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This coin was minted in Constantinople in the mid-500s under the rule of Justinian I. The coin depicts a portrait of Justinian I on the front in royal attire, and the backside has an image of an angel holding an orb and sceptre. Around the sides are Greek inscription. The depiction of the emperor on the coin was common of the Roman empire as well to establish authority in the empire. The image of the angel on the back is in keeping with the religious imagery of Byzantine culture, and the orb and sceptre as well are symbols of God's power often associated with monarchs.

Wroth, Warwick. “Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum.” British Museum, BMP, 1908, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIB3151. Accessed 13 April 2024.

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With the impending fall of the Roman empire in 330 CE, emperor Constantine the Great officially moved the capital to the city Byzantion, which he would rename to Constantinople after himself. With this act, what would later be known as the Byzantine empire was established, then as just a continuation of the former Roman empire. Though the inhabitants of the Byzantine empire labeled themselves as Romans and treated this empire as simply the Eastern Roman empire, there were key aspects of the Byzantine empire that make it distinct from the Romans. To begin, the Early Byzantine period marked the beginning of the empire and its initial shift from Rome, and saw the empire embrace Christianity as its official religion, a major shift from the previous pagan religions of the Roman empire. The period also saw substantial expansion under emperor and empress Justinian I and Theodora, who also contributed heavily to the architectural domination of Constantinople seeing the construction of several celebrated structures like the Hagia Sophia. Another important distinction from the Roman empire at this time was the movement from Latin to Greek as an official language, as the empire had shifted from the West to an Eastern capital in Greece and Asia Minor. The Byzantine empire based on these important early distinctions existed from around 330 CE to 1453 CE, roughly 1,000 years, and beyond its initial ties to the Roman empire established itself as a capital for Christian Orthodoxy and created interactions with other major European nations throughout its longevity until their eventual defeat by the Ottoman empire. The Byzantine empire can be separated from its initial ties to the Roman empire because of their distinct culture and art, as well as their later interactions with Europe and Asia that long outlived the Romans.

The Byzantine empire’s most notable themes that make them distinct are the copious amount of religious imagery and iconography in their artwork. Religious iconography is present in most Byzantine artwork, and most notably the architecture of this period is made specifically for the worship of Christianity in the form of churches like the Hagia Sophia. Icons and mosaics depicting religious imagery within these churches and other structures are indicative of the Byzantine empire because of the extreme religious influence the empire saw. Other architectural feats of the Byzantine were the impressive wall fortifications around Constantinople as well as the city’s aqueduct system. The Theodosian Walls protected Constantinople from intruders, and the aqueduct system provided fresh water to the city in an impressive innovation of engineering. It is also important to note the shift from Latin to Greek after the establishment of the Byzantine empire, so documents and writing from the Byzantine will use Greek as the primary language as opposed to the Roman empire’s Latin texts. The other type of “theme” in the Byzantine empire was the administrative divisions of the military that replaced the former Roman legions. The themes were an important part of the expansion of the Byzantine empire under Justinian I, and were under order of the emperor, who was the commander in chief, but split into themata commanded by generals and tagmata who kept soldiers in line away from the empire. Overall, The Byzantine empire is most notable for its extreme religious influence under Orthodox Christianity, and beyond that can be noted for its major emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian I, or its impressive architectural feats.

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This is a seal from the late 700s depicting Constantine VI on the front side with a Greek inscription reading: "Constantine, basileus". The backside has an image of a cross. This seal, like the Byzantine coins, indicates the promotion of the emperor within the empire. It also indicates the use of seals for documentation or administrative purposes, and again has the religious imagery and Greek language that are notable for Byzantine artifacts.

Catalogue of Byzantine Seals at Dumbarton Oaks and in the Fogg Museum of Art, Vol. 6, Emperors, Patriarchs of Constantinople, Addenda

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Obverse

Half-length representation of Constantine VI, beardless, wearing crown with a cross and a chlamys pinned together with a fibula on his right shoulder. He holds in his right hand a globus cruciger and in his left an akakia. Circular inscription. Wreath border.

Constantinos bas(ileus) Θ.

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Half-length representation of Constantine VI, beardless, wearing crown with a cross and a chlamys pinned together with a fibula on his right shoulder. He holds in his right hand a globus cruciger and in his left an akakia. Circular inscription. Wreath border. Constantinos bas(ileus) Θ.

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This is a bread stamp with an inscriptions reading: "Leontius' seal" and depicting a 7 stemmed candle with palm leaves and grapes. Bread stamps were used to mark bread and prevent forgeries so that the provenance of a loaf of bread could be identified. This bread stamp, belonging to a man named Leontius in the Early Byzantine empire, helps to paint a picture of what economic trade and social systems were like in the empire among the working class citizens such as bread-makers. The bread stamp also portrays religious imagery, once again indicating the influence of religion on common people and for this bread-maker possibly used to promote his religious beliefs to sell more bread.

