# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This page contains math vocabulary cards for Kindergarten through 8th Grade and Secondary 1 Mathematics. These cards can also be found in Spanish, Chinese, and French under the Dual Immersion menu. Portuguese, German, and Russian vocabulary cards are located at the following website: USOE Dual Immersion Vocabulary Cards

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page contains math vocabulary cards for Kindergarten through 8th Grade and Secondary 1 Mathematics. These cards can also be found in Spanish, Chinese, and French under the Dual Immersion menu...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Adding a math word wall to my classroom completely changed how my students access our math vocabulary and the concepts we learn in class. Our math word walls are covered in examples and visuals that show the math concepts in action along with the vocabulary words we cover in class. My students refer to our walls during independent work, giving them greater independence and confidence, and when a student has a question during a lesson, I am able to get him or her back on track faster by pointing to the reminders on our walls.

From math vocabulary reminders to greater student independence to making the room an inviting place to learn, there are so many positives to adding a visual math word wall to any classroom.

In this post I want to highlight 5 reasons I believe so strongly in math word walls, especially ones that show examples and concepts in context, and why have them in my classroom. I'll also include photos of the pdf math word walls I've made covering grades 5, 6, 7 and 8 and Algebra, Geometry and Algebra 2.

Reason #1: Greater student independence

You're at the board in the middle of an amazing lesson when a hand goes up. The good thing? It's not to go to the bathroom. The bad? It is about a concept not at all related to your awesome lesson.

Students are forever asking questions that have nothing to do with what is currently happening. A lot of times these questions are long-held misconceptions or misunderstandings. Magic happens when those confusions are ironed out. Those are the "lightbulb moments" we all live for as teachers.
With references on the walls, students can independently access the information that is clogging up their thinking so that they can get back to the current topic. The boost in confidence this gives students is reason enough for a word wall.

Reason #2: Keeping the class on track

This one is the teacher version of reason #1. Word walls help keep the class on track. When I am able to point to a reminder on the wall and quickly get that one student over that speed bump, class runs so much more smoothly. I believe in answering all questions, especially those " you should have learned this 3 years ago" questions.

It is an honor to have students ask questions that are not on grade-level and I never, ever, ever use "should" in my teaching. Asking these questions means that they trust me with their insecurities and this means so much to me. That being said, random math questions increase the possibility that the rest of the class will start snapchatting. Math word walls help me move faster through these questions so that my class stays on track.

Reason #3: An inviting classroom

In Broken Window Theory, the idea is that a small thing like a building's broken window sends a loud message that the building is not being cared for. The theory states that people will then break more windows because what does it even matter anyway?

When a building is cared for, people know it. When we put even a little effort into making our classrooms warm and inviting, it sends a powerful unspoken message that we care about our students and their learning. It also sends the same message to parents. A principal once gave me some advice about parents. He said, "Parents just want to know that you like their kid." Now as a mom, I completely get it.

Reason #4: Connections to previous topics

Many of my students in Algebra 2 don't automatically remember what the x value at a y-intercept is or how to find the slope of a line. Even though Algebra 1 is not taught in my classroom at all during the day, I have Algebra 1 references on my wall.

Over and over again I go to that wall to point to the vocabulary my students had seen 2 years earlier. By having those reminders there, more difficult Algebra 2 topics are more accessible. When one of my students forgets what a zero is, I can point to our linear graph's x-intercept and make the connection. Breaking hard problems down into easier examples is also a useful skill, especially during dreaded standardized tests.

Reason #5: Low floor, high ceiling

Math can be super intimidating for some kids, and those are the same kids who may not always feel comfortable asking questions. Math word walls create a classroom environment with a "low floor, high ceiling" where all kids can enter and then grow.

I 'm reading this amazing book called Mathematical Mindsets written by Jo Boaler that puts into words everything I want to be as a teacher. To be quite honest, between work, family and exhaustion, it's the first book I have read in probably 5 years. That is embarrassing to type, and at the same time I am so thankful my first book back is this book. I'm an exceptionally slow reader, which makes me think about my students with diagnosed and undiagnosed reading disabilities. If it's hard for me to read, how must it be for them?

