# data[].attributes.body
Map of China and major attractions

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
China maps with cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Guilin, Xi'an, Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Tibet as well as great wall virtual tour map, China provinces, population, geography and railway.

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Chinese Artefacts-The Han Dynasty

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Chinese Artefacts-The Han Dynasty

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.alternative_text
Ancient Chinese Artefacts-The Han Dynasty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220) was one of the longest surviving Chinese dynasties and rivalled the almost contemporary, but smaller Roman Empire. Following a period of civil war after the succession of Qin Shi Huang's son in the Qin Dynasty, rebel leader Liu Bang defeated his rivals and became Han Gaozu, the First Emperor of the Western Han Dynasty. Spanning more than 400 years with only minor interruptions, the Dynasty was characterised by significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, astronomy and literature which can still be felt in China today. Explore this golden age of Chinese history through some of the objects that feature in our China's First Emperor and the Terracotta Warriors exhibition:

Terracotta cavalrymen and horses

The rulers of the Han Dynasty followed in the footsteps of the Qin kings and showed a strong belief in gods, spirits and the afterlife. Discoveries so far suggest that, like the First Emperor of China, they had armies of terracotta warriors and horses to protect them, as well as servants, entertainers and animals. These cavalrymen and horses are two of more than 500 figures buried near the tomb of a general at Yangjiawan. Originally, the cavalrymen held the reins in one hand and a weapon in the other, and details of the saddles, harnesses and bridles were painted on the figures with bright colours.

Animal mask

People decorated many objects with images of wild and mysteries animals during the Qin and Han periods. In the Han Dynasty, the animal mask became a popular motif used to decorate the handles of various objects such as doors, vessels and coffins. This ornamental handle was probably attached to a coffin, and is missing a bronze ring which would have hung from the mouth of the creature.

Jade disc

A comparison of major tombs dating from the Spring and Autumn Period (771 - 476 BC) to the Han Dynasty, reveal a great increase in the use of jade between the third and second centuries BC. Jade was more valuable than gold as it was strongly associated with immortality, and its use was restricted to the highest members of society. Coffins of high-ranking individuals were embellished with protective jade discs such as this one which is the largest ever discovered in China. The hole in the centre of the disc is designed to allow the spirit of the deceased to travel in and out.

Pottery model of a well

Models of buildings and real-life objects such as houses, granaries, cooking stoves and wells were very popular in the Han Dynasty, and were produced specifically for burial in tombs. This was not the life-sized world of the scale created by China's First Emperor, but miniature versions of the world the deceased had lived in. In modern China, many people still believe in the afterlife and worship their ancestors in cemeteries or at home. They buy miniature paper models of servants, horses, houses, cars, money and even iPhones as offerings for their relatives so they can enjoy their life in the next world.

Gold ingots

Emperors used gold ingots as gifts to reward their subjects or as gold reserves to store their wealth. Many ingots were stamped or engraved with inscriptions such as family names or good luck messages, and more than 400 gold ingots dating to the Han Dynasty have been found in China so far.

Pottery zun 樽 wine container

Containers of this shape were made to store liquors such as wine. Ancient Chinese wine was made from fermented grain and rice wine is still one of the most popular drinks in China today. This green glazed pottery 'zun' is decorated with cloud designs around the sides. Its lid is in the shape of a mountain; probably representing the mythical 'Isles of the Immortals'.

Tomb doorway

It was common for wealthy individuals to have a stone door built at the entrance of their tomb which was carved with images of mythical creatures to guard against evil spirits. On the lintel at the top of this doorway, the sun is shown on the right as a red circle with a black bird, while the moon appears as a circle on the left. Together with the clouds depicted on the doorframe, they represent a celestial space high above the human realm. Images of dancing figures and chariots on the doorframe illustrate the activities at the tomb site during the ceremonial service. Two immortals in black at the top on each side of the doorframe are poised ready to guide the deceased to heaven.

Coins with Greek script

Bearing Parthian-style Greek inscriptions on one side and decorated with a Han-style dragon on the reverse, these coins offer a glimpse into the cultural exchange between China, Greece and Central Asia via the Silk Road. The establishment of this huge network of trade routes linking China to the Mediterranean extended over 7,000 kilometres and created new opportunities for Chinese merchants who traded silk, lacquerware and salt in exchange for gold, jade, silver, ivory, glass, spices and exotic goods.

Brass incense burner

Up until the Han Dynasty, people burned fragrant plants as incense. In later times, it became more common to heat scented wood with charcoal. Exotic incense imported via the Silk Road became one of the most expensive goods traded in the Han Dynasty. Discover more fascinating objects from the Han Dynasty at our landmark exhibition, China's First Emperor and the Terracotta Warriors which runs from 9 February until 28 October 2018.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A journey through the Han Dynasty in ten objects

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220) was one of the longest surviving Chinese dynasties and rivalled the almost contemporary, but smaller Roman Empire. Following a period of civil war after the succession of Qin Shi Huang's son in the Qin Dynasty, rebel leader Liu Bang defeated his rivals and became Han Gaozu, the First Emperor of the Western Han Dynasty.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Find out how oracle bones could foretell the future! Meet Confucius, the great teacher. Read ancient stories like Nian the Monster, Wang the Peddler, and Loawnu the Wise. Discover how paper was invented. Learn about Taoism and the Ugly Duckling. Walk the Great Wall of China. Travel and trade along the dangerous Silk Road! Meet magical creatures. Guess the meaning of two ancient Chinese fables. Discover guardian dragons. Explore daily life in the Xia, Shang, Chou, Qin, Han, Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties. Welcome to Ancient China!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find out how oracle bones could foretell the future! Meet Confucius, the great teacher. Read ancient stories like Nian the Monster, Wang the Peddler, and Loawnu the Wise. Discover how paper was invented. Learn about Taoism and the Ugly Duckling. Walk the Great Wall of China. Travel and trade along the dangerous Silk Road!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ireland has some of the most amazing historic sites and buildings. Explore Irish history through our historic castles, churches, and monuments. Visit hisoric sites such as the passage tombs at Newgrange or historic buildings such as Dublin Castle.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Newgrange is a 5,200 year old passage tomb located in the Boyne Valley in Ireland's Ancient East.

Newgrange was built by Stone Age farmers, the mound is 85m (279ft) in diameter and 13m (43ft) high, an area of about 1 acre.

A passage measuring 19m (62ft) leads into a chamber with 3 alcoves. The passage and chamber are aligned with the rising sun on the mornings around the Winter Solstice.

Newgrange is surrounded by 97 large stones called kerbstones some of which are engraved with megalithic art; the most striking is the entrance stone.

Access to the Newgrange monument is via the Brú na Bóinne Visitors Centre.

Newgrange is a Stone Age (Neolithic) monument in the Boyne Valley, County Meath, it is the jewel in the crown of Ireland's Ancient East. Newgrange was constructed about 5,200 years ago (3,200 B.C.) which makes it older than Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids of Giza. Newgrange is a large circular mound 85m (279ft) in diameter and 13m (43ft) high with a 19m (63ft) stone passageway and chambers inside. The mound is ringed by 97 large kerbstones, some of which are engraved with symbols called megalithic art.

Newgrange was built by a farming community that prospered on the rich lands of the Boyne Valley. Knowth and Dowth are similar mounds that together with Newgrange have been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Archaeologists classified Newgrange as a passage tomb, however Newgrange is now recognised to be much more than a passage tomb. Ancient Temple is a more fitting classification, a place of astrological, spiritual, religious and ceremonial importance, much as present day cathedrals are places of prestige and worship where dignitaries may be laid to rest.

Newgrange is a large kidney shaped mound covering an area of over one acre, retained at the base by 97 kerbstones, some of which are richly decorated with megalithic art. The 19m long inner passage leads to a cruciform chamber with a corbelled roof. The amount of time and labour invested in construction of Newgrange suggests a well-organized society with specialised groups responsible for different aspects of construction.

Newgrange is part of a complex of monuments built along a bend of the River Boyne known collectively as Brú na Bóinne. The other two principal monuments are Knowth (the largest) and Dowth, but throughout the area there are as many as 35 smaller mounds.

Tomb of Newgrange

Visitor Information

Visitor access to Newgrange is only by guided tour from the Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre on the south side of the river Boyne. Newgrange is on the north side of the river Boyne, visitors cross the river by pedestrian bridge and take a shuttle bus to Newgrange. There is no direct public access to Newgrange by road, except for mornings around the Winter Solstice, so if using a GPS Satellite Navigation System, your destination is Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre.

Experience the heritage and culture of the Boyne Valley with our exclusive full-day private tours. Delve into the past with a visit to Newgrange and Knowth World Heritage sites. Explore the fascinating Hill of Tara, the historic seat of power of the High Kings. Journey to the Hill of Slane, where Saint Patrick famously lit the Paschal fire. Book Now

Winter Solstice

Newgrange is best known for the illumination of its passage and chamber by the winter solstice sun. Above the entrance to the passage at Newgrange there is an opening called a roof-box. This baffling orifice held a great surprise for those who unearthed it. Its purpose is to allow sunlight to penetrate the chamber on the shortest days of the year, around December 21st, the winter solstice. At dawn, from December 19th to 23rd, a narrow beam of light penetrates the roof-box and reaches the floor of the chamber, gradually extending to the rear of the chamber.

As the sun rises higher, the beam widens within the chamber so that the whole room becomes dramatically illuminated. This event lasts for 17 minutes, beginning around 9am. The accuracy of Newgrange as a time-telling device is remarkable when one considers that it was built 500 years before the Great Pyramids and more than 1,000 years before Stonehenge.

The intent of the Stone Age farmers who build Newgrange was undoubtedly to mark the beginning of the new year. In addition, it may have served as a powerful symbol of the victory of life over death.

Each year the winter solstice event attracts much attention at Newgrange. Many gather at the ancient tomb to wait for dawn, as people did 5,000 years ago. So great is the demand to be one of the few inside the chamber during the solstice that there is a free annual lottery (application forms are available at the Visitor Centre). Unfortunately, as with many Irish events that depend upon sunshine, if the skies are overcast, there is not much to be seen. Yet all agree that it is an extraordinary feeling to wait in the darkness, as people did so long ago, for the longest night of the year to end.

Newgrange Resources

Education Packs follow the school curricula and are an aid for teachers and students.

Immerse yourself in the rich heritage and culture of the Boyne Valley with our full-day private tours. Visit Newgrange World Heritage site, explore the Hill of Slane, where Saint Patrick famously lit the Paschal fire. Discover the Hill of Tara, the ancient seat of power for the High Kings of Ireland. Book Now

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newgrange Stone Age Passage Tomb - Boyne Valley, Ireland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Newgrange in the Boyne Valley is a 5000 year old Passage Tomb famous for the Winter Solstice illumination which lights up the passage and chamber at sunrise

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Knowth

Knowth is the largest passage mound in Ireland. It is a massive structure covering an acre of land on a hilltop in the Boyne Valley. In architectural conception it represents the ideas and motivations of a society which we are only just beginning to understand. That society is very far removed from us, and indeed very far removed from even the most ancient civilizations that we do know something about.

The Stars and the Stones, Martin Brennan, 1983.

Knowth is both the largest and most remarkable ancient monument in Ireland. Though Newgrange is more famous and Dowth is probably older, Knowth is a fascinating and important site with a collection of more than 400 engraved stones and some finely carved artifcts dating from the middle to the end of the Irish neolithic. The cruciform east chamber at Knowth is the largest in Ireland, at the end of a passage forty meters long. Knowth is a UNESCO World Heritage site, managed by the Office of Public Works and access is through the Brú na Bóinne Visitor Centre.

The massive vault of the corbelled ceiling in the East chamber of Knowth.

Cnoc Buí

Knowth is located on a ridge two kilometers north-west of Newgrange, and is the closest of the three mega-mounds to the sacred River Boyne. The enormous main mound is 85 by 95 meters in diameter, covering more than an acre of ground, and is surrounded by at least eighteen smaller structures called Satellite monuments. The satellite mounds, several of which are as large as twenty meters in diameter, predate the colossal central cairn. The monument seems to have been in use for at least three centuries, between 3,200 and 2,900 BC.

