# data[].attributes.body
Date: 30,000 BCE

Location: Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave, Germany

Civilization: Upper Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Paleolithic sculpture

Formal Qualities: Carved ivory, 12" tall, combination of human and animal traits.

Iconography: Likely a spiritual figure, blending human with lion.

Social/Historical Influences: maybe early religion or myth

# data[].attributes.body
- Date: ca. 30,000–28,000 BCE

Location: Chauvet Cave, France

Civilization: Upper Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Cave painting

Formal Qualities: Naturalistic outlines of cave bears in red ochre and charcoal.

Iconography: Bears shown in profile, possible ritual or symbolic meaning.

Social/Historical Influences: May have been tied to hunting rituals or spiritual respect for dangerous animals.

# data[].attributes.headline
Nude woman (Venus of Willendorf) (PALEOLITHIC)

# data[].attributes.subject
Nude woman (Venus of Willendorf) (PALEOLITHIC)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 28,000–25,000 BCE

Location: Willendorf, Austria

Civilization: Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Small portable figurine

Formal Qualities: Limestone, 4” tall, exaggerated breasts, belly, hips, and thighs.

Iconography: Fertility, survival, abundance maybe.

Social/Historical Influences: Portable art for hunter-gatherers.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: 15,000–13,000 BCE

Location: Dordogne, France

Civilization: Upper Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Paleolithic cave art

Formal Qualities: Overlapping painted animals (bulls, horses, deer), twisted perspective (horns frontal, bodies in profile).

Iconography: Hunting magic? Storytelling? Symbolic power of animals.

Social/Historical Influences: May have been ritual sites for ensuring hunting success.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: 15,000–13,000 BCE

Location: Dordogne, France

Civilization: paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Cave painting

Formal Qualities: Dynamic horse, natural outline, shading and spots.

Iconography: May represent observed horse species, with symbolic markings.

Social/Historical Influences: Shows growing skill in naturalistic observation.

# data[].attributes.headline
Rhinoceros, Wounded Man, and Bison (PALEOLITHIC)

# data[].attributes.subject
Rhinoceros, Wounded Man, and Bison (PALEOLITHIC)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 15,000–13,000 BCE

Location: Lascaux, France

Civilization: Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Cave painting

Formal Qualities: Stick-figure man, wounded bison, and rhinoceros; rare human representation.

Iconography: Possibly a hunting accident or mythic story.

Social/Historical Influences: Suggests ritual

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 15,000–10,000 BCE

Location: Altamira, Spain

Civilization: Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Paleolithic cave art

Formal Qualities: Painted in red and black, natural contour of cave ceiling used to give volume.

Iconography: Bison pierced by spears, wounded in the hunt.

Social/Historical Influences: May have been used in ritual hunting magic.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 13,000 BCE

Location: France

Civilization: Paleolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Paleolithic sculpture

Formal Qualities: Low-relief clay modeling, 2.5 ft long, detailed textures.

Iconography: Two bison shown in profile, likely symbolic animals.

Social/Historical Influences: Created deep inside caves, likely ritual significance.

# data[].attributes.body
Jericho, Jordan

Date: c. 7000 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Early Neolithic ritual art

Formal Qualities: Real human skulls covered in plaster, shells for eyes.

Iconography: Ancestor worship, remembrance of the dead.

Social/Historical Influences: Early villages practiced ancestor veneration.

# data[].attributes.body
Çatal Hüyük

Date: c. 6000 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Early settled farming culture

Formal Qualities: Mud-brick houses, wall paintings of hunting scenes and geometric patterns.

Iconography: Ritual and daily life, animals, hunters, volcanic eruptions.

Social/Historical Influences: One of the earliest permanent farming communities.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: c. 4000 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic/Proto-Elamite

Formal Qualities: Painted ceramic with stylized animals and geometric designs.

Iconography: Long-necked birds, dogs, ibex (goat) with huge horns.

# data[].attributes.body
Romania

Date: c. 3500 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic Europe

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Ceramic figurines

Formal Qualities: Clay male and female figures in seated poses.

Iconography: “The Thinker” pose suggests meditation, mourning, or ritual.

Social/Historical Influences: Indicates symbolic thought and early European ritual practices.

# data[].attributes.body
-Artist: unknown

- Formal Qualities: Carved stone, registers, composite view, hieratic scale.

-Iconography: Narmer with White/Red Crowns, Horus falcon

-Social/Historical: Celebrates unification of Egypt; ceremonial/propaganda piece.

# data[].attributes.body
Statues from the Abu Temple, Tell Asmar (Iraq)

Date: 2700–2500 BCE

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Carved stone votive statues, wide eyes, clasped hands.

Iconography: Worshippers eternally praying to the gods.

# data[].attributes.headline
Cycladic Figure, from the Cyclades (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Cycladic Figure, from the Cyclades (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2500 BCE

Civilization: Cycladic

Formal Qualities: Marble statuette; abstract, geometric form; folded arms.

Iconography: Likely a female figure; possible fertility or funerary function.

# data[].attributes.headline
Harpist, from Amorgos, Cyclades (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Harpist, from Amorgos, Cyclades (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2400–2300 BCE

Civilization: Cycladic

Formal Qualities: Marble; seated figure playing harp; stylized, abstract features.