I make sure to make word walls accessible for all with visual references that are not too wordy. This allows kids with learning disabilities, English Language Learners and kids who are afraid of math to enter into the conversation.

I combined all of the math word wall references in this post (and a lot more) into this
math word walls bundle .

Math word walls:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
fun math teaching ideas and activities for middle school and high school

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
math pennants and free reference sheets.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
5 Ways Math Word Walls Have Changed My Teaching

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Adding a math word wall to my classroom completely changed how my students access our math vocabulary and the concepts we learn in class. Our math word walls are covered in examples and visuals that show the math concepts in action along with the vocabulary words we cover in class.

# data[].attributes.headline
Calderon's 7 Steps to Teaching Vocabulary

# data[].attributes.subject
Calderon's 7 Steps to Teaching Vocabulary

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
T-Chart, Pair, Defend is not my strategy. It was published in 7 Steps to a Language Rich Classroom. The information contained in this post is based on what I learned at a Rapid Literacy training from Carol Salva and John Seidlitz.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Are you looking for a simple way to give students practice in building arguments while also keeping them engaged and getting them talking with one another? If so, T-Chart, Pair, Defend may be a helpful strategy for you!

Share a writing prompt with students where there are two clear sides. For instance: Is it appropriate for students to have electronic devices during English class?

Provide students a stem for responding to this question: It is/is not appropriate for students to have electronic devices in class because...

Allow students some think time to finish the stem you provided sentence. Have students give a signal when they are prepared to answer (Example: Stand up when you are ready to finish the sentences, It is/is not appropriate for students to have electronic devices in class because...)

Create a class anchor T-chart to write down student responses. This can be on the board, projector, or chart paper.

Have several students share out. You can get answers from a mix of volunteers and students you call on. As students share their ideas, write their responses on the anchor chart you created.

Have students get in pairs. Have them choose who will be partner A and partner B.

Assign one point of view to Partner A and the other to Partner B. Inform students that they will be having a friendly debate with their partner around the topic defending their assigned point of view. Let students know they can use the reasons that the class shared or they can come up with their own reasons to defend their point of view.

Provide students with stems to help them politely disagree with their peers. Examples: I appreciate your opinion, however, the way I see it is..., I respect your opinion, but..., You have a point, however...

Instruct students on which partner will begin the debate. Partner A will do this by stating his/her first reason using the provided stem. Then Partner B will use one of the stems for disagreeing along with his/her idea in a complete sentence. The students will continue to take turns stating reasons for their point of view and using stems to disagree with their partner.

Variations and Extensions

Allow students to pair up and come up with a topic they care about. Have them take opposing sides on the topic of their choice.

If your students are ready to provide multiple reasons for their point of view, have them jot down a list of their ideas rather than coming up with just a single response to the prompt.

If your students are well-versed in considering both sides of a topic, you may have students draw the T-chart on their own paper and fill in ideas for both viewpoints on the chart before having the structured debate.

After students participate in the structured debate, have them use their T-Chart to pick a side and create a written response around a single reason or around multiple reasons.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Persuasive Twist on T-Chart, Pair, Defend

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
T-Chart, Pair, Defend is not my strategy. It was published in 7 Steps to a Language Rich Classroom. The information contained in this post is based on what I learned at a Rapid Literacy training from Carol Salva and John Seidlitz.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Students are paired during Lesson Instruction to think together about the information they are learning. Various types of Collaborative Pairs activities should be planned and used to engage students purposefully, provide movement that enhances engagement, and deepen understanding of content. Frequent opportunities to process information with a partner throughout the lesson to utilize the second most effective research-based learning strategy, Distributed Summarizing. Students are actively engaged during Collaborative Pairs as it is tough for an individual to get lost in a pair. It also allows you to quickly monitor students' progress and make reasonable determinations regarding who understands, needs additional support, and is not comprehending.

How do you implement the Collaborative Pairs strategy to achieve the greatest impact?

Collaborative Pairs should be used throughout the Learning Activities to facilitate summarization, reflection, prediction, and review.

Collaborative Pairs tasks used as Assessment Prompts must align with the Levels of Learning of the specific "Will Be Able To... (Do)" Learning Goal(s) being assessed.