In Irish mythology Knowth is Cnoc Bui, home to the sovereignty Goddess Buí, consort of Lugh of the Long Arm. Lugh and his spouse Buí may well be represented by the pair of standing stones positioned outside the West entrance at Knowth. It would seem that each of the three huge mounds in the Boyne Valley has a symbolic role or meaning: Newgrange represents Birth, Knowth represents Marriage and Dowth represents Death. The passage-graves are symbolic ritual constructs designed to allow the living to make a symbolic journey through the passageway into the Underworld or Land of the Dead, represented by the chamber, and to return again safely to the Land of the Living.

The standing stones guarding the West entrance of Knowth, which may represent Lugh and Buí. Illustration © Martin Brennan.

History of Knowth

Excavations have proven Knowth to be an extremely complex site which was in continual use from the neolithic to the Norman times. The monument is first mentioned by Sir Thomas Molyneux, who visited Knowth around 1713 and published details of the monument in 1725. Molyneux found a decorated stone 'urn', most likely a basin stone, and some fragments of cremated bone in what was surely the recess of a cruciform or undifferenciated satellite monument. The basin has since been lost, and is probably in a private collection somewhere, but we have an illustration left by Molyneux. The object has solar or lunar symbolism and bands carved around the sides, much like a smaller version of the basin in the East chamber.

One of two illustrations of the stone 'urn' or basin illustrated by Molyneux in 1725.

John O'Donovan, working for the Ordanance Survey, visited the site in 1836, noting that the monument was known as Miss Nanny's moat, and that 'attempts have been made to discover a passage into the Moat but with no success'. William Wakeman was the first to illustrate the monument, and noted that for many years the site had been used as a quarry, which probably accounts for the destruction of the satellite monuments. Sir William Wilde mentioned the monument in his Beauties of the Boyne, published in 1849, and described the Knowth as:

an abrupt, hemispherical mound, with rather a flattened top... Some enormous masses of stone, arranged in a circular manner around its base, tell us, however, that it is evidently the work of design; and some excavations made into one of its sides show that it consists of an enormous cairn of small stones, covered with rich greensward, occupying in extent of surface about an acre, and rising to a height of nearly eight feet. As far as we can judge by external appearances, although history is against us, it appears to be as yet uninvestigated.

Knowth, Newgrange and Dowth were taken into state care in the 1882, and gained some measure of protection from quarrying and other damage. George Coffey visited Knowth in 1892, and made an effort to identify the monument from literary sources:

Hence is Cnogba of the troops,
So that every host deems it famous,
From the lamentation after reaping nuts.....
Following Elcmar's daughter.

Coffey was the first to identify the presence of a satellite monument, noting several large stones on the northern side of the huge mound, forming a 'more or less defined ellipse, of about 70 feet by 30 feet, possibly marking the site of another sepulchral monument'.

R. A. S. Macalister's trench at Knowth during his 1941 excavation.

Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, who had excavated at Carrowkeel in 1911 and Newgrange in 1928, was next to investigate Knowth in 1941. Macalister thought the stones noted by George Coffey might mark the entrance to the great mound, and obtaining permission from the landowner, he began to excavate what we now know as Satellite 14. He recognised this as a seperate monument to the great mound, 'a minor grave-monument', and turned his attention to the kerb of the great mound. He began to excavate a trench one meter wide along the base of the mound, exposing the kerbstones, intending to work his way around the base of the mound until he found the entrance. Macalister dug four trenches and uncovered fifty-eight kerbstones, forty-eight of which were ornamented, some of them very elaborately.

The East and West Passages

The original monument at Knowth was a passage-grave about fifty meters in diameter with twin chambers back to back. The first Knowth, which may have been constructed around 3,500 BC, is no longer visible. During the later neolithic, this earlier monument was subsumed into a greatly enlarged mound, and extensions were added to the two passages, changing the angle of the west passage by about 17 degrees.

When George Eogan began his excavations in 1962, there was no indication that the site was so complex. The West chamber was discovered on 11 July 1967, when the excavators were investigating a series of medieval souterrains, built long after the neolithic. Martin Colfort and George Eoghan explored the newly discovered megalithic passage, discovering that it penetrated thirty-four meters into the mound. At the end was a spectacular undifferenciated passage-grave with many lavishly engraves structural stones.

Tall twin pillars flank the north recess of the East chamber in Knowth, guarding the fabulous engraved stone basin.

The East passage and chamber was discovered on 1 August, Lugnasadh, the Feast of Lugh, 1968. The entrance was discovered while excavating a medieval souterrain, which connected to what turned out to be the longest megalithic structure in Europe, with many fine engravings on the orthostats and roofslabs. The passage ran straight for forty meters into the mound, opening into a huge cruciform chamber with a wonderful corbelled roof. Twin pillars guarded the right-hand recess, where a beautiful engraved stone basin, the finest example known in Ireland was discovered. The basin, which is 1.4 meters in diameter, is much too large to have been taken into the monument after it was constructed, so the chamber must have been built around the basin.

The Kerbstones at Knowth

A continous ring of 127 kerbstones encircles the base of the enormous mound. Three kerbstones are missing and all but ten of the are engraved with an amazing array of abstract astronomical motifs. Carvings which may represent the moon, or eclipses of the moon and sun, predominate at Knowth.

The stones used for the kerb and chamber construction are greywackie, a fairly soft sandstone, which is easily carved. Like the stones at Newgrange and Dowth, the stones came from Clogher Head, and were dragged at least twenty kilometers from their quarry if they were transported by land, or thirty kilometers if they were moved by water, which seems more likely. The sourcing and movement of so many stones is an astonishing feat, pointing to a wealthy and highly organised society, driven by religious motives.

One of the ninety decorated kerbstones at Knowth.

Megalithic Art

Knowth has the largest collection of megalithic art known from neolithic western Europe, and accounts for half of the total number of engraved stones in Ireland, and one third of all the megalithic art in Europe. Knowth's artwork is the equivalant of a huge library of stone age art, with a common theme and style running through the art. Almost all of the kerbstones encircling the large mound are engraved, many with what seem to be very obvious solar and lunar symbols.

Ninety of the 127 kerbstones are engraved, many with complex panels that seem to be attempting to reconcile the cycles of the sun and moon, and many examples appear to be counting moons. While the East and West passages, and the wonderful examples of art they contain are off limits to the public, visitors can view the ninety engraved kerbstones surrounding the mound.

The front panel of the basin in the right recess of the East chamber may be an illustration of a solar eclipse.

Canadian scientist Phillip Stooke has suggested that carvings in the end recess of the huge Eastern cruciform chamber may well be the oldest known representation of the surface of the moon. It was thought for many years that the Eastern and Western passages were aligned to the sunrises and sunsets over the equinoxes. However, when Frank Prendergast and Tom Ray surveyed the passages, they discovered that this is not the case, and both passages are some way off the equinox positions.

The original Knowth monument, before it was enlarged, had much shorter passages, and it is likely that the light of both sun and moon illuminated the backstone of this earlier phase of the monument. It is fascinating to imagine the light of the moon illuminating a map or diagram of itself.

A decorated stone object found near the West entrance.

Three outstanding ritual objects were discovered during the excavations. A wonderful engraved neolithic basin stone was found in the east chamber, and a highly decorated ritual macehead, carved from a piece of Orkney flint was buried close to the basin. Both are superb examples of neolithic art. The third object was found near the Western entrance. Considered to be a stone phallus, this mysterious item is 30 centimeters long, with ten ribs and a groove carved along the shaft, and arcs or circles carved around the end.

Dragon eggs: granite cobbles, brought to Knowth from the Mourne Mountains 60 km to the north of the Boyne Valley. These stones are now spread on the ground before the entrance to the east passage.

Excavations

Excavations at Knowth began in June of 1962, the same year as the Newgrange excavations, and proceeded every year until 2002, when the site was finally opened to the public. The excavations were directed by professor George Eogan and his team, who found that the site had remained in continous use from the neolithic to the middle ages, with twelve seperate sequences of use. The foundations of several neolithic houses were found under the huge mound, indicating thet the site began as a settlement. A similar scenario was found at Townleyhall, the small passage-grave excavated by Eoghan prior to his work at Knowth.

Carvings on a displaced roof corbel from the destroyed entrance to the Western passage, discovered during excavations.

Large sections of the main mound were completely removed during the excavations, and long trenches were dug along the passageways, in order to straighten the leaning passage stones. The excavators found that the structural stones of the east chamber had skewed and rotated, making the chamber and the inner section of the passage unstable. A large inner cairn of stones surrounded the two original chambers, and this was left unexplored, in case excavation would cause further destabilization. The mound was built in layers, indicating that it was constructed over many seasons. Approximately five acres of fine grass land was stripped to provide the base for the mound.

Much of the material removed from the main was replaced with modern building materials which included concrete, styrafoam and putty. However, unlike Newgrange, attempts to waterproof the monument have failed and both inner chambers remain damp and muddy. There is no public access to these chambers, and cribbing in the West passage remains in place to support the roof. So far, six volumes detailing the excavations at Knowth have been published, and have been made available to the general public in digital versions. You can download the six volumes from the Digital Repository of Ireland website.

A plan of Knowth, showing the two passages and sixteen of the satellite mounds. Circles show approximate size and locations. Plan adapted from George Eogan's book, Knowth.

Materials used to build Knowth were sourced from locations far from the Boyne Valley. Round granite cobbles were collected from the shore around around the Cooley peninsula, some sixty kilometers to the north, and the chunks of quartz found spread around the entrances came from Wicklow, sixty kiloleters to the south. There are many stone settings, circular or oval pits lined with stones, found outside the entrances. The kerbstones and structural stones came from a quarry at Clogher Head, and were probably transported by boat. The magnificant macehead from the East chamber was carved from flint sourced in Orkney, hinting at wide connections during the neolithic. The art at Knowth has many parallels with earlier carvings from Brittany, and the carvings, particularly in the West chamber, are reminiscent of, if not directly influenced by the engravings in the chamber of Gavrinis in the Gulf of Morbihan.

Guided Tours of Knowth

Access to Knowth is only possible from the Bru na Boinne visitor center across the river; shuttle busses bring visitors to and from the site. A tour of the site lasts about an hour. The passages are not open to the public; visitors are taken instead into a surreal concrete bunker built into the east side of the mound.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Great Mound of Knowth in the Boyne Valley. This neolithic site was built around 3,200 BC and is surrounded by 19 smaller satellite mounds. The main site has two passages, one facing east, the other west. The stones of Knowth are covered with beautiful engraved art.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Dublin's Georgian heart is so beautifully intact that you might find yourself feeling as if you have stepped back in time.

18th century Dublin was one of Europe's largest cities and its predominant style known as 'Georgian' after the four Hanoverian kings of England, all named George. The regularity of redbrick façades, the sweep of granite steps, windows diminishing in size as you go up and all those differently coloured doors set the tone. Elegant residences and grand civic buildings combined to give an appropriate grandeur to a city looking to make a mark on the European stage.

Want to explore the very best of Dublin's Georgian identity? This guide by architecture writer Gemma Tipton, winner of the Arts Council's Critic's Bursary for her architecture writing, is a great place to start.

Let's start at Merrion Square, where a stroll in the park lets you enjoy the sight of the Georgian buildings untroubled by 21st century traffic. But would it surprise you to discover that these timeless classics weren't actually built to last? Based on a land-lease system, with leases running from 40 to 100 years, the original idea was that they would be torn down and rebuilt as each lease came up for renewal. Lucky for us that wasn't put into practice. This also explains why there are small differences in façades and heights, as different builders would be responsible for different sections. Architecture buffs can explore inside and find a wealth of material at the Irish Architectural Archive at 45 Merrion Square.

Another prominent state building is Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, the official residence of the President of Ireland. Originally the Viceregal Lodge, it is actually credited to park ranger and amateur architect Nathaniel Clements. But Clements got help from Richard Castle and one of the other big architectural names at the time in Ireland, Sir Edward Lovett Pearce. Another extravaganza of symmetry, you can take guided tours on selected Saturdays.

On the north side of the River Liffey, Henrietta Street is Dublin's earliest Georgian Street, its houses built for barons, viscounts, lords and earls. A fascinating spot, it still has its cobbled surface, and often features as a backdrop for films and TV shows - including Albert Nobbs and Foyle's War. Numbers 9 and 10 are particularly grand, designed by Edward Lovett Pearce for Luke Gardiner, the 1st Viscount Mountjoy in 1735.

As the fortunes of Dublin declined in the 1800s, contrasts in the city's wealth became ever more marked. At 14 Henrietta Street, you can visit a museum dedicated to remembering the lives of those who lived in the city's infamous tenements. By 1911, more than 800 people were living in poverty in just fifteen houses; some houses on the street were still in use as tenements, right up to the 1970s.

