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By: Kyle Hui, Justin Yu, Yashvi Shah, Rohan Murthi

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By: Kyle Hui, Justin Yu, Yashvi Shah, Rohan Murthi

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By: Ethan Zhao, Uma Rai, Jalen Wong, Jaysie Ho, and Arnav Prathipati

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By: Ethan Zhao, Uma Rai, Jalen Wong, Jaysie Ho, and Arnav Prathipati

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By: Michelle Peng, Piper Nguyen, Andrew Liang, Justin Ji

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By: Michelle Peng, Piper Nguyen, Andrew Liang, Justin Ji

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By: Ethan T., Erik L., Sumehra E., Ayaan O.,  Ronan H.

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By: Ethan T., Erik L., Sumehra E., Ayaan O.,  Ronan H.

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 By: Jasmine Kaur, Ayden Vitug, Brian Hui, and Jaime Yong

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 By: Jasmine Kaur, Ayden Vitug, Brian Hui, and Jaime Yong

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By: Kaylin Leong, Liu Chang, William Kaldenbaugh, Shaqed Krupnik

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By: Kaylin Leong, Liu Chang, William Kaldenbaugh, Shaqed Krupnik

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By: Emilia F., Rohan K., Tim Z., Kent U.

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By: Emilia F., Rohan K., Tim Z., Kent U.

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500 BCE to 900 CE

c. 500 BCE San Jose Mogote is the first Zapotec capital

c. 450 BCE: Capital moves to Monte Alban

150 BCE to 150 CE: Monte Alban is improved (Monte Alban II)

c. 900 CE: Zapotecs abandon Monte Alban without any violence and the Zapotec civilization collapses.

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Rise: ~1200 BCE

Height ~1200 - 900 BCE

Fall: ~400 BCE

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1325 C.E to 1521 C.E

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Teotihuacan was established around 200 BCE, and peaked between 250 and 600 CE, becoming one of the largest cities in the world. It began to decline around 600 CE, but remained influential for centuries after.

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Rise: 900 CE

Fall: mid-1100 CE

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1500 BC to 900 AD

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The Inca Empire was located from southern Columbia to southern Chile, ruling over western south america from the Andes to the Pacific ocean.

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The Aztec Empire was located around present-day Central and Southern Mexico.

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It is located in central Mexico, about 30 miles(or 50km) northeast of modern Mexico City. At the height of the civilization, it encompassed around 8 square miles of land.

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Economy

Fishing

Hunting

Later on, other crops including corn were cultivated

Beliefs

Polytheism

Centered around eight gods

Gods took on human forms of reptile or bird characteristcs

Their ideas showed up later in mesoamerican cultures

Religous practices of sacrfices, offerings, and cave rituals

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Aztec culture had many interesting aspects, the most notable being human sacrifice. The Aztecs were polytheistic, and believed in a god for each aspect of life (water, creation, earth, sun, etc). In Aztec religion, it was believed that their main god of the sun, Huitzilopotchli required human blood in order to keep his strength and continue pushing the sun through the sky. The Aztecs would engage in "flower wars", whose main purpose was to provide captives for the sacrificial rituals.

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At the height of the civilization, it supported a population of around 125,000-200,000 people, making it the largest city at that time(c. 500 CE). Their cultural influences spread throughout Mesoamerica, and the city carried on trade with distant regions. Most of the population worked in farming. The city was a mixture of Maya, Miztec, and Zapotec cultures.

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Lived in southern Mexico - in the eastern and southern parts of the region of Oaxaca.

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The Toltecs were strongly religious and devoted to their gods (polytheistic). They worshiped their gods in many different ways, including ceremonies, feasts, and dances. Human sacrifices were a big part of their culture as well. They were also advanced in architecture, art, medicine, and engineering. Additionally, they used calendars to record time. They were militaristic (strong military and harsh) and were led by an upper class of warriors, nobles, and religious leaders, like holy priests.

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Beliefs: Aminism (all objects have a soul connected to the spiritual world), practiced human sacrifice to appease their gods

Social Structure: Pyramid with 5 or 6 tiers, governing class (rulers/nobles) at the top, artisans and merchants in the middle, slaves and serfs at the bottom.

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The Inca believed in a Polytheistic religion. For example they believed Viracocha was the creator god and had other gods for things like the Sun and the Earth in Inti and Pachamama. The Inca also held complex ceremonies and built temples and shrines to worship their gods. Another important part of the Inca religion was that they held sacrifices of guinea pigs, llamas and some different foods for some important events and daily events like the sun rising. The Inca social hierarchy was divided into four social classes. At the top was the emperor and then the royals which included the Emperor's children and close relatives. The third social class was the nobility which were people like priests and chiefs. The last social class consisted of the regular people which was the majority of the population.