Consistently provide students multiple opportunities during the lesson to collaboratively respond to questions and prompts as Distributed Summarizing and Distributed Practice before independent work.

Carefully monitor students' thinking/conversations/writing and use their responses to inform instruction.

What does this strategy look like in both my in-person classroom and when used with online learning?
Example 1: Numbered Heads
Description: Students are partnered and designated a label. Both partners are expected to participate in a discussion, ensuring equal accountability and engagement. Numbered Heads works best when used for frequent, short summarization opportunities. According to John Medina, a good rule of thumb for this is his "10/2 Rule." For every 10-15 minutes of input (e.g., reading, lecture, video, etc.), students receive two minutes to process learning with a partner.
Process:

Creatively assign each student as a #1 or #2 partner. In addition to numbers, feel free to use two different colors, two different shapes, etc.

Students should be in pairs. If needed, there can be one group of 3.

Announce the task and the time limit.
Partner #1 does_____________________.

Partner #2 does_______________________.

Activities are distributed throughout the lesson to:

Digital Adaptation: Pair students using Google Meet or Zoom. Zoom has the added bonus of allowing you to create breakout rooms that let students collaborate with each other virtually. Use its 60-second countdown to bring students back to the main meeting whenever you are ready.
Example 2: Think-Ink-Share
Description: A variation of Think-Pair-Share, this strategy can be used to promote more rigorous thinking because students write their response to your Higher Order Thinking or Reading Comprehension questions/prompts before sharing with a partner or the group. It is effective in all parts of the lesson instruction if the question or prompt requires rigorous thinking and students are given sufficient time to think and craft a response.
Process:

Provide a question or prompt (such as a quote) for students to consider.

Provide 20-30 seconds of "think" time.

Students write their thoughts down independently for one to two minutes.

Students share their thoughts with a partner.

Responses are shared with the whole group.

Students revise their answers as needed based on their partner and class discussion.

Example 1: Math - Analyzing Relationships

Think: For two minutes, think about what you already know about translation, rotation, and reflection.

Ink: Write to explain how dilation transformations relate to the other three kinds of transformations.

Share: Share your response with your partner. Add key ideas from your partner's response to your graphic organizer.

Example 2: ELA - Evaluate

Think: Select two words from the text that stand out as keywords. For one minute, think about why you selected these two words, and what makes them important.

Ink: For each word, write to explain why you chose the word as an important word from the text. Make sure to use evidence from the text to support your reasoning.

Share: Share your responses with your partner. How do your words and responses compare?

Example 3: Social Studies - Cause and Effect

Think: For two minutes, think about the events that have led up to the U.S. becoming involved in World War II

Ink: Respond to the prompt: What events led to the U.S. becoming involved in World War II?

Share: Share your response with your partner. Did your causes match? Add any missing causes to your graphic organizer and justify the importance of the events.

Digital Adaptation: Post ideas and comments using Padlet or dotstorming.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Collaborative Pairs - Why, How, What - Learning-Focused

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Why are Collaborative Pairs activities needed throughout Lesson Instruction? Students are paired during Lesson Instruction to think together about the information they are learning. Various types of Collaborative Pairs activities should be planned and used to engage students purposefully, provide movement that enhances engagement, and deepen understanding of content.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Serving Multilingual Learners of All Ages

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The longer I have been in education, the stronger I believe in small group instruction. It truly is the of instruction. In a small group, the ratio between student and teacher is drastically reduced allowing the teacher to identify individual student needs and easily differentiate instruction.
No matter the content area in elementary school, small group instruction has a greater effect on student learning than whole group.

Some may say that it's too difficult to pull small groups so they continue to instruct in a whole class setting. I agree that in the beginning it may be difficult to get the structure and routine down for both the teacher and the students; however, once good classroom management is put into place and the routines are set, the ball will get rolling and small group becomes the best way to teach.