At the top of the street is the King's Inns Law Library, built just as the Georgian era was coming to a close.

Another great Palladian-style building is the Custom House,on the River Liffey. Famously burned by the Irish Republican Army in 1921, it was all but destroyed, taking a huge amount of Irish history with it. Painstakingly restored and now with a visitors' centre and museum, you can discover the evolving story of commerce and city life in Dublin, as well as the history of the fire itself. Spot the carvings of thirteen river gods, plus one for the Atlantic Ocean, by sculptor Edward Smyth, who the Custom House architect, James Gandon, said had talents "equal to Michelangelo".

8. Bank of Ireland Cultural & Heritage Centre

Staying with literature, the Museum of Literature Ireland (MoLI) is on St Stephen's Green. Once the family home of Thomas (Buck) Whaley, the famous gambler and member of the Irish House of Commons, the building was later the home of the Catholic University, now UCD. Famous alumni and residents include Gerard Manley Hopkins, Mary Lavin, Kate O'Brien, Flann O'Brien and Maeve Binchy. James Joyce had his graduation photographs taken under the ash tree in what is now one of Dublin's few accessible historic house gardens.

10. More Georgian architecture

Want more? Check out the Powerscourt Townhouse Centre, an elegant arcade of shops and cafés in a former city centre mansion; Charlemont House, now the Hugh Lane Gallery, with its delicious Impressionist collection and the Francis Bacon Studio; and the Gate Theatre, originally built as the Assembly Rooms, alongside another Georgian gem, the Rotunda Hospital, which still serves as one.

Beyond Georgian Dublin there is plenty more to uncover, so check out some of the city's most distinctive public squares.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Best Georgian Architecture in Dublin | Visit Dublin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Looking for some of the finest examples of the Georgian style in Dublin? Here's a guide to the top 10 examples of Georgian architecture in the city.

# data[].attributes.body
Dive in and explore a variety of castles that are scattered along the Irish landscape

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Skip to content

22 sites listed below

Ireland's castles are proud defenders of our history. If walls could speak these castles would tell of thrilling adventures, brave battles, daring sieges and cunning exploits. They would tell tales of clans and families, noble lords, formidable ladies and some unwelcome occupiers - all part of the tapestry of Ireland's story.

Explore the magnificent keeps, donjons and towers that made these castles the ultimate symbols of political power in their time. Take the view from the proud battlements and try find hidden murder holes and secret rooms.

Let our expert guides tell the stories of these architectural masterpieces and their fearsome inhabitants.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ireland's castles are proud defenders of our history. If walls could speak these castles would tell of thrilling adventures, brave battles, daring sieges and cunning

# data[].attributes.body
Explore the world of the IRB-their aims and main leaders

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Voyage of the Erin's Hope

A Fenian Rebellion
In 1867 a ship called the 'Jacknell' left New York bound for Ireland. The men on board hoped to assist in a Fenian rising. The enterprise started when on the 12th of April, 1867, a party of forty or fifty men, almost all of whom had been officers or privates in the service of the American government, and had distinguished themselves in the recently concluded American Civil War, went down from New York to Sandyhook. There they boarded a brigantine of about 200 tons, which had been purchased for the expedition and in that boat these men sailed for Ireland.

She was called the 'Jacknell,' and she sailed without papers or colours. The commander of the expedition was named John F. Kavanagh, and he had filled the office of brigadier-general in the American army, and was also at one time a member of the American Congress. These men had on board a very large quantity of arms packed in piano cases, cases for sewing machines and wine barrels, in order to conceal them effectually; and the parcels were consigned to a merchant firm in Cuba. The ship steered for one day towards the West Indies, in order to avoid suspicion, and then shaped her course towards Ireland.

Arrival in Sligo Bay
Nothing remarkable occurred until Easter Sunday, April 29th, nearly nine days after they had sailed from New York. The parties, determined to celebrate that day as a festival, hoisted the green flag with a sunburst, fired a salute, and changed the name of the vessel to 'Erin's Hope'. Kavanagh produced sealed orders, which ordered him to sail to Sligo Bay and there land his men and arms. If he found it impracticable to land there, he was to proceed to some other place in Ireland.
Some days after this, they came in sight of the 'coast of the county of Limerick, and then they sailed towards Sligo and arrived in Sligo Bay on the 10th of May. For six days they sailed between Sligo and Donegal Bays sending signals to the shore which remained unanswered, nor was there any sign of the insurrection they sailed to help.
Local fishing boats, anxious to know why they were there, visited them but these fishermen knew nothing of a Fenian Rising. As the days went by signals were sent from the Coastguards on shore demanding that they identify themselves and state their business. When unsatisfactory answers were received coastguards who were stationed in the village boarded them off Mullaghmore Head. Finding nothing suspicious they made no attempt at an arrest.

Departs Sligo
Around this time some of the crew were injured by the 'accidental' discharge of a weapon by a man named Buckley who, later on, would betray his shipmates, and indeed may even have been a paid informer. The injured men were put ashore near Streedagh where they were discovered some time later by a Coastguard patrol. They were arrested, tried before Ormsby-Jones J.P. and sent to prison.
Captain Kavanagh, after two weeks of waiting, landed two of his men, Col. O'Doherty and Lieut. O'Shea at Sligo town with the intention of hooking up with the local Fenians. He had high hopes that the men of the Northwest would rally to his call and strike a blow for freedom as the men of Mayo did when the French boats came to Killala. As the ship glided stealthily into Sligo harbour a message came from Co. Kelly, chief organiser in Dublin of the I.R.B informing the captain that the insurrection was in disorder and ordering him to proceed to Skibereen. A search party was sent ashore to recall O'Doherty and O'Shea but failed to find them. The Erin's Hope had been too long in the bay so the Captain reluctantly hoisted sail and sped south, narrowly avoiding a confrontation with an English gunboat which had been summoned to the area from Blacksod Bay station - more than likely as a result of the boarding incident at Mullaghmore.

The most afflicted and miserable land on earth
Following a landing at Dungarvan some twenty-seven men were arrested and charged with having come into the country under suspicious circumstances. On 28th November three were charged in Dublin with having formed part of an armed expedition destined to aid a rebellion. A verdict was returned as follows

John Warren, 15 years' penal servitude.
William Halpin, 15 years' penal servitude.
Augustine E Costello, 12 years' penal servitude.

Contemporary accounts record that: 'The prisoners heard their doom pronounced in good spirits. General Halpin remarked that he would take fifteen years any day for Ireland. Colonel Warren informed the Court that he did not think a lease of the British Empire worth thirty-seven-and-a-half cents, and then all three, followed by a posse of warders; disappeared from the dock.
And thus were three men of education and ability added to the hundreds who are now rotting their lives away in British dungeons; because of the love they bore to Ireland and their hatred of the misrule that makes her the most afflicted and miserable land on earth."

Return to New York
After many more adventures and attempted landings along the Irish coast, and the eventual loss of thirty two crew members, Captain Kavanagh was forced to abandon the mission and, grieving for his comrades held in British dungeons because of the aforementioned informer, Buckley, set sail for New York.
The Erin's Hope may not have rendezvoused with the Fenians but her Captain had outmanoeuvred the English navy in Ireland for over three weeks, landed men, exchanged communicatons and, after a voyage of over 9,000 miles, returned safely with his ship and cargo. The craft made three landings in Ireland and one in England, during which time they came close to capture several times. At no time were they over twelve miles from a British man-of-war, a frigate, ram, or gunboat, and were continually harassed by pilots. They were at sea 107 days in which they sailed a grand total of 9,265 miles.
In the wake of the Erin's Hope three gunboats which had attempted to capture her were sunk: the gunboat 'Lapwing lost in Killala Bay, the 'Revenge wrecked on Daunt's Rock and another gunboat which foundered in a gale off Cape Clear.

For more on the Erin's Hope goHERE

Further reading: The Cruise of the Erin's Hope, M.J. Mullane, Published by Catholic Truth Society of Ireland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Erin's Hope Voyage of; Fenian Rebellion; History, Heritage, Folklore, folklore and News from County Sligo, Ireland

# data[].attributes.body
Primary Source-Posters from the NLI

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Showing 1 - 12 results of 12 for search ' land league posters'

# data[].attributes.body
Short Video Clip delving into the origin of the word boycott.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Boycotts: What they are and where they began | CBC Kids News

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Ladies' Land League

The Ladies' Land League, which had been set up with the backing of Davitt, operated with some success while the Land League leaders were in prison. Davitt had invited Anna Parnell, sister of Charles Stewart Parnell, to organise the group. It quickly established 420 branches throughout Ireland, offered relief to over 3,000 evicted tenants and organised prison support. The organisation also set up a Children's Land League to educate children about the land question.

The Ladies' Land League joined Davitt in opposing the Kilmainham Treaty, and wanted the Land League to continue engaging in civil disobedience until the land system was totally changed. However, the land war died down eventually as tenants gained further rights over time.

Michael Davitt met Parnell in September of 1882 and agreed to set up the Irish National League and become a member of its committee. This organisation put Home Rule before land reform. In 1903, Davitt wrote that the setting up of the Irish National League was 'the overthrow of a movement and the enthronement of a man.' Although he cooperated with Parnell, Davitt was critical of his style of leadership and some of his policies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ladies' Land League The Ladies' Land League, which had been set up with the backing of Davitt, operated with some success while the Land League leaders were in prison. Davitt had invited Anna Parnell, sister of Charles Stewart Parnell, to organise the group.

# data[].attributes.body
Background and more details on the role played by Anna Parnell

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Upbringing and early years

Anna Parnell was born at Avondale near Rathdrum on 13 May 1852, the tenth of eleven children of John Henry and Delia Parnell. Her father died suddenly when she was seven years old, and the Parnells found themselves in much reduced financial circumstances. The heavily indebted Avondale estate, inherited by Anna's thirteen-year old brother Charles Stewart Parnell, was let, while the family moved to a series of rented homes.

Like most girls of their class at the time, Anna and her elder sister Fanny were educated at home by a succession of governesses. They were, however, fortunate in that their American mother permitted a degree of independence rare at the time, and both girls were encouraged to read widely and to pursue their studies in literature, history and politics. In particular, Anna and Fanny shared with Charles a keen interest in Irish nationalism, and at the age of sixteen Fanny published her first poems in the Fenian newspaper, the Irish People. She became a prolific author of verse, much of it on patriotic themes, and her most famous poem, 'Hold the harvest', published in 1880, was described as the 'Marseillaise of the Irish peasant.' However, her health was poor and, though politically committed, much of her short life was spent out of Ireland.

As a young woman, Anna was said to have been 'of a nervous, resolute disposition - wayward, a little snappish, and absolute mistress of the house.' To a friend, she appeared 'in her neat dress, the very embodiment ... of a delicate, austere lady, just verging on spinsterhood', but she could also be uncompromising, and capable of intolerance and intellectual arrogance. Charles thought highly of her abilities: she was, he remarked, 'never at a loss ... never mistaken in her judgement' and 'might have been great in anything', while in the view of historian Roy Foster, Anna was 'in many ways ... the most formidable character of the family', as well as 'one of the most likeable, and possibly the most admirable, of the Parnells.'

Introduction to politics

After spending some time in Paris, Anna chose to study art, at first in Dublin and later in London. In 1875, however, her brother was elected MP for Meath, later becoming leader of the Irish Party at Westminster, and Anna became increasingly involved in Irish political events as played out in parliament. She was a frequent visitor to the House, following debates from the Ladies' Gallery and reporting on them in her 'notes from the ladies' cage' in the Celtic Monthly.

New York Ladies' Land League

With the outbreak of the Land War, Anna moved from being an observer of political events to a participant. The Irish National Land League was founded in 1879, with Parnell as president, and the aim of securing 'the land of Ireland for the people of Ireland' by a programme of peaceful and constitutional action. In the short term, however, a series of poor harvests and falling agricultural prices left many tenants facing eviction for non-payment of rent, and in 1880 Parnell arrived in New York to seek Irish-American funds to support the campaign and to relieve hardship. Anna and Fanny were already in the US, and immediately threw themselves into the effort, working closely with Michael Davitt, the Land League's secretary and principal organiser. In an effort to maximise American support, Fanny decided to establish a women's league, and in October 1880 the New York Ladies' Land League was founded, with Delia Parnell as president, and Anna and Fanny spearheading a successful campaign which raised thousands of dollars for transmission to Ireland.