Iconography: Musician, possibly connected to ritual or funerary practices.

# data[].attributes.headline
Imhotep. Step Pyramid of King Djoser, Saqqara – ca. 2681–2662 BCE (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Imhotep. Step Pyramid of King Djoser, Saqqara – ca. 2681–2662 BCE (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2681–2662 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Stone pyramid with stacked mastabas; large mortuary complex.

Iconography: Monumental tomb symbolizing stairway to the heavens.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Pyramid of Khufu, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
The Pyramid of Khufu, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2601–2528 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Limestone blocks; largest of the Giza pyramids; precise geometry.

Iconography: Royal tomb; symbol of divine kingship and eternal life.

# data[].attributes.body
Royal Cemetery of Ur (Iraq)

Date: c. 2600 BCE

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Gold, lapis lazuli, shell on wood.

Iconography: Goat reaching for a tree, possible fertility or myth symbol.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: c. 2600 BCE

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Wood box with inlaid shell, lapis, red limestone.

Iconography: One side shows war, the other peace (hieratic scale).

# data[].attributes.headline
Bull Lyre, Tomb of Queen Pu-abi, Ur (Iraq) (SUMERIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Bull Lyre, Tomb of Queen Pu-abi, Ur (Iraq) (SUMERIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: c. 2600 BCE

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Wooden harp with gold bull’s head, inlaid lapis and shell.

Iconography: Mythical scenes of animals playing human roles.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Pyramid of Khafra, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
The Pyramid of Khafra, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2570–2544 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Limestone pyramid; slightly smaller than Khufu’s; retains casing stones at top.

Iconography: Tomb for Pharaoh Khafra; associated with nearby Great Sphinx.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Pyramid of Menkaure, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
The Pyramid of Menkaure, Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2533–2515 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Smallest of the three main Giza pyramids; granite and limestone construction.

Iconography: Tomb of Pharaoh Menkaure; part of Giza necropolis complex.

# data[].attributes.headline
Menkaure and His Wife, Khamerernebty II, from Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Menkaure and His Wife, Khamerernebty II, from Giza (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2515 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Slate statue; standing figures; rigid, frontal pose; idealized proportions.

Iconography: Pharaoh and queen shown united; symbols of power and stability.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2500 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Diorite statue; seated figure; symmetrical, idealized body.

Iconography: Falcon god Horus protecting the king; symbol of divine kingship.

# data[].attributes.body
China

Date: c. 2500 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic China

Artist: Unknown

Stylistic Period: Ritual jade objects

Formal Qualities: Cong = square tube with circular hole, Bi = flat disk with circular hole, carved from jade.

Iconography: Heaven (circle) and Earth (square).

Social/Historical Influences: Used in burials for elite leaders.

# data[].attributes.headline
Scribe, from Saqqara (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Scribe, from Saqqara (Egypt) (OLD KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2400 BCE

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted limestone; seated cross-legged; realistic body and facial features.

Iconography: Represents an official of the court; attentive pose with papyrus scroll.

# data[].attributes.headline
Head of an Akkadian Ruler, Nineveh (Iraq) (AKKADIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Head of an Akkadian Ruler, Nineveh (Iraq) (AKKADIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: 2250–2200 BCE

Civilization: Akkadian

Formal Qualities: Bronze portrait head, life-like detail, damaged eyes.

Iconography: Probably Sargon of Akkad or Naram-Sin.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: r. 2254–2218 BCE

Civilization: Akkadian

Formal Qualities: Pink sandstone stele with diagonal composition.

Iconography: King shown larger than soldiers, climbing mountain, stars as gods.

Social/Historical: Celebrates military victory; portrays king as divine.

# data[].attributes.headline
Great Ziggurat of King Urnammu, Ur (Iraq)

# data[].attributes.subject
Great Ziggurat of King Urnammu, Ur (Iraq)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 2100 BCE

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Mud-brick stepped platform; rectangular base with sloping sides and staircases.

Iconography: Temple base raised toward the heavens; link between gods and humans.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: c. 2100 BCE

Civilization: Neolithic

Artist: Unknown, large communal project

Stylistic Period: Megalithic monument

Formal Qualities: Circular arrangement of massive stones (post-and-lintel).

Iconography: Likely astronomical calendar, linked to solstices.

Social/Historical Influences: Shows organized labor, ritual gathering, ancestor worship.

# data[].attributes.headline
Stele inscribed with the Law Code of Hammurabi (Babylon, Iraq) (BABYLONIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Stele inscribed with the Law Code of Hammurabi (Babylon, Iraq) (BABYLONIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1700 BCE

Civilization: Babylonian

Formal Qualities: Basalt stele; carved cuneiform text; relief of Hammurabi with Shamash.

Iconography: Hammurabi receiving authority from sun god Shamash; divine source of law.

# data[].attributes.headline
The “Queen’s Megaron,” from Knossos, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
The “Queen’s Megaron,” from Knossos, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1700–1300 BCE

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: Elaborate room with frescoes; dolphins and marine life motifs; light, airy design.

Iconography: Marine imagery symbolizing harmony with nature and the sea.

