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Theory-set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations

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Freuds Theory of Psychosexual Development

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Freuds Theory of Psychosexual Development

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Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that childhood experiences shape our personalities and behaviors. He claimed that we develop through stages during childhood. These stages are focused on different areas of the body.

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Freud's Stages of Human Development: 5 Psychosexual Stages

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Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development

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Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development

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Our Personality or self consists of three factors: Id, Superego, and Ego. With the conscious levels being unconscioius level, preconscious level, and the conscious level

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Denial-not accepting the truth

Displacement-taking out frustrations

Projection-attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others

Rationilization-distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening

Reaction Formation-person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.

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Eriksons Stages of Psychosical Development 

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Eriksons Stages of Psychosical Development 

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Title: Reinforcement and Punishment | Introduction to Psychology

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Found on Google from courses.lumenlearning.com

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Learning via the connection of stimuli is known as classical conditioning. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was the first to describe it in the late 1800s. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are combined to elicit a conditioned response.

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): This is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. For example, in Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs, food was the unconditioned stimulus.

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): This is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation of dogs in response to food was the unconditioned response.

3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially, this is a stimulus that has no intrinsic meaning or association with the unconditioned response. In Pavlov's experiments, a bell ringing was a neutral stimulus before any conditioning took place.

4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is the neutral stimulus after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus and now elicits a conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiments, the bell became the conditioned stimulus.

5. Conditioned Response (CR): This is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus, which occurs after the conditioning has taken place. In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation of dogs in response to the bell (after it had been paired with food) became the conditioned response.

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The psychologist B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning This kind of learning occurs when an action's strength or weakness is determined by the outcomes that it leads to. Put differently, people come to identify particular behaviors with particular results, which makes them either repeat or refrain from engaging in such activities.

1. Reinforcement: This refers to any event or stimulus that, when following a behavior, increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. Reinforcement can be positive (adding something desirable) or negative (removing something undesirable).

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to strengthen a behavior. For example, giving a child a piece of candy for completing their homework.

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior. For instance, taking pain medication to alleviate a headache.

2. Punishment: This involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Similar to reinforcement, punishment can be positive (adding something undesirable) or negative (removing something desirable).

Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to weaken a behavior. For instance, giving a child a time-out for misbehaving.

Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to weaken a behavior. An example is taking away a teenager's phone for breaking curfew.

3. Operant Behavior: This is the behavior that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences.

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Reinforcement- wants to increase a desired behavior

Punishment- want to get rid of undesired behavior

Both are effective.

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It focuses attention to the social aspect of learning and emphasizes how crucial it is to understand behavior by taking cognitive processes and observational learning into account. Fields like education, where educators understand the value of setting up conditions that support observational learning and serving as positive role models, have been greatly impacted by the notion.

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Individuals play an active role in their own cognitive development, according to Piaget's theory. He suggested that through assimilation and adaptation, among other processes, infants actively create their view of the world rather than being passive consumers of information. In assimilation, new information is integrated into preexisting cognitive structures, whereas in accommodation, preexisting cognitive structures are modified to make room for new information.

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1. Schema: schema is a mental framework or cognitive structure that individuals use to organize and interpret information. It represents a person's existing knowledge about the world, including ideas, objects, events, and actions.

2. Assimilation: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing schemas. It involves fitting new information into pre-existing cognitive structures.

3. Accommodation: Accommodation is the process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences that do not fit into existing cognitive structures. It involves adjusting one's understanding to accommodate novel information.

Cognitive Equilibrium: Cognitive equilibrium refers to a state of balance or harmony in which a person's cognitive structures (schemas) are consistent with their experiences and the external world. It represents a balanced and organized state of understanding.

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Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory is a psychological framework that emphasizes the importance of social interaction, cultural context, and language in the development of cognitive abilities and higher mental functions.

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with assistance or guidance from a more knowledgeable person. Vygotsky argued that learning occurs in the ZPD, where a learner is challenged but supported by more knowledgeable individuals, such as teachers, peers, or parents.

2. Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner bridge the gap between their current level of ability and their potential development in the ZPD. As the learner becomes more competent, the level of support is gradually reduced.

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The Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Model consists of several nested levels, each representing a different aspect of the environment, and how they interact with an individual's development.

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Ecological Theory - The Whole Child: Development in the Early Years

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