The Ladies' Land League

In late 1880 Anna returned to Dublin, where the expectation was that the government would shortly take the decision to imprison the leaders of the Land League. Inspired by the example of the American women's organisation, Davitt proposed to establish a similar body in Ireland, which would keep the agitation alive and distribute grants to evicted tenants and their families. With some reluctance, Parnell and the other leaders agreed, and on 31 January 1881 the Ladies' Irish National Land League was founded, with Anna Parnell as its effective leader. When arrests began shortly afterwards, the Ladies' Land League set about its appointed task of processing applications, supplying money for relief purposes and distributing literature. Finding the Land League records to be deplorably kept, the women compiled their own 'Book of Kells', with detailed information on every Irish estate, described by Davitt as 'the most perfect system that can be imagined.' In spite of the male executive's ambivalence and criticism from some Catholic church leaders and many newspapers, numbers grew rapidly, with more than five hundred branches of the Ladies' Land League throughout Ireland by the beginning of 1882. Members included the poet Katherine Tynan and eighteen-year old Jennie O'Toole from Baltinglass, who as Jennie Wyse Power would play a leading part in the nationalist movement and in the early years of the Irish Free State.

In October 1881 Parnell himself was arrested together with most of the leaders of the Land League, and in retaliation issued the No Rent manifesto. The Ladies, who had not been consulted about this move, were faced with the prospect of trying to enforce a policy which had little chance of success, but they soldiered on, assisting evicted tenants and their families, organising the provision of huts in which they could be housed, and providing for growing numbers of male prisoners and their dependents. In December the Ladies' Land League was also suppressed and a number of their members were arrested and imprisoned, but the ban failed to end their activities: indeed, as the nationalist United Ireland pointed out, while the men of the Land League had 'melted away and vanished the moment Mr Forster's policemen shook their batons', the women 'met persecution by extending their organisation and doubling their activity and triumphing.'

Disillusionment

As the campaign dragged on, relations between the Ladies and the Land League worsened. With evictions giving rise to widespread agrarian violence, Parnell's need to reach a resolution with Gladstone became more pressing, and in April 1882 he and the other leaders were released from gaol as part of an agreement to end the agitation. Shortly afterwards the Ladies' Land League, disillusioned by the outcome of the campaign, expressed its wish to disband, and after prolonged wrangling succeeded in doing so. The gulf between the Land League and the Ladies was epitomised by the estrangement between Anna and her brother which lasted until his death ten years later. According to his wife, Parnell regretted the breach, and tried unsuccessfully on a number of occasions to repair it, but Anna ignored his letters and refused to acknowledge him when they met accidentally. After his death, however, she did write to the Irish Times to object to the choice of Glasnevin as his burial place: his body 'belonged to the Irish people', she said, only if their having killed him gave them a title to it.

The Tale of a Great Sham

Her sister Fanny's death in July 1882, combined with the stress of the campaign and its aftermath, left Anna in a state of physical and nervous collapse, from which she did not recover for several months. For the rest of her life, she lived mainly in England, sometimes under a false name and at times in considerable poverty. Although she remained in contact with former Ladies, such as Jennie Wyse Power, she played little part in nationalist politics, and the response when she did campaign for the Sinn Fein candidate in North Leitrim in 1908 persuaded her that 'the character of Irishmen is at present incompatible with any great change for the better in Ireland.' However, Michael Davitt's charge, in The fall of feudalism in Ireland, that the Ladies had encouraged agrarian violence, galvanised her to produce her own account of the Land League years, The tale of a great sham. In it she argued that the Land League in fact failed in its objective by neglecting to pursue the No Rent Manifesto to its logical conclusion. She also complained about the hostility of the Land League leaders towards the Ladies throughout the campaign: regarding the women as subservient assistants rather than equal partners, they had relied on them to carry on Land League policies in their absence while seeking to reassert control over them as soon as this should become practicable. Failing to find a publisher for her work, she entrusted the manuscript to Helena Molony, editor of the nationalist woman's paper Bean na h-Eireann. Molony, too, was unable to get the work published, and in the upheavals which followed, the parcel disappeared from view.

Death and reputation

In 1910 Anna moved to Ilfracombe in Devon. On 20 September 1911 she accidentally drowned while swimming, and was buried in the churchyard there a few days later. Her passing received little attention: as Katherine Tynan wrote a few years later, 'her life ought to have been written, for she was a great woman, and yet I think that she herself would have preferred that her name be writ in water.' And so, for many years, it was. The centenary of the Land League in 1979 passed with scarcely a mention of Anna Parnell, and it was not until the publication - finally - in 1986 of the rediscovered Tale of a great sham that a reassessment was possible of a woman regarded by some contemporaries as the equal in ability and judgement of her celebrated brother, and without question a central figure at a pivotal moment in Irish history.

Reading

Jane Cote, Fanny and Anna Parnell: Ireland's patriot sisters (1991)

Jane Cote and Dana Hearne, 'Anna Parnell', Mary Cullen and Maria Luddy, Women, power and consciousness in 19th-century Ireland (1995), pp 263-293.

Roy Foster, Charles Stewart Parnell: the man and his family (1976)

Anna Parnell, ed Dana Hearne, The tale of a great sham (1986)

Margaret Ward, Unmanageable revolutionaries (1983)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ladies' Land League And The Tale Of A Great Sham

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Dr. Conor Mulvagh

What was Home Rule?
Home Rule was the demand that the governance of Ireland be returned from Westminster to a domestic parliament in Ireland. Ireland had had its own parliament up to 1800 when the Act of Union ended Irish representation at the parliament sitting at College Green in Dublin. Under the Union, MPs elected for Irish constituencies went over to Westminster and sat alongside English, Scottish, and Welsh MPs in a legislature that had jurisdiction over the whole of both islands as well as the colonies of the British Empire.

When was the Home Rule movement established?
The idea of Home Rule dates from 1870 but it should be viewed as part of a longer tradition which aimed at revising the Anglo-Irish relationship by constitutional methods. The first attempt to repeal the Act of Union was made by Daniel O'Connell in the 1840s. This was ultimately a failure and Irish politics in the mid-nineteenth century was dominated by MPs acting as Irish representatives of the Liberal and Tory parties. In 1870, Isaac Butt, a barrister and former Tory MP, founded the Irish Home Government Association. The movement combined a powerful cross section of progressive landowners, tenant rights activists, and supporters and sympathisers of the failed Fenian uprising of 1867 to create a third way in Irish politics. By 1874, styled as the Home Rule League, Butt's nascent party succeeded in gaining the loose allegiance of 59 out of 103 Irish MPs.

What about Parnell?
The most significant event to occur in the emergence of a more powerful Home Rule movement was in 1880 when Charles Stewart Parnell was elected chairman of the party. Parnell was a master organiser. He ran the party like a machine from parish level to parliament and by coupling the demand for Home Rule with the intensifying agitation for tenant rights in Ireland, Home Rule became an extremely powerful force in politics. Between the land question and the demand for Home Rule, Irish issues consumed a large proportion of parliamentary time at Westminster during the 1880s and intermittently thereafter.

Did the Home Rule movement achieve anything?
On three occasions, a Home Rule bill was introduced to the House of Commons. In 1886, Prime Minister William E. Gladstone introduced the first Home Rule bill. However, this move split his governing Liberal Party and the bill was defeated in the House of Commons. In 1893, a second Home Rule bill managed to pass through the House of Commons but it was thrown out by the House of Lords. Once more, in 1912, a Home Rule bill passed the House of Commons. The powers of the House of Lords had been curtailed in 1911 and, under the new parliamentary mechanisms, the Lords could only delay rather than reject the bill. At the beginning of 1913, the Liberal Lord Crewe, former Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, opened the debates on the bill in the Lords. The rejection of Home Rule by the Lords was a fait accompli but, with only the power of delay remaining to them, the real danger to the passage of the bill came from outside of Parliament, where Unionist Ulster was organising in earnest its resistance to the imposition of the bill on the North East.

Why did British governments agree to introduce Home Rule bills to parliament?
On all three of the occasions when Home Rule bills were introduced to the House of Commons, Home Rulers held the balance of power between the Liberal and Conservative parties which were roughly evenly split. Finding themselves in this position, Home Rulers were able to negotiate for the introduction of a Home Rule bill in exchange for supporting the Liberal Party, traditionally a sympathetic ally on the Irish question. This support gave the Liberals the required majority to form a government. The exact same situation exists in Westminster today where Nick Clegg's Liberal Democrats hold the balance between the Labour and Conservative parties, and David Cameron's government requires the support of the Liberal Democrats to stay in power.

How does Home Rule fit into the wider British context?
Home Rule was an extremely important concept in the British Empire in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. To fully appreciate its significance, it must be viewed in an imperial rather than a purely Irish concept. Before the outbreak of the First World War, the nature of government in the British Empire was changing. Greater independence and forms of domestic governance were granted to Canada, Australia, and South Africa in 1867, 1900, and 1909 respectively. Thus, Britain can be seen to have been gradually liberalising its system of imperial governance, at least for 'civilised' components of the empire. This contrasts starkly with the disorderly and chaotic nature of de-colonisation that was experienced by Britain, France, and other European powers following the Second World War.

Dr. Conor Mulvagh lectures in the School of History & Archives, University College Dublin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explainer: What was Home Rule? | The Century Ireland project is an online historical newspaper that tells the story of the events of Irish life a century ago

# data[].attributes.body
Unionist Perspective on Home Rule

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Summary:

Illustrated picture of Orange band with unionist slogans u.c. and l.c. Circular aperture portrait of Sir Edward Carson on flap u.c. . Under flap is folded piece of paper containing unionist slogans, and portraits of Andrew Bonar Law and the leadership of the Ulster Unionist Party.

Notes:

Inscription on verso.

Physical description: 1 postcard : in mylar, in phase box. col. ; 8.8 x 13.9 cm

more

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Summary: Illustrated picture of Orange band with unionist slogans u.c. and l.c. Circular aperture portrait of Sir Edward Carson on flap u.c. . Under flap is folded piece of paper containing unionist slogans, and portraits of Andrew Bonar Law and the leadership of the Ulster Unionist Party. Notes: Inscription on verso.

# data[].attributes.body
Rally held at Parnell Monument Dublin. John Redmond addressing the spectators.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Holdings: [John Redmond addressing a homerule meeting at Parnell monument]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
John Redmond addressing a homerule meeting at Parnell monument] by: Independent Newspapers (Firm) Published / Created: (1912)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Context: [Souvenir postcard relating to Home Rule, with image of John Redmond, underwhich is folded an article celebrating the introduction of Home Rule]

# data[].attributes.body
Home Rule for Ireland!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
John Redmond, the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, addresses a large Home Rule demonstration ca. 1912 Photo: National Library of Ireland, INDH 0009

House of Commons to debate bill for second time

Westminster, 1 May 1913 - The Bill to give Home Rule to Ireland will again be put before the House of Commons in London this week by the British Prime Minister and leader of the Liberal Party, Herbert Asquith.

The Bill was first introduced in April of last year, where it was passed by the House of Commons, before being rejected by the House of Lords. The passage of a year has now allowed for the Bill to be re-introduced to the House of Commons.

Despite the opposition of the Conservative Party, not least its leader Andrew Bonar Law, it is certain that a majority of MPs - drawn primarily from the Liberal Party and the Irish Parliamentary Party - will again support the Bill. It is equally certain that the Bill will then be rejected once more in the House of Lords. Such a rejection, though, will be the final opportunity for the House of Lords to delay the introduction of Home Rule for Ireland.

Unless the Liberal government collapses, the House of Commons will pass the Home Rule Bill for the third time in the Spring of 1914. As the House of Lords does not have the power to reject any Bill for a third time, the Home Rule Bill will be placed on the Statute Book. Over the past year, the plan to give Home Rule to Ireland has dominated politics both inside and outside Westminster. While Irish nationalists - led by the Irish Parliamentary Party under John Redmond - have acclaimed the prospect of having a parliament in Dublin to legislate for the island, unionists have been adamant in their rejection of the proposal.

Although led by the Dubliner and Trinity College graduate, Sir Edward Carson, unionist opposition has centred on Ulster. Massive public rallies of opposition to Home Rule, the signing of the Ulster Covenant by almost 500,000 people and the establishment of the Ulster Volunteer Force in January 1913 has underlined determined opposition to the introduction of Home Rule.