After all, as educators I think there aren't many who don't agree that we want to do what is best for students. While whole group instruction may be easiest for teachers to plan and implement, it can't be best for students who are diverse and unique--all at various levels with different background knowledge.
Overall, most teachers are pretty good at pulling small groups for reading instruction in the primary grades. But even that seems to taper off around third grade. What we know is that when we gather a small group of roughly 4-6 students and give them what they specifically need at the moment greater progress occurs in language and in content knowledge. So why don't we continue to pull small groups as kids get older? And how about pulling them in other content areas such as math, science, and social studies?
Some may wonder...What are the other kids doing while I pull a group? Won't they get off task? Well, that's up to you as the teacher.

The Benefits of Small Groups:
For ELLs one of the other benefits of small group instruction is that it lowers the affective filter. You know that feeling of fear or anxiety when you are in a situation that is high stress? Well, English Language Learners can feel that anxiety in a whole group setting more than in a smaller setting. When everyone is waiting and all eyes are on you anticipating your response it can be intimidating. This feeling is amplified when you are new to the country, have an accent or need a great deal of support.

When teachers meet with students in small groups, they are more apt to individualizing instruction and truly meeting students where they are. In a smaller setting, teachers are able to ask more questions to individual students which allows the students to interact more with the teacher. This also has an added benefit which is building the student teacher relationship.

Another benefit of small groups is that students are given more opportunities to talk. When students are in a smaller setting, they feel freer to talk, ask questions and grapple with ideas. This allows them to think critically and negotiate for meaning while having academic discussions more openly. On the other hand, in a whole group setting, the teacher asks a question and one student responds while everyone else zones out.

How Small Groups Work:

Well, typically when a teacher wants to implement small group instruction the best way to do it is just to jump right in. First, start by delivering a mini-lesson to the whole group. This would include a message to the class that is vital for everyone to hear. Then divide the class up as necessary for a "workshop" style setting. By that I mean that a small group (about 4-6) of your students will come along with you while the remainder of the class will either work independently or they will work in centers. It's best to keep the routine going for what the students do when they aren't meeting with you in the small group. Either keep it at independent work or stick to centers. Consistency within your workshop will help to ensure that the students stay on task and are well managed.

The most critical part will be setting up clear expectations for what the students are doing when they aren't meeting with you. If you want your small group to run efficiently, you need to know that the rest of the class is doing something meaningful and effective (and not wasting time off task). In my experience, the best way to implement small group instruction, is to explicitly teach students what they do while I pull small groups. This does take time but it's well worth the investment. In most classrooms while the teacher pulls small groups, the other students are either in centers or working independently. Either way, the students know exactly what is expected of them. Don't skip this part or your small groups and workshop will fail and you'll be wondering what happened.

Small groups can be determined by reading level, math skill level, language level, or a specific strategy need. And the way you decide can fluctuate. For example, in a math setting you may want to pull a group of students who have a similar math goal. They are all working towards learning to divide fractions. In reading, you may want to pull a group of students who are on different reading levels but all need to review finding the main idea of a nonfiction text. In a social studies or science setting, small groups may be about building background for students who are new to the country. Many newcomer students have a great deal of social studies or science knowledge about their home country but may need some information about their new country.

Key Components of Small Group Instruction:

Keep it short. 10-15 minutes per group.

Make your group work engaging and heavy with kid work. Less teacher talk!

When demonstrating, use texts and examples the students are familiar with.

Coach students in their own work.

Remember that the goal of small group is not 100% mastery. It may take a few times!

My advice to teachers who want what's best for their students is to just do it! Go for small groups. You will see immediate results. Happier students, smarter students, and a more satisfied teacher. Don't be afraid that you aren't doing it right. Just start and learn from your experiences. Reflect and refine.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reaching ELLs through Small Group Instruction

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The longer I have been in education, the stronger I believe in small group instruction. It truly is the of instruction. In a small group, the ratio between student and teacher is drastically reduced allowing the teacher to identify individual student needs and easily differentiate instruction.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work:
Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other's learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

Informal cooperative learning groups
In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work
Think-pair-share
The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.
Peer Instruction
This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and "sharing" is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.
Jigsaw
In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other "expert teams" in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.
Formal cooperative learning groups
In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.

The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.

Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.

Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups' work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.

Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes' class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning, problem-based learning, and process-oriented guided inquiry learning.