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Math

Concept of zero

System of bars and dots to represent numerical values

Writing

Hieroglyphics system

Mesoamerica's first written language

Inventions

Calendar system

Trade

Exchange of exotic materials like greenstone & shells

Demand for obsidian, used for tools

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They had many intellectual advancements, such as the creation of their own calendar and, most famously, the creation of the city of Tenochtitlan, which was made of chinampas (Floating islands), another advancement in agriculture. Many arts were connected to nature, with many depicting gods and goddesses.

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The people of Teotihuacan were a polytheistic group who based their religion on nature and fertility. They built pyramids and temples which people used to worship and practice rituals.

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Being in Oaxaca, they were around many other distinct and small indigenous tribes, but were one of the most prominent ones, therefore resulting in multiple different strains of language. They believe that they orginated in Oaxaca, with ancestors coming from different aspects of nature. It is believed they had culture similarities with the ancient Olmecs and Mayan Indians. Similar to the other civilizations in the area, they were polytheistic meaning they worshiped multiple different gods.

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Inventions:

Herbal Medicine

Calendar System

Nahuatl language

Pulque or octli - Mexican drink made from fermented sap of the maguey plant

Agriculture:

Irrigation

Hill terracing

Philosophy:

The Toltec viewed the universe as a complex energy system

Everything is made of energy; all energy has consciousness

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Art: Included stone sculptures, architecture, ceramics, wood carvings, and wall paintings that often depicted deities and rulers. Some of their artwork also tells their daily life and history. They carved stelas, which were carvings into trees that told stories.

Architecture: Mayan pyramids were elaborate stepped temples that were used as places of worship to serve their gods and to conduct ceremonial practices.

Music: The Mayans played instruments such as the flute, trumpets, whistles, and drums. Their music was often accompanied by funerals, celebrations, and rituals.

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Many factors made the Incas the Incas. Like their concept which they used to pass on leadership and rule, which was called inheritance watch. The concept entailed a policy that stated that all the land an emperor had conquered he kept past death. The reason was so that they could be remembered or a temple could be built in their name and stay there. The Incas also had developed fairly well in architecture and engineering. Making temples, structures, and fortifications. They also made different irrigation systems, which greatly improved crop yield and food supply, increasing resources and taking more steps to what farming is like today. Additionally, their government was stable and had no corruption, proving their way of ruling to be an ideal way. Their way was a monarchy, which rewarded work from everyone and punished the people being idle.

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Architecture:

Large stone heads, believed to be portraits of Olmec rulers

Earthen mounds

Pyramids

Art:

Ceramics

Pots, vases, etc.

Figures/figurines, sometimes known as were-jaguars

Entertainment:

Game played with rubber ball

Stone ball courts

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The Aztec civilization's sophisticated agricultural practices, inspired agricultural methods in surrounding areas, enhancing food production. The Aztecs' trade networks facilitated cultural exchanges and spread their developments across Mesoamerica. Additionally, their architectural achievements left a lasting legacy on subsequent civilizations. Even after the Spanish conquest, elements of Aztec culture continue to persist today.

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Architecture and ingenious inventions flourished, as they built great plazas, temples, and a canalized river.

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The Zapotec people were the first to have a written tradition out of all the American societies. The Zapotec writing system was made through images and visual representations of people, animals, and religious figures. Writing was not something everyone was able to do and displayed aspects of everyday life, including speech.

Another achievement of this civilization was their calendar system, which shared a slight similarity to ours. They had two calendar systems; a sacred system of 260 days and then a civil calendar with 365 days a year and 18 months of 20 days.

Zapotec architecture was similar to that of the other civilizations near it, such as the Mayans, Toltecs, and Aztecs, with few distinctions. There were many evident structural differences, and in one of their palaces you can find a unique wall with geometric patterns built into it.

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Types of art:

Architecture

Sculptures

Metalworks

Murals

Ceramics

Common depictions:

Gods/Deities

Warriors

Priests

Well known feats:

Pyramids at Tula

Painted sculptures holding up roofs in pyramids and palaces

The Aztecs were impressed by the Toltec pottery, which often portrayed faces.

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During the Classic Period of Mayan culture, some of the highlights are the Mayan religion, these nature gods include the god of the Sun, the Moon, rain, and corn. A priestly class was created to elaborate cycles of rituals and ceremonies. The development of mathematics and astronomy included the use of zero and accurately determined the solar year of 18 months, which was 20 days each plus a 5-day period that was considered unlucky. The marking of time is based on a zero date in 3113 B.C. Others, like the Mayan hieroglyphic writing, were all recorded as a part of the Mayan art. Agriculture was mostly about corn, if not all about corn; corn was a very easily grown crop, which helped the Mayans grow their population and also advance their philosophy as well as mathematics.