The pledge by unionists in Ulster to reject any measure of Home Rule for the north of the island has received powerful support from the Conservative Party leader, Andrew Bonar Law. Against this opposition, nationalist opinion has been equally determined that Home Rule will be introduced as planned and that it will apply to all of Ireland. Although they have not established a militia of its own to rival the Ulster Volunteer Force, Irish nationalists have held public meetings to demonstrate in favour of Home Rule and plan to do so again this week.

[Editor's note: This is an article from Century Ireland, a fortnightly online newspaper, written from the perspective of a journalist 100 years ago, based on news reports of the time.]

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Home Rule for Ireland! | The Century Ireland project is an online historical newspaper that tells the story of the events of Irish life a century ago

# data[].attributes.body
Members of the ICA outside their Liberty Hall HQ in 1914

# data[].attributes.body
Resources linked to tenement life in Dublin in the 20th Century.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Introduction

14 Henrietta Street is a social history museum of Dublin life, from one building's Georgian beginnings to its tenement times. We connect the history of urban life over 300 years to the stories of the people who called this place home.

This resource pack is for Primary School teachers who wish to bring their students on a visit to 14 Henrietta Street.

How this pack links to the Curriculum

This resource pack provides an integrated exploration of the Primary School curriculum, using history as a starting point. It has been designed to be flexible and adaptable for all levels and age groups from 1st to 6th class. The pack can be used before or after your visit to 14 Henrietta Street.

The following activities use the 'Working as a Historian' skills and concept development strand unit from the history curriculum as a starting point to explore many other thematic strands in the context of 14 Henrietta Street. These strands, and links to other subjects, are clearly indicated in the 'Links to the Curriculum' table within each activity.

The activities can be used on their own, or as a series of lessons to deepen your class's skills as historians, and their understanding of many strands of the history curriculum through the story of 14 Henrietta Street.

All of the activities consist of three tasks. You will best know the level of your own class, but if you need help deciding where to start, task 1 in each activity is suitable for all year groups, and tasks 2 - 3 can be used for 3rd - 6th class, or children who need an extra challenge.
View Activity 1: Then and Now View Activity 2: Investigating Games View Activity 3: Telling the Stories View Activity 4: Making a Museum View Further Resources View Print the Activities

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
14 Henrietta Street | Primary Schools Teacher Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
14 Henrietta Street is a social history museum of Dublin life, from one building's Georgian beginnings to its tenement times. We connect the history of urban life over 300 years to the stories of the people who called this place home.

# data[].attributes.body
History of GAA and acitivities

# data[].attributes.body
Poster advertising Irish Plays at the Abbey Theatre

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Holdings: Abbey Theatre Horse Show Week ... :

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Abbey Theatre National Theatre Society, Limited : Horse Show Week ... by: Abbey Theatre Published / Created: (1909)

# data[].attributes.body
A comprehension based on the Dublin Lock Out in 1913

# data[].attributes.body
Fire broke out in 1951

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On 18 July 1951 the Abbey Theatre on Lower Abbey Street in Dublin was destroyed by fire.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lahardane (or Lahardaun), one of North Co. Mayo's most scenic villages, lies at the very foot of Nephin Mountain, one of Ireland's tallest mountains. The name comes from the Irish (Gaeilge) "leath ardán" which means "half the hill" or "the gentle slope" - but we can assure you Nephin is no easy climb! You'll find Lahardane by leaving Crossmolina and driving towards Pontoon, following the R315.

Lahardane's "claim to fame" is a sad one. The village is known as "Ireland's Titanic Village", due to the huge loss of life that occurred from the village in the 1912 maritime catastrophe and the disaster is remembered in the Addergoole Titanic Memorial Park. As was typical of the times, emigration featured strongly in North Mayo, and fourteen people from the Addergoole Parish boarded the Titanic at Cobh in County Cork in search of a new life. Sadly, within days, eleven of these had met their death in the icy waters of Newfoundland when the ship struck an iceberg and sank.

Those who lost their lives in April 1912 were:

Catherine Bourke (32), John Bourke (42), Mary Bourke (40), Mary Canavan (22), Patrick Canavan (21), Bridget Donohoe (21), Honor 'Nora' Fleming (22), James Flynn (28), Catherine McGowan (42), Bridget Delia Mahon (20) and Mary Mangan (32).

Today, the Addergoole Titanic Society has ensured that the perished will never be forgotten, with two beautiful permanent memorials in place in the village. Along the main street, you can rest a while and reflect in the Addergoole Titanic Memorial Park, in the shadow of Nephin.

Also remembered at the Addergoole Titanic Memorial Park are the three survivors: Anna Katherine 'Annie Katie' Kelly later Sister Patrick Joseph (1892-1969), Bridget Delia McDermott (1892-1959), Anna Louise McGowan (1894-1990). Anna Louise was one of the last Irish Titanic survivors to pass away.

Back in the year 2001, the villagers of Lahardane wanted to ensure that these people and their hopes and dreams were not forgotten, and so the The Addergoole Titanic Society was formed to commemorate the sad tale of the 'Addergoole Fourteen'. In 2012, the 100th anniversary of the deaths was marked with a very memorable and poignant Irish Titanic Centenary Programme, and in April 2012, the Cultural Week drew some 12,500 people to the small village, including many Americans.

You can also call into St. Patrick's Church and see the stunning stained glass windows depicting the events of that fateful night, and featuring the members of the community who perished.

Each year, a bell-ringing ceremony takes place at 2.20am on15th April to mark the time the ship sank. Many of the Society's bell-ringers are direct descendants of the Addergoole Fourteen.
READ: Addergoole Fourteen Titanic 1912 blog

Lahardane isn't all about Titanic, however, and you'll find a warm and busy social scene. Visit Leonard's Grocery and Bar or Murphy's for a real traditional experience.

Every year on 15th August, Lahardane hosts the annual Lahardane Harvest Fair Day - a real slice of old Ireland. St Patrick's Church also boasts a beautiful stained glass window from the studio of renowned stained glass artist, Harry Clarke.

And if you're on the road, be sure to head towards pretty Bofeenaun and take in the stunning views of Nephin and the lake from the roadside - a picture perfect photo opportunity.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Addergoole Titanic Memorial Park, Lahardane

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Lahardane, one of North Mayo's most scenic villages and home of the 'Addergoole 14' lies at the very foot of Nephin Mountain, Co. Mayo.

# data[].attributes.body
Interactive diagram allowing you to explore the different parts of the ship

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An interactive diagram provides information about many different features of the Titanic.

# data[].attributes.body
Imitation of what parts of the ship looked like

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The RMS Titanic sank in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean, four days into her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. The largest ocean liner in service at the time, Titanic had an estimated 2,224 people on board when she struck an iceberg at around 23:40 on Sunday, 14 April 1912. Her sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 on Monday, 15 April, resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 people, making it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history.
Titanic received six warnings of sea ice on 14 April but was travelling about 22 knots when her lookouts sighted the iceberg. Unable to turn quickly enough, the ship suffered a glancing blow that buckled her starboard side and opened six of her sixteen compartments to the sea. Titanic had been designed to stay afloat with four of her forward compartments flooded but no more, and the crew soon realised that the ship would sink. They used distress flares and radio messages to attract help as the passengers were put into lifeboats.

Discover this historical event

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sinking of the RMS Titanic - Google Arts & Culture

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The RMS Titanic sank in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean, four days into her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916. The Rising was launched by Irish republicans against British rule in Ireland with the aim of establishing an independent Irish Republic while the United Kingdom was fighting the First World War. It was the most significant uprising in Ireland since the rebellion of 1798 and the first armed conflict of the Irish revolutionary period. Sixteen of the Rising's leaders were executed from May 1916, but the insurrection, the nature of the executions, and subsequent political developments ultimately contributed to an increase in popular support for Irish independence.
Organised by a seven-man Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916 and lasted for six days. Members of the Irish Volunteers, led by schoolmaster and Irish language activist Patrick Pearse, joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army of James Connolly and 200 women of Cumann na mBan, seized strategically important buildings in Dublin and proclaimed the Irish Republic.

Discover this historical event

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Easter Rising, also known as the Easter Rebellion, was an armed insurrection in Ireland during Easter Week in April 1916.

# data[].attributes.body
Great to get a discussion going on the aftermath of the rising and its impact on the landscape of Dublin.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Virtual Tour: Proclaiming a Republic. The 1916 Rising | Decorative Arts & History | National Museum of Ireland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Welcome to the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin & Castlebar covering Archaeology, Decorative Arts, Folk & Country Life, & Natural History.FREE Exhibitions

# data[].attributes.body
Please feel free to explore and freely select what your class would enjoy when studying this topic.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Official education portal of the Department of Education and Skills in Ireland. Curriculum focused resources and support for primary and post primary teachers.

# data[].attributes.body
Restored photo of the members of the First Dáil-1oth April 1919

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(1890-1922). Michael Collins was a leader of the Irish people who fought against British rule in Ireland. He played an important part in the struggle for independence, which...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(1882-1975). Eamon de Valera was one of the people who led the struggle to free Ireland from British rule. He disagreed with the terms of the treaty that established the...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(1872-1922). Irish statesman and journalist Arthur Griffith was the principal founder and chief organizer of the nationalist Sinn Féin ("We Ourselves" or "Ourselves Alone") movement. He also briefly served as president of the Irish Free State.

Griffith was born on March 31, 1871, in Dublin, Ireland. As a young man, he edited political newspapers and became involved in the efforts to achieve Irish Home Rule-an Irish government that was not controlled by the British. He emerged as a leader of the political party Cumann na nGaedheal ("Party of the Irish"). At a meeting in Dublin in October 1902, Cumann na nGaedheal formally adopted Griffith's policy called "Sinn Féin," which advocated passive resistance to the British, withholding of taxes, and the establishment of an Irish ruling council. By 1905 the name Sinn Féin had been transferred from the policy to its adherents.

Although Griffith lost influence with the extreme Irish nationalists when he did not participate in the Easter Rising (Easter Rebellion) in 1916, he regained it when British authorities jailed him along with other Sinn Féin members. Returning to newspaper work, Griffith was jailed twice more for his anti-British journalism.

After the general election of 1918, the Sinn Féin members of the British House of Commons refused to take their seats and instead established the Dáil Éireann (Irish Assembly) in Dublin, choosing Eamon de Valera as president and Griffith as vice president. During de Valera's long absence from Ireland (in North America 1919-20), Griffith acted as head of the Dáil ministry and carried out his own program of civil disobedience.

In 1921 Griffith led the Irish delegation to the self-government treaty conference in London, England, and was the first Irish delegate to accept self-governing dominion status for the Irish Free State, embodied in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 6, 1921. When the Dáil narrowly approved the treaty in 1922, de Valera resigned and Griffith was elected president. Opposition to the treaty led to the outbreak of the Irish Civil War in June 1922. Exhausted from overwork, Griffith died soon afterward, on August 12, 1922, in Dublin.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(1872-1922). Irish statesman and journalist Arthur Griffith was the principal founder and chief organizer of the nationalist Sinn Féin ("We Ourselves" or "Ourselves Alone")...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Members of the Boundary Commission, late 1924 Courtesy of the National Library of Ireland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Official education portal of the Department of Education and Skills in Ireland. Curriculum focused resources and support for primary and post primary teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mohandas Gandhi was a leader of India's independence movement. When India was a colony of Great Britain, Gandhi used nonviolent methods to protest against British rule. His...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about Mohandas Gandhi’s biography. A great civil rights leader from India.

# data[].attributes.body
Explore the physical layout of Europe on the eve of the outbreak of World War II

# data[].attributes.body
Can be used with the previous map above to explore the change in country boundaries from the beginning of the outbreak of the war until 1942.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A map illustrating the geopolitical situation in Europe and the Mediterranean in early November 1942 with World War II in Europe at a critical juncture. The Axis powers, led by Nazi Germany, had made…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The origins of the Second World War (1939-45) may be traced back to the harsh peace settlement of the First World War (1914-18) and the economic crisis of the 1930s, while more immediate causes were the aggressive invasions of their neighbours by Germany, Italy, and Japan. A weak and divided Europe, an isolationist USA, and an opportunistic USSR were all intent on peace, but the policy of appeasement only delivered what everyone most feared: another long and terrible world war.