Dalton 1901 / Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities and Objects from the Christian East in the Department of British and Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography of the British Museum

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Bread-stamp; copper alloy; rectangular, with ring at the back; on the front is engraved the seven-branched candlestick with a palm branch and bunch of grapes; in the field an inscription in reverse (ΛEONTIOY).

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Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family

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Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family

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This is a manuscript page of ink on parchment showing greek text and a drawing of emperor Heraclius with the biblical figure Job and his daughters. Under Heraclius, the Byzantine empire saw the switch of the official language from Latin to Greek, as most of the empire consisted of Greek speakers at this point. Heraclius was also an important emperor for his suppression of Persian advances on Byzantine territory. This manuscript page celebrates Heraclius alongside Job, an important religious figure, and Heraclius seems to have a halo around his head equating him to a holy figure. The Greek script is also important to indicating the Byzantine empire as the empire had moved to Greek territory away from the western Roman and Latin culture.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family. 5th century. MET, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/477154.

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Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Title: Drawing of Job and His Family Represented as Heraclius and His Family Date: 5th century (text), ca. 615-629 (drawing) Geography: Made in Egypt Medium: Ink on parchment; 8 fols. Dimensions: 11 x 9 7/16 in.

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This three-ounce weight depicts imperial busts of Justin II, Sophia, and Justinian. The Greek inscription reads: "in the time of the wholly blessed and best disposed (of men) Iulianos, stratelates, on the twentieth of Phamenoth, eighth indiction." The busts of the imperial figures are depicted with halos, equating the Byzantine emperors to holy figures. The weight itself is an example of early Byzantine tools and weight/measurement systems.

Thomas Whittemore (by 1950), bequest; to the Fogg Art Museum, 1951.

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Three-Ounce Weight with Imperial Busts of Justin II, Sophia and Justinian(?) | Harvard Art Museums

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This flat square weight was used for weighing coins on a balance scale. The inscription provides unusually detailed and precise information concerning the object's date of issue: twentieth of Phamenoth, eighth indiction (16 March 575 CE). It is rare for early Byzantine weights to be dated to the year, let alone the exact day (1).

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This is an incense burner depicting portraits of Christ, the Virgin Mary, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John, and St. James. The censer has three holes where chains would have been. This is an example of religious observance in the Byzantine empire, as a censer is a common object used in religious services. This censer was found in a monastery in Constantinople and would have been used for daily worship.

Dalton, Ormonde M. Censer. Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities and Objects. 1901. British Museum, BMP, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1899-0425-3.

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Hexagonal censer; silver; with low circular foot-rim; on the edges are three pierced ears for chains, now missing; each face is embossed with a bust within a border of conventional palm-leaves uniting at the angles in small medallions each engraved with a cross; the busts are arranged in two sets of three; Christ and the Virgin Mary are the central figures; Christ, like all the male figures, holds a book; to his left is St Peter holding a cross, and to his right St Paul; to the left of the Virgin is St John the Evangelist, and to her right St James; on the interior small fragments of bronze plates adhere, showing the vessel was once lined; on the bottom and within the foot are impressions of three stamps, damaged by the lathe after stamping.

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Icon with the Virgin and Child, Saints, Angels, and the Hand of God

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Icon with the Virgin and Child, Saints, Angels, and the Hand of God

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This is an icon of the Virgin and child with two saints, two angels, and a glimpse of the hand of God. Iconography became very popular in the Byzantine empire with the rise of Christianity, and a piece like this would have been displayed in a cathedral. The gold halos around the heads of the Virgin, child, and the saints are very typical stylistically for religious art in this time period. The Byzantine empire was one of the most influential empires in the spread of Christianity, and pieces like this contributed to that spread of religion into Europe and Asia Minor.

Evans, Helen C., and Brandie Ratliff, ed. Byzantium and Islam: Age of Transition, 7th–9th century. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2012. pp. 127–28, fig. 55.

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Title: Icon with the Virgin and Child, Saints, Angels, and the Hand of God

Medium: Encaustic on panel

Dimensions: 26 15/16 × 19 1/2 in. (68.5 × 49.5 cm)

Classification: Paintings-Icons

Credit Line: The Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine, Sinai

Accession Number: AFB.075

Rights and Reproduction: Holy Monastery of Saint Catherine

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Icon with the Virgin and Child, Saints, Angels, and the Hand of God | Early Byzantine (Egypt) | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Sinai. In the collections of the Holy Monastery of St. Catherine since the Middle Ages. The monastery's icon collection came to the attention of the academic community in the late 1930s when Porphyrios III (archbishop of Sinai and Raithou, 1926-1968) invited George Sotiriou (1923-1960; academic) to view the collection

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This is an example of Byzantine jewelry. The locket on the front depicts two religious scenes, on the top is nativity and the bottom is the adoration of the Magi. On the backside is the engraving of a cross and a Greek inscription, reading: "Secure salvation, and repulsion of all evil things." This locket closes with a sliding pin. The impact of religion in Byzantine culture extends to the jewelry worn by citizens, revealing the connections of citizens to religious life. Religion permeated every aspect of daily life in the Byzantine empire.