What's the theoretical underpinning?

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka's and Kurt Lewin's identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members' goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

Is there evidence that it works?

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?
Preparation Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop. Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.
In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.

In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).

Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).

To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.
Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.
In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members' contributions to contribute to the final score.

Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem. This approach can help prevent the "free rider" problem that can plague group work.

The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work, ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process. Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.
Helping groups get started Explain the group's task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction. Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.
Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Regularly observe group interactions and progress, either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback, or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students' development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22(5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7(1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68(5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96(1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Cynthia J. Brame and Rachel Biel Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C.J. & Biel, R. (2015). Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning groups effectively. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/. Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students' learning.

# data[].attributes.headline
English Language Development (ELD) Standards-Based Sentence Stems

# data[].attributes.subject
English Language Development (ELD) Standards-Based Sentence Stems

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
National Center on Intensive Intervention

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Video Example: A teacher demonstrates effective modeling and guided practice

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article offers guidance for selecting vocabulary words when teaching ELLs and explains the difference between Tier 1, 2, and 3 words.

A student's maximum level of reading comprehension is determined by his or her knowledge of words. This word knowledge allows students to comprehend text. As the teacher, you can explicitly teach word meanings to improve comprehension. However, to know a word means knowing it in all of the following dimensions:

The ability to define a word

The ability to recognize when to use that word

Knowledge of its multiple meanings

The ability to decode and spell that word

Therefore, it is vitally important to teach key words that children will need to comprehend texts, learn the content in those texts, and pass tests. Words are taught through direct instruction of word meanings as well as through discussions about words (including prefixes, suffixes, and roots) - all combined with a lot of reading.

For English language learners (ELLs), vocabulary development is especially critical for their ability to read and comprehend texts. The selection of vocabulary words to teach ELLs can be grouped into three tiers.

Tier 1 words

Tier 1 words are words that ELLs typically know the concept of in their primary language, but not the label in English. For example, a Tier 1 word might be butterfly. This is a word that English language learners may not know, but it can be easily taught by pointing to a picture of a butterfly during text discussion.

Another Tier 1 word might be march (move like a soldier). A word like march can be easily instructed during text discussion by marching in place. But because this word has multiple meanings, it also merits further instruction. This can be accomplished through oral language activities that follow the text discussion.

Teaching Tier 1 words

We take it for granted that native English-speakers know most Tier 1 words, but this is not the case for ELLs. Many Tier 1 words may be unknown to ELLs and key to the comprehension of a passage. Different types of Tier 1 words require different teaching strategies:

Some Tier 1 words cannot be demonstrated and do not have multiple meanings, but students will need to know them. An example of this is the word uncle. A simple explanation of the word's meaning during the story reading will suffice. Or, if the teacher and students are bilingual, a quick translation is sufficient.

Idioms and everyday expressions (like "make up your mind," "let's hit the books," and "once upon a time") are also in the Tier 1 category. Teachers will need to explain the meanings of these phrases to students.

Some Tier 1 words are simple cognates (like family/familia or preparation/preparación). The cognates in this category consist of words that are high-frequency words in Spanish and English. They may not require substantial instruction because students may know the word meanings in Spanish. The teacher can merely state the English cognate and have students provide the Spanish cognate. Or, the teacher can provide the English cognate and students can say both the English word and Spanish cognate.

It is also important to point out false cognates and give the correct translation. Examples of false cognates are: rope/ropa (clothing) and embarrassed/embarazada (pregnant). There are also some false cognates that have multiple meanings in one language, and one or some of those meanings do not coincide with the meaning of the other language.

Here is a list of helpful Spanish-English cognates.

Tier 2 words

Tier 2 words are more complex than Tier 1 words. They may also be more abstract. These include:

1. Words that are important and useful to understanding the text, such as: character, setting, plot, even numbers, and country.

2. Words that have connections to other words and concepts, such as: between, among, by, combine, and estimate.

3. Words for which students understand the general concept, but need greater precision and specificity in describing a concept or a person, such as: sets, tables (for math or science, or for a table of contents), shy, ashamed, and stubborn.