# data[].attributes.headline
Spring Fresco, from Akrotiri, Thera (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Spring Fresco, from Akrotiri, Thera (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1600–1500 BCE

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: True fresco technique; vibrant colors; naturalistic landscape with flowers and swallows.

Iconography: Celebration of nature’s renewal and harmony; no humans depicted.

# data[].attributes.headline
Mask of Agamemnon, Grave Circle A, Mycenae (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Mask of Agamemnon, Grave Circle A, Mycenae (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1600–1500 BCE

Civilization: Mycenaean, found in a burial spot

Formal Qualities: Beaten gold funerary mask; stylized facial features.

Iconography: Represents a noble or king buried at Mycenae; symbol of status in afterlife.

# data[].attributes.headline
Toreador Fresco, from Knossos, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Toreador Fresco, from Knossos, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1550–1450 BCE

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: True fresco; lively movement; elongated, stylized figures.

Iconography: Bull-leaping ritual, possibly athletic or ceremonial event.

# data[].attributes.headline
Octopus Vase, from Palaikastro, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.subject
Octopus Vase, from Palaikastro, Crete (Greece)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1500 BCE

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: Marine-style pottery; painted octopus wraps around vessel.

Iconography: Sea imagery symbolizing Minoan seafaring culture.

# data[].attributes.headline
Feeding the Oryxes, Wall painting, Tomb of Khnum-hotep, Beni Hasan (Egypt) (MIDDLE KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Feeding the Oryxes, Wall painting, Tomb of Khnum-hotep, Beni Hasan (Egypt) (MIDDLE KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1928–1895 BCE

Civilization: Middle Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted wall scene; detailed animals and figures; use of registers.

Iconography: Depicts daily life and care of animals; symbolizes prosperity and order.

# data[].attributes.headline
Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri (Egypt)

# data[].attributes.subject
Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri (Egypt)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1478–1458 BCE

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Terraced mortuary temple built into cliffside; colonnades and ramps.

Iconography: Dedicated to Amun and Hatshepsut; reliefs depict divine birth and trade expeditions.

# data[].attributes.headline
Kneeling Figure of King Hatshepsut, from Deir el-Bahri (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Kneeling Figure of King Hatshepsut, from Deir el-Bahri (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1473–1458 BCE

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Granite statue; pharaoh kneeling with offering jars; idealized features.

Iconography: Hatshepsut shown in male king’s regalia, presenting offerings to Amun.

# data[].attributes.headline
Akhenaten and His Family (Egypt) (AMARNA PERIOD)

# data[].attributes.subject
Akhenaten and His Family (Egypt) (AMARNA PERIOD)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1355 BCE

Civilization: Amarna Period, New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Sunken relief; elongated, curved figures; intimate family scene.

Iconography: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and daughters under Aten’s sun rays ending in hands of life.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1348–1336/35 BCE

Civilization: Amarna Period, New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted limestone bust; elongated neck, symmetrical features; unfinished eye.

Iconography: Idealized yet naturalistic portrait of the queen; symbol of beauty and power.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1300–1250 BCE

Civilization: Mycenaean

Formal Qualities: Tholos (beehive) tomb; corbeled stone vault; monumental entry.

Iconography: Royal tomb symbolizing power and wealth.

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1250 BCE

Civilization: Mycenaean

Formal Qualities: Post-and-lintel with relieving triangle; limestone; relief of lions above.

Iconography: Lions flanking a column; symbol of strength and protection.

# data[].attributes.headline
Cover of the coffin of Tutankhamun (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Cover of the coffin of Tutankhamun (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1330s BCE, 18th Dynasty

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Gold with inlay of glass and semi-precious stones.

Iconography: Pharaoh as Osiris; crossed crook and flail; protective deities.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Weighing of the Heart and Judgment by Osiris, from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
The Weighing of the Heart and Judgment by Osiris, from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1285 BCE

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted papyrus scroll; sequential narrative registers.

Iconography: Anubis weighing heart against feather; Osiris judging; gods overseeing.

# data[].attributes.headline
Temple of Ramesses II, Abu Simbel (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.subject
Temple of Ramesses II, Abu Simbel (Egypt) (NEW KINGDOM)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 1279–1213 BCE, 19th Dynasty

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Rock-cut temple; colossal seated statues of Ramesses; interior reliefs.

Iconography: Ramesses II depicted as a god; military victories celebrated.

# data[].attributes.headline
Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II, Iraq (with Lamassu) (ASSYRIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Gate of the Citadel of Sargon II, Iraq (with Lamassu) (ASSYRIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: 742–706 BCE

Civilization: Assyrian

Formal Qualities: Stone gateway; lamassu (winged human-headed bulls) carved in relief.

Iconography: Guardian figures warding off evil; symbol of Assyrian power.

# data[].attributes.body
Formal Qualities:

Big, tall vase with lots of simple patterns (zigzags, triangles).

Stick-figure people.

Very balanced.

Iconography:

Shows a funeral: dead person lying down, people crying and pulling their hair.

Some weird human-animal shapes.

Social-Historical:

Used as a grave marker in Athens.

Shows how they buried and honored the dead.

# data[].attributes.headline
Lion Hunt relief, Palace of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh (Iraq) (ASSYRIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Lion Hunt relief, Palace of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh (Iraq) (ASSYRIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 645 BCE

Civilization: Assyrian

Formal Qualities: Carved alabaster reliefs; dynamic movement; detailed lions and figures.