Franks, Augustus W. reliquary; pendant; locket. 1897. British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_AF-354.

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Description

Octagonal reliquary; gold; with hinged loop for suspension; the front divided by a horizontal line into two parts, on the upper is the Nativity and on the lower, the Adoration of the Magi, both engraved and filled with niello and silver; on the back is a monogrammatic cross raised on three steps and surrounded by an inscription; another inscription around the edge of the lid; cross and inscriptions are engraved and filled with niello; the reliquary is closed by a sliding pin inside.

Curator's comments

Dalton 1901 intuitively dated this object to the 10th or the 11th century, and this dating is repeated in the more recent literature. However, Mango 1994 has demonstrated that it was manufactured in the Early Byzantine period, no later than 626 (when the Church of Sts Cosmas and Damian oustide the walls of Constantinople was destroyed by the besieging Avars).

Exhibition history

Exhibited: 2011 23 June-9 Oct, London, BM, 'Treasures of Heaven' 2011 13 Feb-8 May, Baltimore, Walters Museum of Art, 'Treasures of Heaven' 2010-2011 17 Oct-6 Jan, Ohio, Cleveland Museum of Art, 'Treasures of Heaven'

Department

Britain, Europe and Prehistory

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reliquary; pendant; locket | British Museum

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Octagonal reliquary; gold; with hinged loop for suspension; the front divided by a horizontal line into two parts, on the upper is the Nativity and on the lower, the Adoration of the Magi, both engraved and filled with niello and silver; on the back is a monogrammatic cross raised on three steps and surrounded by an inscription; another inscription around the edge of the lid; cross and inscriptions are engraved and filled with niello; the reliquary is closed by a sliding pin inside.

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This is a helmet that would have been worn by a Byzantine military leader. The helmet depicts images of animals and religious symbols. One of these depictions is of birds eating grapes, which is generally thought to be a religious symbol for Christians desire for Christ. This helmet was found in the Caucasus region and other helmets of this type have been found throughout France, Germany, Italy, and the Balkans. The military expansion of The Byzantine empire under Justinian I extended far into Europe, and Byzantine helmets found in these regions indicate the reach of the army in early Byzantine history.

Sotheby's, London. Arts of the Islamic World: Including Fine Carpets and Textiles. London: Sotheby's, London, October 6, 2010. pp. 102–105, no. 123, ill.

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This is one of the best-preserved examples of a helmet type believed to have been made in Byzantium for regional military leaders employed by or closely allied with the Byzantine Empire. Its magnificence rests not solely on the gilding of the entire surface, but also on the rich program of imagery adorning every element. The bowl features human figures, animals, and various religious symbols. For example, the birds pecking grapes, seen on the helmet's rim, are generally thought to represent the longing of Christians for Christ. In its original state a helmet like this would have typically included cheekpieces and a nape defense.

Such helmets have been discovered in France, Germany, Italy, the Balkans, and various other parts of Europe, as well as, in one instance, Libya, typically as grave goods in the tombs of Ostrogothic and other Germanic chieftains. Closely related to one another in construction and ornamentation, the forty-four complete and fragmentary examples of the type that have been recorded so far appear to have all been made in Byzantine workshops from the mid-fifth century through the end of the sixth century. Although now missing the cheekpieces and nape defense, the helmet under consideration ranks among the finest and best preserved of the group. It is especially noteworthy for the Christian symbolism of its decoration and it is a collection-transforming addition to the Museum's holdings, which include a plainer and more damaged variant that was acquired in 1942 (Gift of Stephen V. Grancsay, 1942, acc. no. 42.50.1).

Among the recorded examples of the same type, one discovered in 1896 in Italy at Giulianova in the commune of Monte Pagano, East of Teramo, in Abruzzo, is probably the most closely related to The Met's helmet. The Giulianova helmet was acquired in 1903 for the Berlin Zeughaus, now part of the Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin. The two helmets are similar not only in construction and form, but also in the conception and technique of their decoration. The struts of the helmet in Berlin feature a similar pattern of triangles and similar motifs near the brow, including a drinking cup, what may be a church, and plants. The panels on the bowl similarly draw from the same repertoire of objects, plants, humans, animals, and mountain landscapes. The figure of a man framed by fishes, whose head is surmounted by a small cross, is particularly close to that which is represented on two panels of The Met's helmet. Comparable decoration also occurs on the panels of a third helmet in the group, which was discovered in 1903 in Gammertingen, Baden-Württemberg, and which has been preserved in the Hohenzollern princely collection at Sigmaringen Castle ever since.

Minute discrepancies in the distribution of the ornament indicate that the pattern was not consistently reproduced on the helmets, and it is thus likely that the designs were created by hand and not transferred mechanically, by means of a mold or precast form.