The main causes of WWII were:

The harsh Treaty of Versailles

The economic crisis of the 1930s

The rise of fascism

Germany's rearmament

The cult of Adolf Hitler

The policy of appeasement by Western powers

Treaties of mutual interest between Axis Powers

Lack of treaties between the Allies

The territorial expansion of Germany, Italy, and Japan

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

The invasion of Poland in September 1939

The Japanese attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbour

Treaty of Versailles

Germany was defeated in the First World War, and the victors established harsh terms to ensure that some of the costs of the war were recuperated and to prevent Germany from becoming a future threat. With European economies and populations greatly damaged by the war, the victors were in no mood to be lenient since Germany had almost won and its industry was still intact. Germany remained a dangerous state. However, Britain and France did not want a totally punitive settlement, as this might lead to lasting resentment and make Germany unable to become a valuable market for exports.

Germany had to accept complete responsibility, that is the guilt, for starting WWI.

The peace terms were set out in the Treaty of Versailles, signed by all parties except the USSR on 28 June 1919. The Rhineland must be demilitarised to act as a buffer zone between Germany and France. All colonies and the Saar, a coal-rich area of western Germany, were removed from German authority. Poland was given the industrial area of Upper Silesia and a corridor to the sea, which included Danzig (Gdánsk) and cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany. France regained the regions of Alsace and Lorraine. Germany had to pay war reparations to France and Belgium. Germany had limits on its armed forces and could not build tanks, aircraft, submarines, or battleships. Finally, Germany was to accept complete responsibility, that is the guilt, for starting the war. Many Germans viewed the peace terms as highly dishonourable.

The settlement established nine new countries in Eastern Europe, a recipe for instability since all of them disputed their borders, and many contained large minority groups who claimed to be part of another country. Germany, Italy, and Russia, once powerful again after the heavy costs of WWI, looked upon these fledgling states with imperialist envy.

In the 1920s, Germany signed two important treaties. The Locarno Treaty of 1925 guaranteed Germany's western borders but allowed some scope for change in the east. The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed by 56 countries. All the major powers promised not to conduct foreign policy using military means. In 1929, Germany's reparations as stipulated by the Treaty of Versailles were reduced from £6.6 million to £2 million. In 1932, the reparations were cancelled altogether. This was all very promising, but through the 1930s, the complex web of European diplomacy began to quickly unravel in a climate of economic decline.

Economic Crisis

The Great Depression, sparked off by the Wall Street stock-market crash of 1929, resulted in a crisis in many economies through the 1930s. There was a collapse in world trade, prices, and employment. In Germany in 1923, there was hyperinflation, which made savings worthless, a blow many of the German middle class never forgot. The regular loans from the United States (the Dawes Plan), upon which the German economy depended, stopped. There was a hostile attitude amongst many states as international trade collapsed. The USA, the world's most important money lender, pursued an isolationist strategy. Britain and France looked only to their empires. Protectionism and trade tariffs became the norm.

Germany became determined to reach self-sufficiency and not rely on world trade partners, a policy that required the acquisition of natural resources through military occupation. Germany saw the route out of the financial mess as one of massive rearmament which would create jobs in factories and the armed forces. The policy involved not only stockpiling weapons but also creating an economy geared towards total war, where the armaments industry was given priority in terms of resources, energy, factories, and skilled workers.

Hitler & the Nazi Party

Nationalist fascist parties were doing well across Europe. From 1922, Italy was ruled by Benito Mussolini (l. 1883-1945), leader of the fascist party there. By 1939, Spain had a fascist ruler in General Franco (l. 1892-1975). In Germany, Adolf Hitler (l. 1889-1945) was the leader of the fascist National Socialist Party (Nazi Party), the largest party after the July and November elections of 1932. There were even fascist parties in democracies like Britain. Charismatic leaders were turning popular nationalist feelings into a much more sinister way of thinking: fascism. Fascist parties, although not exactly the same in different countries, did have some key goals in common. Fascist leaders wanted absolute power and to achieve this new order they emphasised "conformism, hostility to outsiders, routine violence, contempt for the weak, and extreme hatred of dissident opinions" (Dear, 274). Fascist parties initially gained popularity as opponents to communism, seen as a threat by many ever since the Russian Revolution of 1917. Indeed, in Western countries, a deep suspicion of communism prevented a powerful political and military alliance from being formed with the USSR, which might ultimately have avoided war.

Allowing Germany to rearm was part of the policy of appeasement.

Hitler promised the humiliation of Versailles would be revenged and that Germany would be made great again. Many Germans believed they had been betrayed by the high command of the army in WWI and were tired of the endless round of ineffective coalition governments since the war. Hitler, with no connections to the established elite, offered a new beginning, and most of all, he promised jobs and bread in a period when unemployment and poverty were at extremely high levels. The Nazi party promised a dynamic economy which would power German expansion, seen as a glorious endeavour, with the virtues of war championed. Nazism called for Lebensraum (living space) for the German people - new lands where they could prosper. Nazism identified its principal internal enemies as Jews, Slavs, Communists and trade unionists, all people who were holding Germany back from realising its full potential the Nazis claimed. Nazism called for an international struggle where Germans could achieve their destiny and prove themselves the master race. Such ideas, none of which were radically new, meant war was inevitable. The argument that totalitarian regimes require wars and liberal democracies require peace to prosper may be simplistic but has some validity. Hitler promised the new Third Reich would last for 1,000 years and, using propaganda, show, and brutal repression of alternative ideas, many believed him as he expertly tapped into long-held views in Germany and Austria. As F. McDonough states, "Hitler was the drummer of an old tune accompanied by modern instruments" (93).

In January 1933, the German President Paul von Hindenburg (l. 1847-1934), having run out of all other options, invited Hitler to become Chancellor. After systematically crushing any opposition, Hitler began to put his domestic policies into practice and establish a totalitarian regime, everything he had written in his book Mein Kampf ( My Struggle) back in 1924. When Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler effectively merged the positions of President and Chancellor and declared himself Germany's leader or Führer. Hitler had become the state, and all that was now needed for him to achieve his impossible dream was a rearmed Germany.

Germany's Rearmament

Hitler was determined to rebuild the nation's armed forces. Rearmament rocketed despite the restrictions of Versailles, which Hitler formally repudiated in March 1935. The army was already four times bigger than permitted. Eventually, Western powers were obliged to take a damage-limitation approach. In June 1935, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed, which capped the German navy's strength to 35% of the Royal Navy and allowed Hitler to build giant new ships like the battleship Bismarck.

In another instance of the cult of Adolf Hitler, all armed forces personnel had to swear allegiance to Hitler personally. Thanks to rearmament, Germany had achieved near-full employment by 1938. Hitler had fulfilled his promises to the German people. Germany's new war machine came at a cost. Rearming necessitated huge imports of raw materials, and these could not be bought for much longer as Germany's balance of payments went into tilt from 1939. Occupying territories where these resources could be found seemed a simple solution to the problem. Crucially, Germany had an arms advantage over its enemies, but this situation would not last long. For Hitler, the time to strike was now.

Appeasement

Allowing Germany to rearm was part of the policy of appeasement: giving reasonable concessions to avoid the total disaster of war. Appeasement, which was pursued by Britain, France, and the United States, did not mean peace at any price, but the problem with the policy was that it did give, step by step, aggressive powers the impression that their continued aggression might not necessarily lead to a wider war. To review these steps, we must look at global politics in the early 1930s.

The League of Nations (forerunner of today's United Nations) was established after WWI to ensure international disputes were settled and world peace was maintained. Although US President Woodrow Wilson (in office 1913-21) was instrumental in forming the League, crucially, the United States never joined it, seriously weakening the organisation. Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933; Japan left the same year. The League proved to be utterly incapable of achieving its aims, as was shown most starkly by its failure to prevent Japan's invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 and Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935. Hitler no doubt watched these events and the League's total lack of a military response with particular interest as, with his own armed forces rejuvenated, he prepared to expand Germany's borders.

From 1933 to 1935, Hitler had pursued an ambiguous foreign policy, sometimes promising he had peaceful intentions. He caused confusion with such diplomatic conjuring tricks as a peace treaty with Poland in January 1934 and a statement later the same year that he had no intention of merging Austria into the Reich. Then, from 1935, his plans became ever clearer, even if some historians maintain the Führer actually had no plans at all but was merely seizing opportunities as his enemies presented them. Some historians claim Hitler was not entirely free to act as he would wish, due to constraints within the rather chaotic and factional Nazi party.

In March 1935, the Saar was reunified with Germany following a plebiscite. The same year, conscription was announced. In March 1936, Germany occupied the Rhineland. In October, Germany and Italy became formal allies with the Rome-Berlin Axis. In November 1936, Italy and Germany (and later Japan) signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, a treaty of mutual cooperation in empire-building and a united front against communism. In March 1938, Hitler achieved the Anschluss, the formal unification of Germany and Austria. Encouraged by the League of Nations' lack of a strong response, Hitler then occupied the Sudetenland, the industrial area of Czechoslovakia which shared a border with Germany, the excuse being a German minority there was being repressed. Again, the Western powers made no military reaction despite France and the USSR having signed a treaty of assistance with the Czechs. The Munich Agreement of September 1938 was signed between Germany, France, Italy, and Britain, which accepted Germany's new, expanded borders. The USSR was not invited, a lost and last opportunity to present a united front against fascism - perhaps here was the real price of pursuing a policy of appeasement to the exclusion of any other possible strategies. The British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (served 1937-40), fluttering before journalists a piece of paper Hitler had signed, confidently declared that he had achieved "peace with honour" (Dear, 597) and that we now had "peace in our time" (McDonough, 121). Chamberlain was nominated for that year's Nobel Peace Prize.

Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!

Appeasement was an attractive policy to Western leaders since the horrors of the last war were still fresh in everyone's minds. France, in particular, was politically weak in this period, experiencing 16 coalition governments through the 1930s. Britain feared losing its empire if weakened by another great war. Public opinion was overwhelmingly against war and rearmament in Britain, France, and the United States. Further, it was by no means certain that Hitler would continue to expand Germany's borders; certainly, he had promised he had no additional ambitions beyond restoring Germany to its previous territories before WWI. Finally, appeasement, even if not actually believed to be a policy with any chance of success, did gain crucial time for Western powers to follow Germany's lead and rearm. In Britain and France, there were, too, strong lobbies which considered rearmament a waste of resources in economically turbulent times and pointed out that Germany was Britain's fifth largest customer for its exports. Hindsight has shown that appeasement was folly since Hitler was intent on occupying as much of Europe as he possibly could, and his track record of breaking treaties proved negotiation was pointless. Keeping the Czech heavy industry out of German hands was probably a better point to go to war over than the subsequent invasion of Poland, but Britain, France, and the USSR were simply not then equipped for war. Not until 1939 did these countries seriously begin to establish economies geared to war.

Invasion of Poland

In 1939, there was further significant activity by Germany and Italy in their quest to occupy more and more of Europe. In March 1939, Germany absorbed the rest of Czechoslovakia and Memel (part of Lithuania) into the Third Reich. Increasingly appalled by the Nazis' attacks on German Jews, Western powers now began to question if negotiating with such a regime could ever be justified on moral grounds. Appeasement was finally dead.

On 31 March, Britain and France promised to guarantee Poland's borders, and in April, this was extended to Romania. Turkey and Greece also began talks of mutual protection with Britain and France. It had finally dawned on leaders in Britain and France that the fascists were intent on territorial expansion at any cost. There was already a localised war going on, the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, which directly involved German and Italian military hardware on the one side and Soviet aid on the other. In April, Italy occupied Albania. At the end of the same month, Hitler repudiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. In May 1939, Italy and Germany signed a military alliance, the 'Pact of Steel'.

In August 1939, Germany agreed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact), named after the foreign ministers of each state. The Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (l. 1878-1953) was increasingly aware that Britain and France seemed perfectly willing to appease Hitler as long as he moved eastwards in his direction. The possibility of 'collective security' (Britain, France, and the USSR working together) was not realised because of a lack of trust between the parties. The Nazi-Soviet Pact, in contrast, allowed Stalin to grab eastern Poland and keep the USSR out of a war for a while, gaining precious time for rearmament. Perhaps, too, the possibility for Germany to wage war only in the West against Britain and France - Stalin's 'blank cheque' for Hitler - would sufficiently weaken all three so that they could no longer threaten the USSR.