Teaching Tier 2 words

Tier 2 words appear in grade-level texts. They can be worked with in a variety of ways so that ELLs build rich representations of them and connect them to other words and concepts. Different types of Tier 2 words require different teaching strategies:

Some Tier 2 words will not require elaborate discussion, because they can be demonstrated. These include words with multiple meanings, such as trunk, which can be taught by using gestures to show that it is part of an elephant, part of a tree, part of our body, and the back of a car.

In addition, many Tier 2 words are cognates. In this tier, they are high frequency words in Spanish and low frequency words in English. This means that Spanish-speaking ELLs will have a head start with these words (such as coincidence/coincidencia, industrious/industrioso, and fortunate/afortunado) because they will know both the concept and an approximation of the label in English.

The Tier 2 words that should be targeted for pre-teaching include words that cannot be demonstrated and are not cognates.

ELLs should be expected to master Tier 2 words in order to do well on comprehension and on tests.

Tier 3 words

These are low-frequency words that are found mostly in content books in the upper grades. Examples include witticism, isotope, procrastinate, amoeba, or words that are not demonstrable or cognates. These words are rarely encountered in the early grades, but if they do appear, you can translate them or briefly explain them in either English or in the ELLs' first language.

Note: It is advisable at all grade levels to have bilingual dictionaries available in the classroom. If you do not know the translation for a vocabulary word into students' native language, it is an easy reference and clarification tool. Also, when reading texts on their own, students can look up unknown words and ensure their own comprehension.

References

Beck, I., McKeown, M. & Kucan, L (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: The Gilford Press.

Calderón, M., August, D., Durán, D., Madden, N., R. Slavin & M. Gil (2003 and in press). Spanish to English Transitional Reading: Teacher's Manual. Baltimore, MD: The Success for All Foundation.

Calderón, M. & L. Minaya-Rowe (2004). Expediting Comprehension to English Language Learners (ExC-ELL) Teachers Manual. Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education, Johns Hopkins University.

Calderón, M. & L. Minaya-Rowe (in press). Teaching Reading, Oral Language and Content to English Language Learners - How ELLs Keep Pace With Mainstream Students. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Reprints

For any reprint requests, please contact the author or publisher listed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Selecting Vocabulary Words to Teach English Language Learners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This article offers guidance for selecting vocabulary words when teaching ELLs and explains the difference between Tier 1, 2, and 3 words. A student's maximum level of reading comprehension is determined by his or her knowledge of words. This word knowledge allows students to comprehend text.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Strategy OverviewHow This Strategy Supports Language DevelopmentMultimedia content for students can include educational videos, podcasts, audio clips, music, slide shows, webcams, online exhibits, and virtual reality (VR) experiences.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Strategy Overview

How This Strategy Supports Language Development

Showing students real objects (realia) in their natural contexts can be a vivid and engaging way to teach vocabulary and build comprehension and background knowledge. For example, a lesson about pollinators might include realia such as a beekeeper suit, like the one pictured above. These items can be brought into the classroom, discovered during actual or virtual museum visits and field trips, or found in the community.

Using realia can also involve all the senses and make concepts more concrete and memorable. For example, seeing a carburetor in an internal combustion engine, comparing different kinds of moss, or holding a replica of an ancient atlatl (spear thrower) cultivates curiosity and establishes comprehensible input.

In addition, manipulating objects like blocks, chips, or cards creates a hands-on path for understanding math, science, language arts, or other content concepts. Manipulating selected objects can make complex concepts more concrete, which is one effective way to scaffold comprehension of grade-level concepts.

Finally, it's important to remember that students can engage with all kinds of hands-on learning activities while developing new language skills. Hands-on activities can be a low-risk, high-reward way for students to show what they know, demonstrate their skills, and feel successful.

Step-by-Step Instructions

1. Review the unit or text for key concepts and new vocabulary.

2. Determine the realia (real items) or manipulatives that would best support students' comprehension of the key concepts of the unit.

3. Locate the realia or create the manipulatives needed for the unit and bring the objects to class.

4. Show the objects to the class during the lesson. Label them with vocabulary cards and refer to them throughout the class.