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Helmet ( Spangenhelm ) | Byzantine | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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Private collection, Europe (said to have been found in the Caucasus region in the 1920s; by the early 1970s-2010 (per Sotheby's sale catalogue, p. 102); Arts of the Islamic World sale, Sotheby's, London, October 6, 2010, no

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The Hagia Sophia was a cathedral constructed under Justinian I in Constantinople. Justinian I commanded the construction of the Hagia Sophia shortly after the Nika riot in 532 and it was constructed in a short 6 years after that. The church displays some of the architectural innovation of the time period shown in its massive scale and the dome top of the building. Though the original dome caved in not long after construction due to an earthquake, it was reconstructed soon after and has stood since then. The cathedral also displays the importance of Christianity to the Byzantine empire because it was at the time the largest cathedral ever constructed, demonstrating the strong influence that Christianity had.

Helbert, Antoine, et al. “Hagia Sophia.jpg.” The Byzantine Legacy, 2016, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/hagia-sophia. Accessed 13 April 2024.

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The Basilica Cistern is a major site from Constantinople which was once located under a basilica near the Hagia Sophia, though it is no longer there. The Basilica Cistern is one function of the complex water system that existed in the city of Constantinople. Because of the location of the city, there was no naturally occurring fresh water available, so the construction of cisterns and aqueducts was necessary to bring fresh water into the city. The Basilica Cistern is one such example of this, which was likely fed by the Aqueduct of Hadrian. The Basilica Cistern is another example of the Byzantine empire's grand architecture as it was not only able to hold a substantial amount of water for the city, but the construction of the cistern display artistic reliefs and many columns featuring the composite style that is typical of Byzantine columns structure, as opposed to the Roman corinthian columns.

Hendrix, David. “Basilica Cistern.” The Byzantine Legacy, 2016, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/basilica-cistern. Accessed 13 April 2024.

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Basilica Cistern was built by Justinian under a large basilica in Constantinople

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The Theodosian Walls were fortifications of Constantinople's western border and are yet another architectural feat of the city. The walls are comprised of a large moat, an outer wall, a wide terrace, and then the inner wall consisting of ninety-six towers along the length. The composition of these walls were able to protect the city and stop the attacks of the Huns early in the empires existence, and were only able to be breached with the evolution of warfare into cannons and gun power. The original walls were constructed under a young emperor Theodosius II, and later expanded and reconstructed after an earthquake under a very short period of time that further shows the powerful architectural skills of the Byzantine.

Nasuh, Matrakçı, and David Hendrix. “Theodosian Walls.” The Byzantine Legacy, 16 October 2023, https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/theodosian-walls. Accessed 13 April 2024.

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The Theodosian Walls are among the most impressive monuments of Late Antiquity. These land walls protected Constantinople for centuries while the other great cities like Rome, Antioch or Alexandria were sacked. The Theodosian Walls consists of an inner wall, an outer wall with an inner terrace, and a wide moat, with a second outer wall in front of it. Attackers first had to cross the moat and its wall, while being fired upon from both the outer and inner walls - the towers of the inner walls were equipped with ballistae and catapults. Even if some attackers were able to scale the outer wall, they would then be trapped on the inner terrace, facing a taller wall reinforced by huge towers. As Constantinople lies on triangular peninsula surrounded by the sea on two sides, its land walls were frequently the main defenses required. The triple line of defense of the Theodosian Walls, then, helped make Constantinople virtually invulnerable for centuries.

The Theodosian Walls are now around 5.5 kilometers long, but once were longer when they continued through the Blachernai. The walls and towers were constructed with limestone blocks divided at intervals by layers of red brick with a core of mortared rubble. The inner wall is reinforced by 96 polygonal and rectangular towers. The height of the inner walls is around 10 meters above the outer terrace and as much as 13 meters above the ground within the city. The wall is around 4.5 meters thick, with tower roughly 75 meters apart with a height around 19 meters. The inner terrace is around 16-21 meters wide. The outer wall also has towers at regular intervals and is around 9 meters above the outer terrace, with walls as much as 2 meters thick. This wall, reinforced by relieving arches supporting the walkway, had an addition 92 towers. The outer terrace is around 20 meters. The moat is around 20 meters wide, with a maximum depth of 7 meters. In some towers of the outer wall, there are posterns giving access to the outer terrace. The Theodosian Walls have six main gates and several secondary posterns.

The first walls of Constantinople were built by Constantine I following his victory at the Battle of Chrysopolis in 324. While these walls were able to defense the city from the Goths following their victory at the Battle of Adrianople in 378, it was becoming clearer that Constantine's city walls were inadequate. Furthermore the population had grown to the extent that new development of the city began to take place outside of the walls. Early in the reign of Theodosius II (408-50) the need for better defenses at Constantinople became abundantly evident following the Sack of Rome by the Goths in 410.