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The Incan empire had a rich cultural heritage and they had art to prove that. They were especially skilled in pottery, metalwork, textiles and architecture. Ceramics and textiles were commonly used as tribute and there were people who specialized in this craft. Inca art also has a distinct rigid and geometric patterns. In terms of metalworking, the Inca were very skilled in working with gold and silver to make jewelry and figures for the upper classes. Textiles were also a very important form of Incan art and represented a person's social standing. Finally, the Inca were very skilled in architecture especially their sturdy and precise stonework and the terraces they were able to build for irrigation and agriculture. The stonework in places like Machu Pichu and Ollantaytambo is still largely intact after many hundreds of years.

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The Aztecs built a vast empire, with their capital of Tenochtitlan representing their large developments in urbanization and impressive cultural achievements. Their empire was brought to an end with the Spanish conquest led by Hernan Cortes in 1521, and New Spain was established. Aztec culture, however, still persists today in modern Mexican society. The colonization of their land also fundamentally altered the political, social, and religious landscape of the Americas.

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Some people in the area worked with ceramics and obsidian, which is a volcanic glass.

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The Zapotecs had a centralized political system with a ruling elite, often led by a king or high priest, and organized into city-states, with Monte Albán as the most significant center. They maintained military power to protect their territory and engaged in conflicts with neighboring groups. Their society featured a defined social hierarchy, including nobles, priests, and commoners.

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The Toltecs were mainly known for their influence on architecture and sculptures in the city of Tollan which would later be adapted by the Aztecs, who traced a majority of their societal achievements back to the Toltecs. They influenced both the Maya and Aztec civilizations greatly with their architecture, religious rituals, and art.

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Political System: Divided into many city-states ruled by priests and divine kings

Types of Cities: Lived in both rural communities and large ceremonial centers

Conflict: The Mayans had no standing armies, but warfare played a big role in Mayan culture

Alliances: City-states formed alliances with each other, typically by becoming trade partners

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Architecture- Incan architecture was characterized by their use of stone and precise masonry. This had a lasting impact on architectural buildings throughout the region.

Political organization-The incas has a highly organized political administrative system, which later served as a model for other South American societies.

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Influenced Aztec and Mayan cultures

Religious pyramids / Temples

Rubber ball games

Ceremonial dress for rulers

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Teotihuacan influenced Aztec culture and architecture. The Aztecs claimed to be descended from the peoples of Teotihuacan and identified with their history and style of art. Some Mayan murals depict the old leaders of Teotihuacan.

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The Zapotecs left a lasting legacy through their early contributions to Mesoamerican civilization, including one of the first forms of writing, impressive architecture like Monte Albán, and advanced agriculture techniques such as terracing. They influenced later cultures like the Mixtecs and Aztecs

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Legacy:

Empire in Mexico

Made by military conquest

Made by vast commercial networks

Wealthy civilization

Aftermath:

Following Toltec decline

Period of unrest in the Late Postclassic Period lasted until 1428

Aztec defeated the rival city of Azcapotzalco and became the dominant force in central Mexico.

This native Mesoamerican empire would fall to the Spaniards, led by Hernán Cortés, in 1521.

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Mayan Legacy: Development of complex math system, one of the first civilizations in the Americas to use the number zero, created advanced astronomical machines, used an accurate calendar system, invented their own hieroglyphic language

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The Inca Empire had created a multitude of systems and had made lots of headway in architecture. By creating buildings and bridges, the Incas gave amazing fundamentals and had a lasting effect on engineering and architecture. They also had amazing art and culture made by artisans. As well as blacksmiths who were amazing workers making tools out of gold, silver, and other metals, which were among the most advanced works in the Americas as a whole. But all together, the Empire had shown the amazing government they had created over the years, controlling and growing and relying on agriculture and its surpluses for its great success. However, the arrival of the conquistadors had started their decimation. Eventually, they fell which resulted in the further establishment of the Spanish Colonial Empire.

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Legacy

"Olmec" means "rubber people" in Aztec; they were known for their practice of extracting latex and producing rubber

Artistic

Best known for carving 20 ton stone heads

Intellectual

Developed the concept of "zero" (math)

Economic

Expansion in interregional trade routes

Traded rubber throughout Mesoamerica

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The ruins of Teotihuacan remained influential, with their architectural and religious practices heavily affecting the Aztecs, who referred to it as the place where the gods were created. Their city layout incorporating sophisticated urban planning and an extensive street grid influenced future Mesoamerican cities.

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Their language and writing system was one of the first in mesoamerica and was the base of new languages developed by later civilizations such as the Mayans and Aztecs. They also innovated in agriculture and irrigation, pottery, and in general influenced the future generations of the Oaxaca and surrounding areas' development.