Iconography: King hunting lions = royal dominance over chaos.

# data[].attributes.body
Formal Qualities:

Stiff standing pose, Archaic smile, long clothes, patterned hair.

Iconography:

Young woman; could be a goddess or grave marker.

Social-Historical:

Shows early Greek religion and Egyptian influence.

# data[].attributes.headline
Ishtar Gate (restored), Babylon (Iraq) (NEO-BABYLONIAN)

# data[].attributes.subject
Ishtar Gate (restored), Babylon (Iraq) (NEO-BABYLONIAN)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 600 BCE

Civilization: Neo-Babylonian

Formal Qualities: Glazed brick; blue surface with reliefs of lions, dragons, bulls.

Iconography: Sacred animals of gods; ceremonial gateway to city.

# data[].attributes.body
Formal Qualities:

Stiff pose, one foot forward, Archaic smile, patterned hair, simple muscles.

Iconography:

Young man; grave marker or offering; symbol of ideal youth.

Social-Historical:

Egyptian influence; early Greek study of the human body.

# data[].attributes.body
(450–440 BCE)

Formal Qualities:

Life-sized male; contrapposto; realistic muscles; calm, ideal face; originally held a spear.

Iconography:

Ideal athlete/warrior; symbolizes strength, balance, perfect proportions.

Social-Historical:

Shows Greek focus on math, harmony, and ideal human form.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Exekias, Ancient Greek
Date: around 540 BCE

Stylistic Period: Archaic, Black-Figure

Formal Qualities:

Black-figure vase; black silhouettes with carved details.

Careful detail in armor and clothing; stylized but natural poses.

Iconography:

Achilles and Ajax playing dice during a battle break.

Shows a quiet, human moment from The Iliad.

Historical Influences:

Greek love of storytelling in art.

Vases used for storage or graves; celebrates heroic myths.

# data[].attributes.headline
Bull capital, Persepolis (Iran) (PERSION)

# data[].attributes.subject
Bull capital, Persepolis (Iran) (PERSION)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 500 BCE

Civilization: Persian (Achaemenid)

Formal Qualities: Stone column capital; double-headed bulls.

Iconography: Symbol of strength supporting royal audience hall roof.

# data[].attributes.headline
Darius and Xerxes Giving Audience, Persepolis (Iran) (PERSION)

# data[].attributes.subject
Darius and Xerxes Giving Audience, Persepolis (Iran) (PERSION)

# data[].attributes.body
Date: ca. 490 BCE

Civilization: Persian (Achaemenid)

Formal Qualities: Stone relief; hierarchical scale; orderly composition.

Iconography: King enthroned with attendants; tribute bearers shown in registers.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek
Date: around 480 BCE

Stylistic Period: Early Classical

Formal Qualities:

Standing male; natural contrapposto; realistic muscles; calm face; real-life proportions.

Iconography:

Ideal young man or athlete; shows natural movement and balance.

Social-Historical:

Marks shift from stiff Archaic style to realistic Classical style; reflects Greek humanism.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek, Classical Period
Date: around 460–450 BCE

Stylistic Period: Early Classical

Formal Qualities:

Bronze god statue; strong balanced pose; one arm raised for a weapon; natural muscles and movement.

Iconography:

Zeus or Poseidon; symbolizes power, authority, and control.

Social-Historical:

Shows Greek focus on ideal human form, divine strength, and natural movement.

# data[].attributes.headline
Diskobolos (Discus Thrower, copy of an original by Myron)

# data[].attributes.subject
Diskobolos (Discus Thrower, copy of an original by Myron)

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Myron (original), Ancient Greek, Classical Period
Title: Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)
Date: around 450 BCE

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Life-sized male; twisting pose; realistic muscles; strong sense of movement and balance.

Iconography:

Athlete mid-throw; highlights strength, skill, and frozen action.

Social-Historical:

Shows Greek love of ideal bodies, sports, and natural movement.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Parthenon (with sculptures from east pediment, south metopes, north & east friezes)

# data[].attributes.subject
The Parthenon (with sculptures from east pediment, south metopes, north & east friezes)

# data[].attributes.body
Artist: phideas

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Big marble temple; mostly Doric columns; balanced; lots of sculpture.

Iconography:

Athena’s birth, battle scenes, and the Panathenaic parade.

Social-Historical:

Honors Athena; shows Athenian power, pride, and ideals.

# data[].attributes.body
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek
Date: 427–424 BCE

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Small marble temple; Ionic columns; elegant and balanced; sculpted frieze and parapet.

Iconography:

Dedicated to Athena as Victory; battle scenes; winged Nike figures.

Social-Historical:

Celebrates Athenian military wins; reflects Classical ideals and religion.

# data[].attributes.headline
Nike, from balustrade of Temple of Athena Nike

# data[].attributes.subject
Nike, from balustrade of Temple of Athena Nike

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek
Date: around 410–407 BCE

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Marble relief; graceful leaning pose; flowing, clinging drapery; natural movement.

Iconography:

Nike, goddess of victory, doing a small human action.