The walls were completed in two phases during the reign of Theodosius II (408-50). The first construction phase, ordered by the regent for the young Theodosius II, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius, was completed around 413. It is possible, though, that a new line of walls was first conceived by Theodosius I, as the construction of the Porta Aurea ("Golden Gate") was completed by the time of the emperor's victory procession in 391. It consisted of a single wall and a series of towers located approximately 1.5 kilometers west of the Walls of Constantine and stretched around 6.5 kilometers from the Golden Horn to the Propontis (Sea of Marmara). The prefect Cyrus Panopolites built or extended walls along the Marmara and the Golden Horn in 439. It seems that this wall was extensively damaged as a result of severe earthquakes of 437 and 447. As a result, repairs were quickly made under the direction of the Praetorian Prefect Constantine. The work was accomplished with the help of the urban population in two months, partly because the Huns occupied the Balkans during the period and were a direct threat to Constantinople itself. The scale and speed of this remarkable feat is commemorated by Latin and Greek inscriptions at the Rhegium Gate (Turkish Mevlevihane Kapısı). This was not merely a reconstruction of the walls, but rather consisted of extensive enlarging and reinforcing of the walls, by adding an outer wall and a moat. This would result in Constantinople having the most elaborate and complex urban fortifications in the ancient world. These walls, though, did have their weak points. The outer wall seems to have ended a short distance north of the Charisios Gate, while the moat seems to end just south of the Charisios Gate. The most vulnerable section of the walls, which was known as the Mesoteichion, seems to have been around the valley of the Lykos River. The addition walls, later constructed around Blachernai, were also a vulnerable section of the land walls.
Starting in the late 6th century, the Byzantine Empire entered a period of crisis which would soon put the city's defenses to the test. Constantinople faced its first major threat during the Avar and Persian siege in 626. The Avars, who bombarded the Theodosian Walls with siege engines, were unsuccessful in their attacks, partly due to their inability to coordinate with the Persians and their fleet. The Arabs, who had successfully conquered the empires' eastern provinces, besieged Constantinople in 674 and 717-718. While these were a much greater threat as the Arabs had both an army and a fleet, they were ultimately unsuccessful as well. Following the second siege of the city, the Byzantine Empire slowly began to recover, resulting in Constantinople no longer being directly threatened. However another army appeared before the walls of Constantinople in 813. The Bulgarian Khan Krum (c. 803-814), who had just crushed the Byzantines in battle, killing Emperor Nikephoros I (802-811), brought his armies before the Land Walls but found that there was very little that he could do.

The land walls were repeatedly damaged by earthquakes, and thus required repairs. These repairs are often commemorated by various inscriptions on the Theodosian Walls. One such inscription, located at the Rhegium Gate, records repairs made Spatharios Narse, on initiative of Justin II (565-578) and his wife Sophia. Furthermore, additional walls were later constructed around Blachernai in order to bring forward the walls from the original line of the Theodosian Wall. The first addition to the land walls was made during the reign of Heraclius (610-641) following the Siege of Constantinople by the Avars and Persians in 626. Justinian II (685-695) and Anastasius II (713-715) made repairs of the walls in preparation for an attack by the Arabs. Following an earthquake in 740, Leo III (717-741) and his son, Constantine V (741-775) repaired the walls, as indicated by an inscription on Tower 25. A series of earthquakes during the reign of Basil II (976-1025) required repairs, which are commemorated by inscriptions on Tower 1, Tower 36 and Tower 50 at the Rhegium Gate. During the reign of Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180) a new wall was built to better secure the Palace of Blachernai, as it was the primary imperial residence at the time. In addition, the walls were extensively repaired during his reign. The walls were neglected following the Latin occupation of Constantinople in 1204, and while the Palaiologan dynasty restored Byzantine rule in 1261, they generally lacked the financial resources to maintain the walls on a regular basis. Nonetheless both Michael VIII Palaiologos 1259-1282) and his son Andronikos II (1282-1328) had repairs made to the walls. The brief siege of Constantinople in 1422 by Sultan Murad II (1421-51) revealed the imminent threat of the Ottomans. Accordingly, John VIII (1425-48) had the walls extensively repaired, as multiple inscriptions, including some recorded but now lost, record.

The Theodosian Walls played a prominent role during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmet II (1451-1481). The accounts of the siege and subsequent sack of Constantinople vary quite widely, making it difficult to precisely determine its exact details. The Ottoman army, which began to besiege Constantinople in early April 1453, bombarded various sections of the walls with large canons cast by Urban, an engineer possibly of Hungarian origin. While significantly damaging the walls in certain sections, the defenders of the city were able to repeatedly fight off enemy advances. The Ottomans also failed in their attempt to attack the walls with a siege tower as well as multiple attempts at mines under the walls. During the siege, the land walls were defended by the Genoese Giovanni Giustiniani Longo, who had brought 700 soldiers and offered his services to Constantine XI in early 1453. He withdrew from the walls when he was wounded on May 29 leading many Genoese soldiers to panic around the Pempton Gate. The ensuing chaos allowed for Ottoman soldiers to overwhelm the fortifications and gain access to the inner wall. According to tradition, Constantine XI was killed in the final assault of the city. On the same day, a small band of Ottoman soldiers were able to slip through Kerkoporta Gate (location uncertain), while the Janissaries breached the walls around the Gates of St. Romanos and Charisius. Mehmet II made his triumphal entry into Constantinople through the Charisius Gate. Later known as Edirnekapı, this gate was extensively restored by Bayezid II and became a ceremonial entrance for Ottoman sultans. Other sections of the Theodosian Walls were extensively damaged during the siege, which were subsequently restored by the Ottomans.

