by providing indicative steps that the country could follow to align itself more closely with the SDG. Furthermore, given the context of the article we are limiting gender to discrimination solely to the workplace in India.

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The issue present in the situation is clear. When assessing the evidence provided in the journal, it is evident that gender equality is rife in India, presented in many ways through discrimination. Not only does the discrimination manifest itself in unequal pay for similar work as males, but in the job opportunities for hiring and progressing within a business, which generally tends to show a preference toward male employees.

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The findings of the article provide clear displays of discrimination against women that indicate ethics of care have not been applied to India's business culture. The article shows wages being 34% lower for the same position and work, women on boards being paid 5-33% less than males, and, in some instances, overall pay at all levels of the workforce is 25-44% lower. These are all clear, almost severe, displays of pay inequality and discrimination that do not show women having equal opportunity in the business landscape. Considering opportunity, as aforementioned, 85% of women feel a correlation between sparse pay increases and promotions, something which is  observed in the government with only 7.7% of public sector leaders being women.

Given ethics of care observe a situation as 'good' if individual's needs have been considered, the discrimination in a situation indicates the current business landscape in India is a very concerning issue under this ethical theory. Given the SDG of gender equality, specifically (5.1, 5.5) targets the same goals, it is not being considered either.

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As aforementioned, Kantian ethics suggest that all individuals possess equal moral worth and are deserving of equal respect and dignity. Within the framework of Kantian ethics, specific emphases is placed on the rationality of an individuals decision, which he suggests should adhere to universal moral principles over altruism. As aforementioned, the article presents very strong evidence of discrimination toward women, based on a large disparity of pay and low composition of women in specific industries (government leadership roles). As a result, the situation does not adhere to Kantian ethics as women, a large proportion of individuals in the community, are not being treated on an equal basis with respect and dignity.

By implementing Kantian ethics and principles, the situation would become more ethical as workplaces promote gender equality through lessening pay disparity and increasing access to new opportunities. By doing so, workplaces in India would show increasing consideration for an individual's inherent worth. Additionally, by empowering women through increased economic opportunities and reducing discrimination, workplaces in India would directly address the UN SDG (5.1 and 5.5).

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Using the theory of utilitarianism, the ongoings in this situation would not be considered ethical. The issue of gender inequality as examined by the journal presents many ways in which women are discriminated against in the workplace, leading to an outcome that does not provide optimal utility or happiness for the majority of individuals. The key evidence in the article to support this is that the large majority (85%) of women believe they have missed out on job opportunities because of gender and 92.3% of the public (government) leaders are male. While the occurrence of these factors may not be indicative of legal wrongdoings, it is clear that both the general population and workplaces in India hold a clear preference toward males, as indicated by 22% of females suggesting their workplaces would often favour male counterparts. These statistics provide some insight into why India is in the lower 40th percentile in gender equality. For such a large and powerful nation, to be in the lower 40th percentile of gender equality is extremely poor and provides a clear indication that they are not efficiently working toward the SDG of 'gender equality'.

In summary, it is clear that women's happiness is degraded as a result of the discrimination they face in the workplace, a clear indication that the theory of utilitarianism has not been considered as overall happiness is not being optimised.

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Kantian ethics were developed by one of the most prolific philosophers of modern times, Immanuel Kant. The ethical theories and framework that Kant created to place an emphasis on moral duty and an individual's intrinsic worth. Kant suggests that all individuals have equal moral worth, and therefore are deserving of equal respect and dignity (Shaw et al., 2020, p.54).

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An ethical theory is a set of principles that place a positive bias on specific areas and subjectively categorise assimilating situations as 'good'. This allows for human actions to be discerned into what is 'right' and 'wrong' (The Concise Encyclopedia of Business Ethics, 2022).

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Ethics of care places an emphasis on relationships and empathy in decision-making processes. It brings forth the idea that an 'ethical' decision considers other's needs and acts accordingly (Shaw et al., 2020, p.47).

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Does the evidence indicate that the overall workplace environment in India is 'right' using ethical theory?

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Does the evidence indicate that the overall workplace environment in India is 'right' using ethical theory?

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"...women on boards were paid 5-33% less than men and the pay gap for women in the workforce at all levels ranged from 25-42%" (Singh, 2023, p.210).

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In "Mackinnon Mackenzie v Audry D' Costa", "court held that lady stenographers were doing work of the same kind as male stenographers, the employer was obliged to pay equal remuneration irrespective of where they were working"  (Singh, 2023, p.210).

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"United Nations Development Programme's current Gender inequality index places India at 122 out of 191", which indicates India is in the lower 4 fourth quantile globally  (Singh, 2023, p.210).

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"85% of working women say they have lost out on increases, promotions or job offers because of their gender, compared to the regional average of 60%" (Singh, 2023, p.210).

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"22% of working women in India reported that their organisations show a preference for men at work, which is higher than the regional average of 16%" (Singh, 2023, p.210).

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"7.7% of public sector leaders in India are women" (Singh, 2023, p.209).

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"In the workforce, women make 34% less wages for the same work and position as men" (Singh, 2023, p.209).

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Evidence from the Journal Article that supports the ethical issue - Gender inequality in the workplace

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Evidence from the Journal Article that supports the ethical issue - Gender inequality in the workplace

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Gender equality is the 5th SDG on the United Nation's (UN's) list of 17 goals.

Considering the findings of the article, the specific targets being evaluated are as follows:

5.1 - "End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere"

5.5 - "Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life" (United Nations, 2022a).

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"
...At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They recognise that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth...

" (United Nations, 2022b).

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              Sustainability Development Goals

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              Sustainability Development Goals

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Under the theory of utilitarianism an action is considered 'right' if it provides maximum utility and benefit to the majority of individuals in a situation.

It is worth noting that utilitarianism is a 'consequentialist' theory. This means that greater emphasis is placed on the outcomes of a specific situation, and less so the intentions behind an individuals actions. For example, if an individual altruistically pursued career development and growth, but actually increased the revenue of the business such that everyone's salary increased, the fact that they did it without concern for others is almost ignored as an optimal, 'good', outcome was observed (Shaw et al., 2020, p.66).