Social-Historical:

Classical focus on realism; linked to Athenian victory and the Temple of Athena Nike.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek
Date: 421–405 BCE
Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Marble temple with an irregular, multi-level layout; famous Caryatid porch with female figure columns.

Iconography:

Caryatids as idealized women; temple honors both Athena and Poseidon.

Social-Historical:

Shows Classical Greek love of proportion and blending sculpture with architecture; reflects Athenian pride and religion.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Ancient Greek (original by Lysippos)
Date: around 330 BCE
Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Marble Roman copy of a Greek bronze; life-sized with slim, elongated proportions.

Athlete scraping oil with a strigil; relaxed contrapposto; very natural anatomy.

Iconography:

Athlete in an everyday moment; celebrates the human body and movement.

Social-Historical:

Shows Greek admiration for athletes; Lysippos’ new proportions and realism.

# data[].attributes.body
Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Lysippos (Greek)
Date: 4th century BCE
Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

Huge marble statue; exaggerated muscles; leaning on a club; relaxed, heavy contrapposto; tired expression.

Iconography:

Hercules after his labors; shows strength, endurance, and exhaustion.

Social-Historical:

Reflects Greek love of heroes and physical perfection; Lysippos’ more realistic proportions; Romans admired and copied Greek art.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Apollonius (Greek)
Date: around 100–50 BCE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic

Formal Qualities:

Bronze statue of an exhausted boxer sitting; detailed muscles, scars, and swelling.

Slumped contrapposto pose; very expressive, emotional face.

Iconography:

Shows a worn, aging athlete; highlights struggle, pain, and human vulnerability.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic focus on realism, emotion, and everyday human experience.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Hellenistic Greek, from Pergamon
Date: ca. 230–220 BCE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic

Formal Qualities:

Marble figure collapsing in death; twisted pose; very detailed muscles and veins; dramatic, emotional expression.

Iconography:

Dying soldier; shows suffering, heroism, and vulnerability.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic focus on drama, realism, and intense emotion; reflects Pergamon’s heroic culture.

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Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon (restored)

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Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon (restored)

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Hellenistic Greek, Pergamon
Date: around 175–150 BCE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic

Formal Qualities:

Huge high-relief frieze; twisting, overlapping figures; deep carving; dramatic movement; grand stairway.

Iconography:

Battle of gods vs. giants; gods powerful, giants struggling; intense heroism and drama.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic love of emotion and movement; Pergamon used myth to show political power and expansion.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Possibly Pythokritos of Rhodes, Hellenistic Greek
Date: around 190 BCE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic

Formal Qualities:

Marble figure of Nike landing on a ship; dramatic forward lean; flowing, wind-blown drapery; very dynamic despite missing head and arms.

Iconography:

Goddess of victory celebrating a naval win; expresses speed, triumph, and divine arrival.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic love of motion, drama, and emotion; likely made to honor a real military victory.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Greek (Hellenistic), 1st century CE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic

Formal Qualities:

Marble group of Laocoön and sons attacked by serpents; twisting bodies; intense movement; highly detailed muscles and emotional faces.

Iconography:

Laocoön punished for warning against the Trojan Horse; shows suffering, struggle, and divine punishment.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic focus on drama, realism, and human vulnerability; Romans admired and copied works like this.

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Identification:
• Roman Republic, late 2nd century BCE
• Republican Roman period

Formal Qualities:

Small stone temple with stucco; mix of Greek and Etruscan design.

Ionic columns only in front; engaged columns on sides; high podium with front stairs.

Iconography:

Dedicated to Portunus, god of harbors; placed by the Tiber for protection of trade.

Social-Historical:

Shows Roman mix of Greek style with practical Roman design; reflects order, tradition, and religious duty.

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Identification:
• Roman Republic, late 1st century BCE
• Republican Roman period

Formal Qualities:

Marble bust; highly realistic; wrinkles and aged features; serious expression.

Iconography:

Likely Brutus; symbolizes duty and loyalty to the Republic.

Social-Historical:

Republican verism valued age, wisdom, and virtue.

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Veristic male portrait. Early 1st century BCE

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Veristic male portrait. Early 1st century BCE

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Identification:
• Roman Republic, early 1st century BCE
• Republican Roman period

Formal Qualities:

Marble bust; very realistic; wrinkles, balding, serious expression.

Iconography:

Patrician symbolizing wisdom, honor, and public duty.

Social-Historical:

Republican verism valued age and virtue; busts honored ancestors and service.

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Form:

Large, multi-level palace with courtyard, colorful frescoes, unique columns, and storage rooms.

Function:

Political/religious center for ceremonies and administration.

Content:

Bull-leaping, nature scenes, and a maze-like layout (linked to Minotaur myth).

Context:

Minoan civilization; wealthy, sea-trading culture

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Greek, High Classical Period (around 447–438 BCE)
Stylistic Period: Classical Greek

Formal Qualities:

Low-relief marble carving; calm, rhythmic procession; idealized but natural figures; smooth, balanced Classical style.

Iconography:

Panathenaic festival honoring Athena; horsemen, elders, maidens, and gods; symbolizes Athenian unity and devotion.