In 1458, a citadel known as Yedikule ("Seven Towers") was constructed behind the Golden Gate. As earthquakes repeatedly damaged the city walls, multiple repairs were made during the Ottoman era. Towards the end of the Ottoman era, they were increasingly neglected and sections of the walls collapsed. In 1886, the Xylokerkos Gate, which had been bricked up during the Byzantine era, was opened up again, after which it became known Belgradkapı ("Belgrade Gate"). At the beginning of the 20th century, plans to demolish the Theodosian Walls in order to modernize the city following European models were rejected due in part to the intervention of Turkish and foreign archaeologists. A section of the walls near the Sea of Marmara was demolished during the construction of the railway built in 1871. In the 1950s, other sections of the walls were demolished to build major roads like Millet Caddesi and Vatan Caddesi. The walls, though in ruins in many sections, were included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Istanbul in 1985.
The remains of several sections of walls are located in the region of Blachernai, which are often claimed to represent walls dating to the Theodosian period or even before. The original line of the Theodosian land wall in the area has been debated; it is only certain that it once ran behind the Church of Theotokos Blachernai. A section of limestone wall, southeast of the present Church of St. Demetrios Kananou near the Golden Horn, is the most likely candidate for a surviving section of the Theodosian Walls. As it was incorporated into the sea wall, it might have survived the destruction of the Theodosian land wall.

Inscription fragment between Towers 4 and 5

At Istanbul Archaeological Museums

ΑΥTOKPATOP

Lost inscription of Leo III and Constantine V from Tower 7

+ Λέων σὺν Κωνσταντίνῳ σκηπτοῦχοι τόνδε ἤγειραν πύργον τῶν βάθρων συμπτωθέντα +

"Leon with Constantine, wielders of the scepter, erected from the foundation this tower which had fallen"

Inscription from the Golden Gate

Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni.

Aurea saecla gerit qui portam construit auro.

"Theodosius decorates this place after the death of a tyrant.

He who builds the gate with gold rules the golden age".

Ottoman inscription from Tower 11 (1754/55)

Inscription of Sultan Ahmed III from Yedikule Gate (1724/25)

Inscription fragment of Leo III and Constantine V from Tower 18

Ἰ(ησοῦ)ς Χ(ριστὸ)ς νικᾷ.

Λέ̣[ο]ντος [κ]αὶ Κων[σ]ταντήνου [με]γάλ[ον βασιλέ]ον καὶ αὐτοκ[ρ]ατώρον, πολλ[ὰ τὰ ἔτη.]

"Jesus Christ conquers"

"Many be the years of Leo and Constantine, Great Kings and Emperors."

Inscription of Theodosius II from Tower 20

At Istanbul Archaeological Museum

Θευδοσίου τόδε τεῖχος ἀγακλῆεν τ[...

ἀμφότερον λάεσσι κεκασμένον ἄλκαρ Ἄ[ρηος]

ὑψηλὸν τὸ μὲν ἔνδον ἐπὶ προτέρων ἐνι[αυτῶν]

ἐνναέτες μογέων ἀνστήσατο καρτερὸ[ν ἔργον]

εἰσέτι κουρίζων, κτεῖνεν δ'ἐπὶ βάρβαρα φ[ύλα]

αὐτὰρ ὁ δεύτερον αὖθις, ὃ δὴ περὶ θανμ'ἐτ[έτνκτο,]

ἑξήκοντα δρόμοισι κύκλον τόσον ἤρα[το τείχους]

τοῦ γὰρ ἐφημοσύνησιν ἐδίματο Κωνσ[ταντῖνος]

ἔξοχος ἀντολίης ὁποτ' ἔλλαχεν ἢνια [γαίης]

Xylokerkos Gate

Πύλη τοῦ Ξυλοκέρκου/Πύλη τοῦ Ξηροκέρκου, Kapalı Kapı/Belgratkapı

Lost inscription

Θευδόσιος τόδε τεῖχος ἄναξ καὶ ὕπαρχος ἐῴας Κωνσταντῖνος ἔτενξαν ἐν ἥμασιν ἑξήκοντα.

"The Emperor Theodosius and Constantine the Eparch of the East built this wall in sixty days."

[From the Greek Anthology]

Cross from Tower Window at Istanbul Archaeological Museums

5th century, from Belgradkapı

Ottoman inscription with mace on north side of Tower 35 (1630/31)

Original location of inscription?

From Meyer-Plath & Schneider

Monograms (with Justinian II) from Tower 46

Rhesion Gate (Πόρτα Ῥησίου, Mevlevihanekapı/Yeni Mevlevihane Kapısı)

Inscriptions from Rhesion Gate

Theodosii iussis gemino nec mense peracto

Constantinus ovans haec moenia firma locavit.

Tam cito tam stabilem Pallas vix conderet arcem.

"On the order of Theodosius, within less than two months,

Constantine triumphantly placed these firm walls.