Europe was a tinder box awaiting a single spark that would explode it into war. The spark came soon enough with Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. The next day Chamberlain warned Hitler war would follow if Germany did not withdraw. Hitler ignored the ultimatum. On 3 September, Britain and France, in order to protect free and independent nations, declared war on Germany. Italy, waiting in the wings to see what might happen to its advantage, remained neutral for the time being. The world, too, awaited with bated breath to see what would happen next. The unexpected answer was nothing at all.

World War

The 'phoney war', when the Allies and Axis powers did not directly confront each other, lasted until April 1940 when Germany invaded Norway. In May, Germany invaded the Low Countries and France. Germany proved unstoppable, and by the end of June, France had fallen. In October, Italy invaded Greece. In 1941, Germany occupied Yugoslavia. Britain was left alone to fight for its survival until Hitler invaded the USSR in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa).

The war became a global conflict when Japan attacked the US naval fleet at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941. Japan had already invaded Eastern China over concern at the rise in Chinese nationalism and then occupied most of South East Asia in search of imperial glory and natural resources, especially oil, whose import was restricted by a US embargo. Japan perhaps hoped events in Europe would prevent any direct reaction against them, but the United States did finally join the conflict. Peace would not be achieved until the world had suffered four more long and bitter years of war.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The origins of the Second World War (1939-45) may be traced back to the harsh peace settlement of the First World War (1914-18) and the economic crisis of the 1930s, while more immediate causes were...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Latest Content

Free for the World, Supported by You

World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. For only $5 per month you can become a member and support our mission to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide.

Become a Member Donate

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The free online history encyclopedia with fact-checked articles, images, videos, maps, timelines and more; operated as a non-profit organization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Themepages present a thematic approach to learning and teaching. They are written by Irish-based teachers with links chosen for their usefulness to the selected theme and applicability to the Irish curriculum.
View all Themepages

Physical Literacy

Develop a physically literate child through the lens of Fundamental Movement Skills with these Move Well, Move Often PDST resources.

Sustainable Development

A directory listing organisations with educational resources supporting education for sustainable development.

STEM

The Scoilnet STEM directory highlights well-known accomplished STEM repositories in Ireland, Europe and Internationally.

Covers information and links on the national literacy and numeracy strategies as well as basic information on special educational needs. The Dates and Festivals calendar is used by teachers seeking to engage students in topical learning.

Either your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled. Scoilnet.ie works best with JavaScript enabled.
Add a resource

To get the best possible experience using our website we recommend that you upgrade to a newer version or other web browser.
Upgrade your browser now

What you need...

To register for a Scoilnet Account you will need to have a Teaching Council number and a roll number for your school in Ireland.

If you already have a Scoilnet Account then you can sign in here.

The benefits...

A Scoilnet account will allow you to upload your resources or weblinks to Scoilnet as well as enabling you to share and add resources to a favourites listing. Users who have a Scoilnet Account will also be able to fully access Scoilnet Maps and Census@School from home.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Official education portal of the Department of Education and Skills in Ireland. Curriculum focused resources and support for primary and post primary teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Google Arts & Culture features content from over 2000 leading museums and archives who have partnered with the Google Cultural Institute to bring the world's treasures online.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Aw snap! Google Earth isn't supported on your browser. You may need to update your browser or use a different browser. Please see our system requirements for more information. Chrome is a great choice and you can download it here.

Or if you're feeling adventurous, you can try Earth anyway by choosing an option below.

Learn more about Google Earth.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Aw snap! Google Earth isn't supported on your browser. You may need to update your browser or use a different browser. Please see our system requirements for more information. Chrome is a great choice and you can download it here. Or if you're feeling adventurous, you can try Earth anyway by choosing an option below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find amazing facts about animals, science, history and geography, along with fun competitions, games and more. Visit National Geographic Kids today!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The official website of the Anne Frank House, with the most complete and up-to-date information about Anne Frank, her diary, and the Secret Annex. Visit our museum and read more about our educational activities across the world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In September 1939, Britain entered into what would become the world's most devastating war to date. Learn all about the events that changed the lives of millions in our World War 2 facts....
World War 2 facts

1. World War 2 was a battle between two groups of countries

- the " Allies" and the " Axis ". The major Allied Powers were Britain, France, Russia, China and the United States. The major Axis Powers were Germany, Italy and Japan.

(AD)

2. Before World War 2 began, Germany was ruled by a man named Adolf Hitler

Together with the Nazi Party, he wanted Germany to rule Europe. To gain more land and power, on 1 September 1939 German troops invaded Poland. After Hitler refused to stop the invasion, Britain and France declared war on Germany - World War II had begun.

3. During the course of the war, German forces advanced through Europe.

Did you know that we have a FREE downloadable Second World War primary resource? Great for teachers, homeschoolers and parents alike!

4. Millions of Germans were imprisoned and killed because they didn't fit the image of the 'perfect' German

Hitler wanted to create what he thought was the "best" and strongest race - and to the Nazi Party, this excluded certain groups, such as Jews, Gypsies and those with physical and mental disabilities. In an attempt to eliminate a "racial enemy" outside of Germany, such groups were also persecuted in the countries invaded by German forces.

5. The group most heavily targeted by the Nazis were the Jews

Around six million Jewish people were killed during World War 2 in one of history's most terrible events - the Holocaust. Racist in his views, Hitler blamed Jewish people for Germany losing World War I and claimed they were dangerous to German people and society.

6. Around the same time that Germany fought for power in Europe, Japan wanted to control Asia and the Pacific

In 1937 (before World War 2 had officially begun) under Emperor Hirohito, Japan attacked China, bringing the two nations into years of conflict.

7. The US didn't join the war until 1941, when Japan attacked the United States

- at their Naval Base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. On 8 December 1941 (the very next day), the US declared War on Japan and, in turn, its German allies.

8. Some countries remained 'neutral' in World War 2

Such countries were Spain, Sweden and Switzerland - who chose not to join either side.

9. The Germans surrendered on 8 May 1945

In 1944, an Allied army crossed from Britain to free France from Nazi rule. One year later, Allied armies invaded Germany, forcing the Germans to surrender. After nuclear attacks on Japan's major cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan also surrendered to Allied forces in August the same year. World War 2 had ended.

10. Around 64 million people died in World War 2

- that's more than the entire population of the United Kingdom.

Find out more about the countries involved in World War 2 with our Germany, Japan and USA facts. Plus, learn about the life of Anne Frank, a young German girl who wrote a world-famous diary...

*Yugoslavia was a country established in 1918 in south-east Europe, which included modern-day Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

*USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or the Soviet Union) was a former country which included modern-day Russia, Ukraine and Estonia, as well as other socialist states.

What did you think of our World War 2 facts? Let us know by leaving a comment below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn astonishing World War 2 facts with Nat Geo Kids. When did the war start? Who fought in in the war and why? How did it change the course of history?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
World War II by Scoilnet

The Blitz, Ann Frank, Rationing .. Investigate what happened during the War.

Either your browser does not support JavaScript or it is disabled. Scoilnet.ie works best with JavaScript enabled.
Add a resource

To get the best possible experience using our website we recommend that you upgrade to a newer version or other web browser.
Upgrade your browser now

What you need...

To register for a Scoilnet Account you will need to have a Teaching Council number and a roll number for your school in Ireland.

If you already have a Scoilnet Account then you can sign in here.

The benefits...

A Scoilnet account will allow you to upload your resources or weblinks to Scoilnet as well as enabling you to share and add resources to a favourites listing. Users who have a Scoilnet Account will also be able to fully access Scoilnet Maps and Census@School from home.

Register

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Official education portal of the Department of Education and Skills in Ireland. Curriculum focused resources and support for primary and post primary teachers.

# data[].attributes.body
Videos and audio clips depicting times in the Irish past

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
RTÉ Archives | Daily stories from television and radio records of Irish life

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ireland's National Public Service Media Meáin Náisiúnta Seirbhíse Poiblí na hÉireann

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
NI War Memorial Museum | Learning | Primary

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Our free workshops and resources provide learning experiences suitable for Key Stages 1 and 2 which are fun, engaging, and linked to our collection.

# data[].attributes.body
Detailed timeline of the history of Northern Ireland

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Loading...

The following is a Northern Ireland timeline and an overview of the Irish influence on civilization.

400s AD

St Patrick

Saint Patrick brought Christianity to Ireland.
Patrick had been had been taken to Ireland as a slave. He escaped to France where he studied to become a priest. He later returned to Ireland and successfully converted the people .

1171

Earl of Pembroke - Strongbow - King of Leinster
When MacMurrough died, Strongbow proclaimed himself King of Leinster.

After 1171

Irish Land seized by English Barons
English Barons seized land in Ireland.

1695 - 1728

Penal Laws

These were a series of laws passed against Catholics in Ireland including -

Preventing Catholics from carrying weapons and owning horses worth more than £5

Restricting the rights of Catholics to education

Restrict their rights to education.

Preventing Catholics from buying land

Stating that on death property should be equally divided between all sons rather than inherited by the eldest.

Banning Catholics from serving in the army

Preventing Catholics from holding public positions

Preventing Catholics from entering the legal profession

Preventing Catholics from voting or serving as MPs

8th April 1886

First Home Rule Bill

This bill proposed that

A separate parliament and government should be set up in Dublin.

This parliament would control all Irish affairs except defense issues, foreign relations, trade and issues relating to customs and excise. Westminster would deal with these issues.

Westminster would no longer have any Irish MP's in it.

However, many Irishmen felt that Home Rule did not go far enough. They were worried that there would be no Irish MPs in Westminster to defend Irish interests. Protestants in Ireland, especially those in Ulster, were worried that the Parliament would be mainly made up of Catholics.

The Bill was defeated.

10th April 1998

Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement

In 1997 the British government proposed a resumption of peace talks. Once again Sinn Féin were invited on condition that a six-week cease fire had been observed. In July 1997 the IRA announced the cease fire. After months of discussion a settlement is reached on Good Friday 1998.

Terms in Brief:
Ireland shall not be one united country without the consent of a majority in Northern Ireland
The people of Northern Ireland have the right to call themselves either Irish or British
A multi party assembly will be elected to govern the community.
A north/south council be set up to consider areas of mutual interest
An Anglo-Irish council be set up to consider areas of mutual interest
All people shall have basic human rights, civil rights and equality
Linguistic diversity to be recognised - Irish to be taught in all schools
Paramilitary groups to be decommissioned within two years
A gradual reduction in the number of security forces deployed in Northern Ireland
To work towards having an unarmed police force
Political prisoners to be released providing the ceasefire is maintained

A referendum held on 23rd May 1998 showed an overwhelming majority of the people of Ireland supporting the Good Friday Agreement.

This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the Stuart Dynasty. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Stuart Dynasty.
Cite This Article

"Northern Ireland Timeline" History on the Net
© 2000-2024, Salem Media.
May 8, 2024 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/northern-ireland-timeline>
More Citation Information.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page includes a Northern Ireland timeline, its most important dates, and an overview of the Irish influence on world civilization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are 11 main Visual History pages. These present a history of wall paintings in Northern Ireland/north-east Ireland from 1900 to the present.

Visual History 01 covers early PUL [Protestant-Unionist-Loyalist] muraling

Visual History 02 covers early CNR [Catholic-Nationalist-Republican] muraling.

By "early" we mean up to (roughly) 1981. Even though the period commonly known as "The Troubles" begins in 1969, we use 1981 as a dividing line because it is in 1981 that a new and dramatic wave of CNR muraling begins.

In the appendices to Visual History 01 and 02 we are attempting to gather complete lists of early PUL (Visual History 01) and early CNR (Visual History 02) murals. If you know of any not included, please get in touch.

Visual Histories 03, 04, 05, and 06 cover the period from 1981 (the hunger strikes) to 1994 (the ceasefire).

Further Histories then cover the post-Troubles or post-ceasefire period: 07, 08, and 09 cover (roughly) the years 1994 to 2003, in which CNR and PUL communities press their claims before and after the Agreement.

10 and 11 cover the period from 2003 to the present, adding the state as a third source of wall paintings and boards and street artists as a fourth.

There are a number of pages on specific ...

locations (such as Free Derry Corner),

themes (such as International Solidarity),

icons (such as Bobby Sands or Eddie The Head),

and painters (such as Bobby Jackson, Alan Skillen, or Gerard 'Mo Chara' Kelly).

These are included in the list below alongside the Visual History page where they are first mentioned.

Comments and corrections are greatly appreciated, to extramuralactivity at gmail.com
What Is A Mural? Guide To Categories
The "Oldest" Murals - An overview of the "oldest" murals in a variety of senses including first painted (by each sect) and longest-lasting (with and without repainting).