Social-Historical:

Made during Athens’ Golden Age; reflects democracy, civic pride, and Classical ideals; part of the Parthenon’s celebration of the city and its goddess.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Greek, High Classical Period (around 410–400 BCE)
Stylistic Period: Classical Greek

Formal Qualities:

Low-relief marble; calm scene with detailed drapery and gentle poses.

Iconography:

Hegeso choosing jewelry = wealth, status, and what she leaves behind in death.

Social-Historical:

Classical Greek memorial; honors women’s domestic roles and ideal beauty.

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Niobid Painter. Red-figured calyx krater, from Orvieto. ca. 460–450 BCE

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Niobid Painter. Red-figured calyx krater, from Orvieto. ca. 460–450 BCE

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Greek, High Classical Period (around 460–450 BCE)
Stylistic Period: Classical Greek

Formal Qualities:

Red-figure vase; detailed figures on a black background.

Two different scenes on each side; varied, natural poses; early use of depth with multiple ground lines.

Iconography:

Apollo and Artemis killing Niobe’s children (punishment for pride).

Other side likely Herakles with heroes.

Themes: hubris, divine power, moral warning.

Social-Historical:

Classical shift toward realism and space.

Used at symposia where myths were discussed.

Shows Greek interest in beauty, storytelling, and moral lessons.

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Identification:
Artist/Civilization: Hellenistic Greek, from the Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon
Date: Around 175 BCE
Stylistic Period: Hellenistic Greek

Formal Qualities:

Deep high relief; twisting, emotional figures; dramatic motion and shadows.

Iconography:

Athena defeats giant Alkyoneus; Gaia pleads; Nike crowns her, gods triumph over chaos.

Social-Historical:

Hellenistic drama and power; Pergamon used it to show strength and divine favor.

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The Battle of Issos or Battle of Alexander and the Persians. Mosaic copy

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The Battle of Issos or Battle of Alexander and the Persians. Mosaic copy

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Identification:
• Greek original, Roman mosaic copy
• Original around 310 BCE, Roman copy around 100 BCE
• Hellenistic Greek period

Formal Qualities:

Detailed mosaic of tiny tesserae; dramatic movement and diagonals; expressive faces; realistic reflections and battlefield chaos.

Iconography:

Alexander charges forward bravely; Darius recoils in fear; shows heroism, defeat, and the intensity of war.

Social-Historical:

Roman copy of a famous Greek painting; reflects Hellenistic drama and admiration for Greek military power.

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Fibula, from Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri. ca. 670–650

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Fibula, from Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri. ca. 670–650

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Identification
• Etruscan
• Fibula from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri
• ca. 670–650 BCE
• Orientalizing period of Etruscan art

Formal Qualities:

Gold garment pin with tiny granulation; lions and geometric patterns; very precise and decorative.

Iconography:

Lions = power and protection; gold shows wealth and elite status; likely a tomb offering.

Social-Historical:

Found in a wealthy Etruscan tomb; shows Near Eastern influence and strong aristocratic culture.

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Burial chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri. 3rd century

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Burial chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri. 3rd century

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Identification
• Title: Burial Chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri
• Culture: Etruscan
• Date: 3rd century BCE
• Period: Etruscan with Hellenistic influence

Formal Qualities:

Underground stone tomb with painted reliefs of household items, weapons, and beds; warm, home-like atmosphere.

Iconography:

Everyday objects = comfort in the afterlife; weapons = protection; Kerberos = underworld connection; tomb as a home for ancestors.

Social-Historical:

Shows Etruscan belief in a home-like afterlife, strong family identity, and wealthy status; blends Greek influence with Etruscan warmth.

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Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia. ca. 530–520 BCE

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Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia. ca. 530–520 BCE

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Identification
• Title: Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia
• Culture: Etruscan
• Date: ca. 530–520 BCE
• Artist: Unknown
• Period: Archaic Etruscan

Formal Qualities:

Bright frescoes; lively figures in motion; outdoor scenes with birds, water, and nature; stylized, expressive forms.

Iconography:

Hunting and fishing = vitality and joy; diving = transition to afterlife; images suggest life’s pleasures continue beyond death.

Social-Historical:

Etruscan tombs celebrated life; reflects elite status, love of nature, and belief in a pleasant afterlife.

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. Sarcophagus, from Cerveteri. ca. 520 BCE

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. Sarcophagus, from Cerveteri. ca. 520 BCE

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Identification

• Title: Sarcophagus from Cerveteri (Sarcophagus of the Spouses)

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: ca. 520 BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Archaic Etruscan

• Material: Painted terra cotta

Formal Qualities:

Terra-cotta sarcophagus of a husband and wife reclining together; stylized faces, expressive hands, warm and rounded forms.

Iconography:

Banquet pose = eternal feasting and joy; shows partnership, family unity, and a happy afterlife.

Social-Historical:

Reflects Etruscan value of family and the high status of women; funerary art focused on celebration, not sorrow.

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Charun and Vanth from Tomb, Tarquinia. 3rd century BCE

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Charun and Vanth from Tomb, Tarquinia. 3rd century BCE

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Identification

• Title: Charun and Vanth, Tomb at Tarquinia

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: 3rd century BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Hellenistic Etruscan

• Medium: Tomb painting

Formal Qualities:

Bold painted figures with strong outlines and dramatic expressions; stylized, emotional, and pushed to the front; darker mood.