So fast not even Pallas [Athena] could found a fortress standing so strong".

+ Ἥμασιν ἑξήκοντα φιλοσκήπτρῳ βασιλῆι

+ Κωνσταντῖνος ὕπαρχος ἐδείματο τείχει τεῖχος +

"In sixty days, by order of the scepter-loving Emperor,

Constantine the Eparch added wall to wall."

+ Ἀνενεώθη τὸ προτίχισμα τοῦ θεοδοσιακοῦ τ(εί)χους ἐπ(ὶ) Ἰουστ(ί)νου καὶ Σοφίας | τῶν εὐσεβεστάτων ἡμῶν δεσποτ(ῶ)ν διὰ Ναρσοῦ τοῦ ἐνδοξοτάτου σπαθαρίου | καὶ σακ(ε)λλαρ(ί)ου καὶ Στεφάνου ἐπ(ι)στήκοντος εἰς ὑπουργίαν δούλ(ων) τ(ῶ)ν | εὐσεβεστάτ(ω)ν δεσποτ(ῶ)ν +

"The Outwork of the Theodosian Wall was restored under Justin and Sophia, our most pious Sovereigns, by Narses, the most glorious Spatharius and Sacellarius, and Stephen, who belonged to the service, a servant of the most pious Sovereigns."

Inscription of Fourth Military Gate (or Gate of St. Romanos)

+ Καὶ πρὶν μὲν ἦν πάνσεπτος ο[ὗτος ὁ ναός OR + Καὶ πρὶν μὲν ἦν πάνσεπτος α[ὐτὴ ἡ πόλις

Γ]εώργιος ἔτευξεν εὐ[γενής? Γ]εώργιος ἔτευξεν εὐ[τελνὴς?

Late Antique Cornice Fragment from Tower 61

Inscription Fragment (of Leo IV and Constantine VI) from Tower 63

. . .]καὶ Θευδο[. . .

Crosses on Tower 63

Reliefs with Lions and Animals Fighting and other spolia from Tower 66

Inscription from Pempton Gate

Portarum valido firmavit limine muros

Pusaeus, magno non minor Anthemio.

"With a strong lintel Pusaeus strengthened the walls of the gates,

he, who is not second to the great Anthemius".

Charisios Gate

Πύλη Χαρισίου, Χαρσίου Πύλη/Edirnekapı

Lost Inscription of Alexios III (1197)

Inscription fragment south of Tower 91

Possible remains of the Theodosian Land Wall

Near the Church of St. Demetrios Kananou in Balat

Galata from map by Cristoforo Buondelmonte (ca. 1422)

Miniature by Matrakçı Nasuh (1533)

From map by Piri Reis (16th century)

Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

Map of Constantinople by Salomon Schweigger (1608)

Panel from Panorama of Constantinople by Melchior Lorichs (1559)

Gate of the Pege (Silivrikapı)

By the Greek Philological Society of Constantinople (1884)

Siege of Constantinople

From Chronicles ofe Charles VII by Jean Chartier (c. 1461)

Mehmed II Entering to Constantinople

By Fausto Zonaro (1854-1929)

Ottoman Bronze Canon from Reign of Mehmet II

Possibly used in Siege of Constantinople in 1453

​At the Military Museum in Istanbul

Die Landmauer von Konstantinopel II by B. Meyer-Plath and A. M. Schneider

Die Landmauer von Konstantinopel by Krischen

Byzantine Fortifications: An Introduction by Foss and Winfield

Die Landmauer von Konstantinopel by Neslihan Asutay-Effenberger

Byzantine Constantinople, the Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites by Alexander Van Millingen

Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupolis, Istanbul by Wolfgang Müller-Wiener

Βυζαντιναί Μελέται: Τοπογραφικαί και Ιστορικαί μετά πλείστων εικόνων by A. Paspates

Ἀνέκδοτοι ἐπιγραφαὶ Βυζαντίου, Ἑλληνικὸς by Curtis and Aristarchis

Two Romes: Rome and Constantinople in Late Antiquity edited by Grig and Kelly

The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324‐1453 by S. Turnbull

Materials for the Study of Late Antique and Medieval Greek and Latin Inscriptions in Istanbul by Andreas Rhoby and Ida Toth

"The Infrastructure Of A Great City: Earth, Walls And Water In Late Antique Constantinople" by James Crow

"The Byzantine Inscriptions of Constantinople: A Bibliographical Survey" by C. Mango

"The Golden Gate in Constantinople: A Triumphal Arch of Theodosius I" by J. Bardill

"Anomalous Imperial Inscriptions of the Walls of Constantinople" by C. Foss

"Epigraphische Mitteilungen aus İstanbul I.Ein neues Bauepigramm der theodosischen Landmauer von Konstantinupolis aus dem Jahr 447" by Kalkan & Şahin

"Tower stablished by God, God is protecting you: Inscriptions on Byzantine Fortifications-Their Function and Their Display" by A. Rhoby

"Recent Work on the Land Walls of Istanbul: Tower 2 to Tower 5" by M. and Z. Ahunbay