5. Choose a routine for students to view the realia or interact with the manipulatives. (See-Think-Wonder and Parts-Purposes-Complexities are two visible thinking routines from Harvard Project Zero that work well with realia.)

6. Look for opportunities to use peer learning. For example, partnerships working with manipulatives are effective in building comprehension. Students could take turns explaining why they are interacting with the manipulative (categorizing, sequencing, etc.) in a certain way.

7. Ask students to talk about and write about the realia as it applies to the unit or lesson.

8. After the experience with the realia or manipulatives, bring the whole group together to review the learning outcomes, check on comprehension, and answer questions that came up during the experience.

Lessons Learned

Whenever possible, make sure all students (or at the minimum, pairs of students) have a set of manipulatives. As many students as possible should have the opportunity to work with the objects.

Develop clear, consistent expectations for how students should interact with the realia or manipulatives.

Give students time to examine and touch the realia, whenever possible.

If the object is small and inexpensive, give every student one to hold, manipulate, and examine.

If the realia is fragile (bird's nest, artifact, etc.), show the real object and provide guidance on how to examine it.

If students do not respect the objects, put them away and try again at another time.

Invite parents, instructional coaches, administrators, or other adults into the room when introducing realia or using manipulatives. The extra adults in the room can support content and language development, as well as appropriate use of the materials.

In order for students to closely view different kinds of realia, consider creating small group stations on the day you introduce the realia. This way, students can get closer to or even touch (if appropriate) the objects.

Take a picture of the real object for reference after the object is no longer available in the classroom.

Once students have seen the real object, provide replicas or labeled pictures for them to manipulate and work with throughout the unit.

Digital realia (videos, pictures, artifacts) work, too, but the videos or pictures should show the actual size and color of the object, so students gain comprehension of the concept or key vocabulary.

Differentiation

Create small, purposeful groups for rotation stations to view realia or manipulate objects. Guide each group through the observation routine or interaction with the manipulatives so that they develop both language and concepts while at the station.

Label the parts of the realia or manipulatives in English and students' heritage languages whenever possible. If students are discovering the parts (during the Parts, Purposes, Complexities routine for example), label the parts after the exploratory phase.

Connect the realia and manipulatives to items from the students' background. Ask students to bring in something from their cultural background that represents the concept, if appropriate.

When students are working with manipulatives, provide clear written instructions with visual icons for steps they should follow. Include sentence frames and a word bank for them to use while interacting with the manipulatives.

Co-Teaching Considerations

Content or Grade-Level Teacher

1. Determine the key concepts students need to know for the unit.

2. Determine the language expectations for the lesson/unit. Which words will students need to use to show mastery of the content?

3. Collaborate with the ELD teacher to locate realia or make manipulatives for the unit.

English Language Development Teacher

1. Suggest realia or manipulatives that could support students in grasping that concept. Bring in some of these items.

2. Develop activities for students as they interact with the realia or manipulatives. (See-Think-Wonder and Parts, Purposes, and Complexities are two thinking routines that work well with realia.)

3. Show the realia or work with the manipulatives with a small group of entering/emerging level students. Provide heritage language labels and support as necessary.

4. Create sentence frames and visual word banks for partnerships as they interact with manipulatives.

Examples

Realia

Technology from previous eras: typewriter, old fashioned telephone, cassette tape

Items from nature: abandoned paper wasp nest, animal bones, snake skins, plants, flowers

Food: root vegetables, exotic fruit, whole spices and herbs

Clothing that people wear on their jobs: scrubs, firefighter uniform, construction helmet, postal worker uniform

Household items: spatula, whisk, egg beater

Connecting realia to content

Plants in a terrarium could support a science lesson on photosynthesis.

Typewriters and telephones with cords could introduce a unit on technological advancements.

Pieces of different rock types (igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary) could help students understand the rock cycle.

Herbs and spices could make a description of food in a novel come to life.

A circuit board could help explian concepts of electricity.