Iconography:

Charun = death demon enforcing death’s boundary.

Vanth = winged guide who leads souls.

Together show fear + reassurance in the journey to the afterlife.

Social-Historical:

From a later, more somber Etruscan period with Hellenistic influence; reflects worries about death as Rome rose; shows unique Etruscan beliefs about afterlife spirits.

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Identification

• Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple (based on Vitruvius)

• Etruscan

• Originally 6th century BCE

• Artist unknown

• Archaic Etruscan period

• Architecture made from wood, mud-brick, and terracotta

Formal Qualities:

Wood and mud-brick with terracotta; tall front podium and deep porch; Tuscan columns only in front; three interior rooms; roof statues.

Iconography:

Meant to be approached from the front; roof gods (like Apollo) show divine presence; three cellae for major Etruscan deities.

Social-Historical:

Known through Vitruvius; shows Etruscan ritual-focused design and strong terracotta tradition; heavily influenced later Roman temples.

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7. Vulca of Veii (?). Aplu (Apollo), from Veii. ca. 510 BCE

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7. Vulca of Veii (?). Aplu (Apollo), from Veii. ca. 510 BCE

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Identification
• Title: Aplu (Apollo), from Veii
• Artist: Vulca of Veii (attributed)
• Culture: Etruscan
• Date: 510 BCE
• Period: Archaic Etruscan
• Material: Painted terracotta
• Location: Roof of the Portonaccio Temple at Veii

Formal Qualities:

Life-size terracotta statue; energetic forward stride; Archaic smile and patterned hair; flowing drapery; fully 3-D and brightly painted.

Iconography:

Apollo (Aplu) in an active rooftop myth scene; dynamic pose shows divine power and presence.

Social-Historical:

Etruscan terracotta tradition; roof statues engaged viewers below; influenced by Greek Archaic style but more expressive; shows belief in active gods.

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Identification

• Title: Chimera

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: 400 BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Classical Etruscan

• Material: Bronze sculpture

• Location found: Arezzo, Italy

Formal Qualities:

Detailed bronze statue; twisting, tense pose; sharp expression; defined muscles; realistic fur and serpent tail.

Iconography:

Mythical lion-goat-snake creature; symbolizes danger, power, and heroic struggle; linked to Bellerophon.

Social-Historical:

Shows Etruscan bronze mastery; influenced by Greek myth; likely a temple offering; reflects elite patronage.

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Augustus of Primaporta. Possibly Roman copy of a statue of ca. 20 CE

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Augustus of Primaporta. Possibly Roman copy of a statue of ca. 20 CE

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Identification

• Title: Augustus of Primaporta

• Date: Roman copy around 20 CE, original likely around 20 BCE

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Artist: Unknown

• Material: Marble (original probably bronze)

• Style: Early Imperial Roman with strong Classical Greek influence

Formal Qualities:

Idealized, youthful statue; contrapposto; raised arm; detailed armor; barefoot with Cupid on a dolphin.

Iconography:

Shows Augustus as military leader and semi-divine ruler; breastplate celebrates victory and divine lineage.

Social-Historical:

Imperial propaganda promoting Augustus as god-backed, powerful, and peaceful; model for later emperors.

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 West façade of Ara Pacis Augustae. 13–9 BCE

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 West façade of Ara Pacis Augustae. 13–9 BCE

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Identification

• Title: West Façade of the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace)

• Date: 13–9 BCE

• Culture: Roman Empire, Augustan period

• Location: Rome

• Artist: Unknown

• Material: Marble

• Style: Early Imperial Roman with Classical Greek influence

Formal Qualities:

Marble monument with detailed reliefs; naturalistic, idealized figures; deep carving and decorative vines; organized narrative panels.

Iconography:

Celebrates peace under Augustus; myth scenes link him to Aeneas and divine ancestry; vines symbolize fertility and prosperity.

Social-Historical:

Senate commissioned it to honor Augustus’s victories and restored order; strong imperial propaganda showing him as Rome’s rightful, god-backed ruler.

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Identification
• Title: Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)
• Location: Rome, Italy
• Date: 72–80 CE
• Culture: Roman Empire, Flavian dynasty
• Patron: Emperor Vespasian, completed under Titus
• Material: Concrete, travertine, tufa, marble
• Function: Public entertainment such as gladiator fights, animal hunts, and large spectacles

Formal Qualities:

Massive concrete amphitheater with arches, vaults, and tiered seating.

Iconography:

Shows Roman power and public entertainment culture.

Social-Historical:

Built to gain public favor and display imperial strength.

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Identification

• Title: Arch of Titus

• Location: Rome, Italy (Roman Forum)

• Date: 81 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, Flavian period

• Patron: Emperor Domitian, in honor of Titus

• Material: Marble over a concrete core

• Type: Triumphal arch

Formal Qualities:

Single arch with reliefs, Composite columns, and a coffered barrel vault.

Iconography:

Shows Titus’s triumph and the Menorah taken from Jerusalem.

Social-Historical:

Flavian propaganda celebrating military victory on the Sacred Way.