"Konstantinopolis (İstanbul) Sur ve Kule Yazıtları / Inscriptions from the Walls and Towers of Constantinople" H. S. Öztürk

"Edirne Kapi and the Creation of Ottoman Ceremonial Iconography and Topography" by Christopher Timm
"Les inscriptions en lettres de briques du rempart terrestre de Constantinople-Istanbul : un aperçu des événements de 740-743/7441" by A. Loaëc

Theodosian Walls Album (Byzantine Legacy Flickr)
Istanbul City Walls (GABAM Koç University)
Broken Bits of Byzantium by C.G. Curtis (lithographed by M. Walker)

Land Walls (Nicholas V. Artamonoff Collection)

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The Theodosian Walls protected Byzantine Constantinople for centuries

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Barbarian Kingdoms and Reconquest of Justinian I

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Barbarian Kingdoms and Reconquest of Justinian I

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This map depicts the territorial expansion of Justinian I through his conquest of the "Barbarian kingdoms" the Franks, Visigoths, and Lombards in western Europe. Under Justinian I, the Byzantine empire saw the height of its territorial expansion, reaching well into the former western territories of the Roman empire. The movement of the expansion by the Byzantine military is also depicted in this map, a brief example of the success of the Byzantine military which comprised of a theme system headed by generals, who answered back to the Byzantine emperor.

Barbarian Kingdoms, the Reconquest of Justinian, Arab Conquests 3 Maps. 5th-8th c. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13584573. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.

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Barbarian Kingdoms, the Reconquest of Justinian, Arab Conquests 3 maps

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Barbarian Kingdoms, the Reconquest of Justinian, Arab Conquests 3 maps, Barbarian Kingdoms, the Reconquest of Justinian, Arab Conquests 3 maps,

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This map shows the extent of the Byzantine Empire's territory at its height. The red regions indicate territory that had been gained under Justinian I during his reconquest that was later lost after Justinian I's death. The blue region indicates the territory of the Byzantine empire by around 1000 CE, nearing the end of the empire's reign. Though Justinian I was able to capture an expansive amount of territory, in the years following his death up until the year 1000 CE as shown in this map the empire saw a loss of territory. The black dots indicate battle sites, where outside forces, typically the Ottoman Turks, pushed back Byzantine territory, and eventually overthrew the empire.

Byzantine Empire. c.1000. JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.13580523. Accessed 13 Apr. 2024.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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This video is a clip from a larger documentary on the Byzantine empire, and explains the origins of Constantinople as emperor Constantine the Great established the city and it transformed into the wealthy capital of the empire. The clip covers Constantine's initial movement from Rome to the city of Constantinople, which marks the beginning of the Byzantine empire, then discusses the Christian influence on the city and construction of many cathedrals that attracted a large population, making Constantinople the largest city of its time. The clip then discusses some of Constantinople's early problems with a lack of fresh water, and the consequent construction of a complex network of aqueducts and cisterns. Defensive features of Constantinople such as the Theodosian walls and the chains along the shoreline to address attacks by sea. The features of the Byzantine empire's capital Constantinople discussed in this clip create a good image of the capabilities of the empire.

"The Byzantines." , directed by Rebecca Ratliff, and Mark Cannon. , produced by Rebecca Ratliff, Kralyevich Productions, and Mechanism Digital. , A&E Television Networks, 2006. Alexander Street, https://video.alexanderstreet.com/watch/the-byzantines.

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In conclusion, The Byzantine empire is one of the more noteworthy empires and distinct from its predecessor the Roman empire as can be seen from their establishment of Christianity and movement toward a Greek center, making a new face for the former Roman citizens and establishing their culture throughout Europe. The Byzantine empire was one of the first Christian empires and will be forever remembered because of its vast impact on the modern world because of how Christianity spread from them and established the religion as the power we know it as today. Similarly, the Byzantine architecture that still stands in modern day Istanbul will perpetuate the Byzantine empire’s legacy as innovators of modern architecture and as a center for some of the most important churches and places of worship today. After the Early Byzantine period, the empire went on to influence the rest of the world through its exports of religion and expansion of their territory, and is one of the longest existing empires in history. Though many of the political, military, and cultural aspects of the Byzantine empire have origins in the Roman empire from which they came, the eastward shift of its people and expansion of religion, architecture, and global interaction make the Byzantine empire an important empire in its own right.

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This is a limestone capital from a Byzantine column. The capital displays a composite style of column, which was typical of the Byzantine empire's column designs. Limestone was also used in Byzantine architecture to allow structures to be able to move without immediately collapsing, coupled with the use of cement and brick. The design specifically is what is most typical of Byzantine art and architecture, and makes this column more likely Byzantine than Roman because composite columns are more typical of Byzantine while the Romans typically used corinthian style.

Palestine Exploration Fund. Capital. Limestone capital; carved with shaped top, boldly cut foliage and volutes resting on twin columns below. 1903. British Museum, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1903-0220-4.

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Limestone capital; carved with shaped top, boldly cut foliage and volutes resting on twin columns below.