Manipulatives:

chips

beads

blocks

flashcards

sticky notes

fraction tiles

plastic figures (like teddy bear counters)

pictures from a text

puzzle pieces of a map or other document

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Strategy OverviewHow This Strategy Supports Language DevelopmentShowing students real objects (realia) in their natural contexts can be a vivid and engaging way to teach vocabulary and build comprehension and background knowledge. For example, a lesson about pollinators might include realia such as a beekeeper suit, like the one pictured above.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Guided Notes are teacher-prepared handouts that outline lectures, audiovisual presentations, or readings, but leave blank space for students to fill in key concepts, facts, definitions, etc. Guided Notes promote active engagement during lecture or independent reading, provide full and accurate notes for use as a study guide, and help students to identify the most important information covered.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Strategy OverviewHow This Strategy Supports Students’ Language DevelopmentIt’s helpful to keep track of how well students understand new content along the way, rather than waiting to get that feedback through more formal assignments or assessments further down the road. Comprehension checks are an informal, timely way to help educators identify areas that need further explanation, including instructions, routines, or expectations for the classroom.It’s also important to keep in mind that English language learners (ELLs) may not wish to draw attention to themselves.

# data[].attributes.headline
Scaffolds for Each Step of Gradual Release 

# data[].attributes.subject
Scaffolds for Each Step of Gradual Release 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It's no secret that I love the Gradual Release of Responsibility Model. In Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey's article for ASCD.org, they state that the gradual release of responsibility instructional framework purposefully shifts the cognitive load from teacher-as-model, to joint responsibility of teacher and learner, to independent practice and application by the learner (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983). When I started implementing it, it just clicked for me and my students. It felt like I finally had a good way to lesson plan with scaffolds in mind. I felt like there was finally a step-by-step way to get my students to fly on their own.

This structure allows us to give direct instruction for our Emergent Bilinguals while slowly pulling back our scaffolds, or by using different scaffolds for each step depending on their proficiency level until they ultimately do tasks on their own. It also allows specific time for students to interact and engage with each other.

The visual below is not an exhaustive list of scaffolds and also includes the instructional strategy: the mini-lesson. The mini-lesson is a great strategy to implement into your "I do" and "we do" portion of your lesson. This is your chance to explicitly teach one strategy, concept, or skill before jumping into your task for the day. This is also a great way to monitor your teacher talk. Tan Huyhn also mentions in his article with Valentina Gonzalez about the workshop model that "since the mini-lesson is short, there is not a lot of teacher talk." Yep, it has many perks!

In fact, the gradual release model as a whole is a great way to monitor it! It ensures we are allowing students time to talk and interact; this can be particularly challenging in the virtual space when it can be easier for students to disengage and for teachers to fill up silent space.

In the chart below, think of scaffolds in the following ways: scaffolds that help me explicitly teach, scaffolds that help me and the students practice together, scaffolds that assist students in interacting, and ones that help them to work independently.

For example, let's say we are reading a text with my newcomers and low intermediate students. I always, always use gestures, visuals, and L1 (first language) support especially when I am doing my "I do" and "we do". With newcomers, I will use these all throughout my lesson. Before reading, we may review some vocabulary that we will see while reading so I will introduce these with visuals, gestures, and L1 support. I'm also going to make sure that when I am explaining, I am speaking clearly and at the right speed (you have to find the sweet spot for your students!).

To get them interacting and completing work alone for their "they do" and "you do", I supply sentence frames and/or stems with word banks for when they are in pairs or groups and discussing, and they usually have a graphic organizer or template to enter their ideas. If I have a brand-new student, I will also allow drawings instead of writing and I encourage drawings and any form of art I can to support the output of their ideas. This is for all proficiency levels.

A great way to do this is with the many digital tools we have at our fingertips, and I happen to LOVE Canva for this purpose! They have a free education version that is amazing. For some other great ideas with tech for newcomers, this webinar by Saddleback Educational has some amazing tools to share- specifically some that allow students to sketch.

In addition to language proficiency, how do you think about your scaffolds? Share your ideas with us in a comment below!

To learn more about strategies for incorporating language into your lessons, check out my course, My EL Mentor: Creating a Language-Rich Classroom!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Scaffolds for ELs and the Gradual Release Model

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Scaffolds for each level of the gradual release of responsibility model for English Learners, or Emergent Bilinguals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is Scaffolding and What it Is Not.pdf