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 Forum of Trajan, Rome. Restored view by Gilbert Gorsk

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 Forum of Trajan, Rome. Restored view by Gilbert Gorsk

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Identification

• Title: Forum of Trajan (restored view)

• Location: Rome, Italy

• Date: 112 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Empire period

• Patron: Emperor Trajan

• Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus

• Materials: Marble, concrete, stone (original)

• Function: Public, political, legal, and commercial complex

Formal Qualities:

Massive complex with basilica, courtyard, libraries, Trajan’s Column, and nearby market.

Iconography:

Column shows Trajan’s Dacian victories and holds his burial.

Social-Historical:

Built with Dacian wealth; largest imperial forum; symbol of Roman power and engineering.

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Identification

• Title: Column of Trajan

• Location: Rome, Italy (Forum of Trajan)

• Date: 106–113 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Patron: Emperor Trajan

• Material: Marble

• Function: Commemorative monument and burial marker for Trajan

Formal Qualities:

Tall marble column with a spiral relief narrative and interior staircase.

Iconography:

Shows Trajan’s Dacian Wars—marching, building, battles, and leadership.

Social-Historical:

Part of Trajan’s Forum; funded by Dacian wealth; holds Trajan’s ashes; propagandistic record of Roman power.

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Identification

• Title: Pantheon

• Location: Rome, Italy

• Date: 117–125 CE, during Hadrian’s reign

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Patron: Emperor Hadrian (inscription credits Agrippa)

• Material: Concrete, marble, brick

• Function: Temple to all gods, later converted to a Christian church

Formal Qualities:

Huge rotunda with a concrete dome, oculus, and Corinthian portico.

Iconography:

Temple to all gods; dome = heavens; oculus = divine light.

Social-Historical:

Shows Roman engineering mastery; built under Hadrian; later became a church, preserving it.

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Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. 161–80 CE

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Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. 161–80 CE

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Identification

• Title: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

• Location: Originally on Capitoline Hill, Rome; now Capitoline Museums

• Date: 161–180 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Material: Bronze with traces of original gilding

• Artist: Unknown

• Function: Imperial monument honoring Marcus Aurelius

Formal Qualities:

Bronze emperor on horseback, calm and commanding.

Iconography:

Wise, peaceful ruler; philosopher-emperor.

Social-Historical:

Imperial propaganda; survived because people thought it was Constantine.

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Atrium of the House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii. 2nd century BCE–79 CE

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Atrium of the House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii. 2nd century BCE–79 CE

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Identification

• Title: Atrium of the House of the Silver Wedding

• Location: Pompeii, Italy

• Date: 2nd century BCE to 79 CE (preserved by eruption)

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Material: Stone, plaster, terracotta

• Function: Atrium in a Roman domus used for greeting guests and public household activities

Formal Qualities:

Central atrium with roof opening and water basin; light-filled, decorated space.

Iconography:

Shows wealth, hospitality, and family status; water = purity + engineering skill.

Social-Historical:

Heart of elite Roman homes; used for greeting guests and business; preserved at Pompeii.

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Fourth Style wall painting, Ixion Room, House of the Vettii, Pompeii. 63–79 CE

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Fourth Style wall painting, Ixion Room, House of the Vettii, Pompeii. 63–79 CE

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Identification

• Title: Fourth Style wall painting, Ixion Room, House of the Vettii

• Location: Pompeii, Italy

• Date: 63 to 79 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Medium: Fresco

• Style: Fourth Style Roman wall painting

Formal Qualities:

Mix of illusionistic architecture and flat decoration; bold colors; ornate, complex Fourth Style design.

Iconography:

Myth of Ixion’s punishment; theme = consequences of immoral behavior; luxury + moral messaging.

Social-Historical:

Wealthy freedmen showing status after 62 CE earthquake; Roman taste for myth, luxury, and impressive home décor.

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Basilica of Maxentius, renamed Basilica of Constantine, Rome. ca. 307 CE

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Basilica of Maxentius, renamed Basilica of Constantine, Rome. ca. 307 CE

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Identification

• Title: Basilica of Maxentius later called Basilica of Constantine

• Location: Roman Forum, Rome

• Date: around 307 CE

• Culture: Late Roman Empire

• Commissioned by Maxentius and finished by Constantine

• Materials: concrete, brick, marble

• Function: public administrative building and law court

Formal Qualities:

Huge concrete basilica with groin vaults, barrel-vaulted nave, clerestory light, and an apse for Constantine’s statue.

Iconography:

Scale and statue express Roman imperial power and divine authority.

Social-Historical:

Last major Forum basilica; used for civic business; shows shift toward Christian-era architecture.

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Portrait of Constantine the Great. Early 4th century CE

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Portrait of Constantine the Great. Early 4th century CE

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Identification

• Title: Portrait of Constantine the Great

• Date: early 4th century CE around 315 to 330 CE

• Culture: Late Roman Empire

• Material: marble (original statue also had wood and bronze core with marble on the outside)

• Location: originally placed inside the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome

• Artist: unknown

• Type: colossal portrait statue

Formal Qualities:

Enormous idealized marble head; simplified features; huge upward-looking eyes; symbolic, not realistic.

Iconography:

Constantine as God-chosen ruler; upward gaze = divine authority; colossal size = power.

Social-Historical:

Made after Christianity legalized; marks shift toward spiritual, symbolic art; imperial propaganda in a basilica setting.