Visual History 01 - The Protestant Ascendancy - Early PUL muraling.

Visual History 02 - The Catholic Insurgency - Early CNR muraling.
Visual History 03 - The Prison Protests (1981) Visual History 04 - Paramilitary Murals (1981-1982) Visual History 05 - (1983-1988) Visual History 06 - (1988-1993) Visual History 07 - Ceasefire (1994-1996)

"Hawks" & Doves - Tracks the replacement of the phoenix and lark by the dove during the peace process (CNR)

The Great Hunger or "famine" in murals (CNR)

Eddie The Trooper - A collection of the known images of Iron Maiden's 'Eddie The Head' in the guise of a British Red Coat from the Crimean War (PUL)

Visual History 08 - The Peace Process (1996-2001) Visual History 09 - Winning The Peace (2001-2003) Visual History 10 - Re-Imaging (2003-2009)
Visual History 11 - The Rise Of Street Art (2009-present)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are 11 main Visual History pages. These present a history of wall paintings in Northern Ireland/north-east Ireland from 1900 to the present. Visual History 01 covers early PUL [Protestant-Unionist-Loyalist] muraling Visual History 02 covers early CNR [Catholic-Nationalist-Republican] muraling. By "early" we mean up to (roughly) 1981.

# data[].attributes.body
News Report from 1989

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Minister for Education, Mary O'Rourke, is pleased with the position given to the Irish language in the new education reform proposals for Northern Ireland.

Report shows students entering school.

Protest at the Irish language education policy in Northern Ireland.

Mary O'Rourke with her Northern Irish counterpart, Brian Mawhinney.

Interview with Brian Mawhinney about Irish language instruction in North Ireland.

Interview with Mary O'Rourke.

The reporter is Gary Honeyford.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Minister for Education, Mary O'Rourke, is pleased with the position given to the Irish language in the new education reform proposals for Northern Ireland. Report shows students entering school. Protest at the Irish language education policy in Northern Ireland. Mary O'Rourke with her Northern Irish counterpart, Brian Mawhinney.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
August 1969 was the month that Northern Ireland erupted into violence. Sectarian tensions manifested on the streets in a bloody conflict that would become known as 'the Troubles' and claim more than 3,500 lives over four decades.

Presented here are RTÉ radio and television recordings of some of the major events of 1969 in Northern Ireland.

August 1969 was the month that Northern Ireland erupted into violence. Sectarian tensions manifested on the streets in a bloody conflict that would become known as 'the Troubles' and claim more than 3,500 lives over four decades.

In January 1969, Prime Minister Terence O'Neill called a general election in response to opposition from within his own party to his policies. Across the political divide, a new generation of politicians began to emerge in this campaign. Although O'Neill and his supporters within Stormont would win the election, he could not shake off those who were opposed to him within the Unionist Party. By April, O'Neill was forced to resign and James Chichester-Clark became the next Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.

Ivan Cooper, John Hume, and John Taylor were just some of the new political names to emerge in this period. However, it was the election of a 22-year-old woman, Bernadette Devlin, to Westminster that would attract world attention. Throughout the year, the sectarian tension increased until it eventually exploded in the violence of August.

It is interesting to hear both views of the divide as expressed by residents of Belfast's Falls Road and Shankill Road to RTÉ's Kevin O'Kelly in Northern Ireland A Film Special, broadcast in January 1969. The Shankill Road was a predominantly Protestant loyalist, working-class area, while the neighbouring Falls Road was a mainly Catholic republican area.

In August, intense rioting following the Apprentice Boys parade in Derry sparked conflict across Northern Ireland. For three days, the riots continued in what became known as the Battle of the Bogside. In Belfast there was further violence as Catholics and Protestants clashed with each other and the police.

On 13 August, Taoiseach Jack Lynch intervened in a broadcast to the nation. Lynch was highly critical of the Stormont government, stating that the RUC was no longer an impartial police force. He called for the UN to intervene and announced that the Irish army would establish field hospitals near the border. Unionists were angered by Lynch's speech; Chichester-Clark commented that it was inflammatory. As the rioting continued, Prime Minister Chichester-Clark requested the support of the British army. On 14 August, British soldiers were deployed in Derry and were on the streets of Belfast the following day.

By the end of 1969, 16 were dead as a result of the violence and the IRA had split into Official and Provisional wings. Members of the Provisional IRA saw themselves as republican traditionalists and were prepared to use military force.

The accompanying photograph shows a slogan painted on the gable end of a house in Derry, "You are now entering Free Derry".
© RTÉ Stills Library 0119/042

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
August 1969 was the month that Northern Ireland erupted into violence. Sectarian tensions manifested on the streets in a bloody conflict that would become known as 'the Troubles' and claim more than 3,500 lives over four decades. Presented here are RTÉ radio and television recordings of some of the major events of 1969 in Northern Ireland.

# data[].attributes.body
Select photographs at your discretion

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Low quality photographs - awaiting replacementLow quality photographs - awaiting replacementLow quality photographs - awaiting replacementLow quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement Low quality photographs - awaiting replacement

CAIN Web Service

Photographs of Northern Ireland and the Conflict

[CAIN_Home]
[Key_Events][Key_Issues][CONFLICT_BACKGROUND]
BACKGROUND: [Acronyms][Glossary][NI Society][Articles][Chronologies][People][Organisations][CAIN_Bibliography][Other_Bibliographies][Research][Photographs][Symbols][Murals][Posters][Maps][Internet]

Text: Martin Melaugh ... Photographs: See photographs for details of photographers
Material is added to this site on a regular basis - information on this page may change

Photographs of Northern Ireland and the Conflict

There are links below to photographs that show scenes of Northern Ireland and depictions of the conflict. The copyright of these photographs remains with the © photographers. Users may make a single copy for private study. Anyone wishing to reproduce the photographs commercially, or at a web site, will have to obtain the permission of the photographer and should first contact CAIN. See also the CAIN note on copyright.

Recent images

Photographs

Photographers ... Places (by County and city) ... Subjects ... Events

Photograph Collections - People who have contributed a series of photographs to CAIN

Roland Iselin
Revisited (Troubled Land) 2018-2019
Roland undertook six trips to Northern Ireland to take photographs of urban and rural public spaces which contain political statements in the form of murals, memorials, graffiti, etc. Roland was following in the footsteps of photographer Paul Graham who published a series of photographs in his 1987 book 'Troubled Land: the Social Landscape of Northern Ireland.'

Dr Martin Melaugh
Photographs taken for use on CAIN (e.g., those under 'places' below).
Photographs of physical memorials to people killed.
Photographs of textiles on behalf of Conflict Textiles.
Compiled the collection - ' The Human Face of Conflict'.

Peter Moloney
Political Ephemera Collection: badges, banners, murals, postcards, posters, lapel stickers, etc.

Brendan Murphy
Photographs from the book:
Murphy, Brendan., and Kelters, Seamus. (2003). ' Eyewitness: Four Decades of Northern Life. Dublin: The O'Brien Press.

Places

Belfast City
City - views of the city
| City Hall (2) | City Hall (3) | Donegall Place | Linen Hall Library | Technical College | Great Victoria Street | Opera House | Europa Hotel (1) | Europa Hotel (2) | Crown Bar | CRC Information Centre | Ulster Hall | Broadcasting House (BBC Headquarters) | Royal Avenue | High Street | Cornmarket (1) | Cornmarket (2) | Anne Street | Arthur Street |

| City Hall (1) |
Falls Road area of west Belfast
Falls Road area including the 'peace line' ... thumbnail images
Cupar Street (1) | Cupar Street (2) | Cupar Street (3) | Cupar Street (4) | Cupar Street (5) | Bombay Street (1) | Bombay Street (2) | Bombay Street (3) | Bombay Street (4) | Bombay Street (5) | Bombay Street (6) | Bombay Street (7) | Falls Road (1) | Falls Road Mural (1) | Springfield Road (1) | Cupar Street (6) |
Murals in Belfast
Loyalist Murals ... thumbnail images
Loyalist Mural (2) | Loyalist Mural (3) | Loyalist Mural (4) | Loyalist Mural (5) | Loyalist Mural (6) | Loyalist Mural (7) | Loyalist Mural (8) | Loyalist Mural (9) | Loyalist Mural (10) | Loyalist Mural (11) | Loyalist Mural (12) |
Loyalist Mural (1) |

'Peace line' - photographs of the 'peace line' ... thumbnail images
Lanark (1) | Lanark (2) | Lanark (3) | Gate (1) | Gate (2) | Peace line (1) | Peace line (2) | Peace line (3) | Peace line (4) | Peace line (5) | Peace line (6) | Peace line (7) | Peace line (8) | Peace line (9) | Peace line (10) | Peace line (11) | Peace line (12) | Peace line (13) | Peace line (14) | (see also: Falls Road area)

Lanark Way (1) | Lanark Way (2) | Lanark Way (3) |
Springfield Road | Destroyed homes at Clifton Park Avenue | Destroyed homes at Clifton Park Avenue | Lanark Way (4) | Clonard area |'Peace line' - views of the 'peace line'

'Peace line' - views close to the 'peace line'

Shankill Road area of west Belfast
Shankill Road area including Loyalist murals ... thumbnail images
Shankill Road (1) | Shankill Mural (1) | Shankill Mural (2) | Shankill Mural (3) | Shankill Mural (4) | Shankill Mural (5) | Shankill Mural (6) | Shankill Mural (7) | Shankill Mural (8) | Shankill Mural (9) | Shankill Mural (10) | Shankill Mural (11) | Shankill Mural (12) | Shankill Mural (13) | Shankill Mural (14) |
Stormont Building - views of the parliament buildings, Belfast
Stormont (1) | Stormont (2) | Stormont (3) | Stormont (4) | Stormont (5) | Stormont (6) | Stormont (7) | Stormont (8) |
County Antrim
Ballintoy, County Antrim
Ballintoy Church (01) | Ballintoy Church (02) | Ballintoy Church (03) | Ballintoy Church (04) |
Ballintoy Harbour (01) | Ballintoy Harbour (02) | Ballintoy Harbour (03) | Ballintoy Harbour (04) |
Ballintoy Coastline (01) | Ballintoy Coastline (02) | Ballintoy Coastline (03) |
Ballycastle, County Antrim

Road sign to Corrymeela Ballycastle sea front
Corrymeela, Ballycastle, County Antrim
Welcome sign at Corrymeela | Welcome sign at Corrymeela | Corrymeela Centre |

Ballymena, County Antrim

Road sign to Harryville | Parochial house | Catholic Church at Harryville Road sign at Ballymena
Harryville, Ballymena, County Antrim
Catholic Church at Harryville (1) | Catholic Church at Harryville (2) | Parochial house at Harryville |

Causeway Coast, County Antrim
Recent photographs of the Giant's Causeway
... older photographs - thumbnail images
Giant's Causeway (1) | Giant's Causeway (2) | Giant's Causeway (3) | Giant's Causeway (4) | Giant's Causeway (5) | Giant's Causeway (6) | Giant's Causeway (7) | Giant's Causeway (8) | Giant's Causeway (9) | Stones at Giant's Causeway (1) | Stones at Giant's Causeway (2) |
Cushendal, County Antrim
Cushendal village
Cushendun, County Antrim
Cushendun Village (01) | Cushendun Village (02) | Cushendun Village (05) | Cushendun Village (06) | Cushendun Standing Stones (07) | Cushendun Boats (01) |
Dunloy, County Antrim
Road sign at Dunloy | Orange Hall at Dunloy | Graffiti on wall of Dunloy Orange Hall | Dunloy Orange Hall | Graffiti on door of Dunloy Orange Hall | Village of Dunloy |
Portrush Village of Dunloy (2) | Presbyterian Church in Dunloy village |
Portbradden, County Antrim
Portbradden (01) | Portbradden (02) | Gobban's Church (03) |
Portrush

County Armagh
Armagh City
| Armagh City | Catholic Cathedral (1) | Catholic Cathedral (2) | Catholic Cathedral (3) | Protestant Cathedral (1) | Protestant Cathedral (2) | Vicar's Hill | Court House | QUB Campus | RIF Memorial | War Memorial (1) | War Memorial (2) |
Camlough Village, County Armagh
| Camlough Village (1) | Camlough Hunger Strike Memorial (2) | Camlough Hunger Strike Memorial (3) | Security Watchtower at Camlough (3) | Security Watchtower at Sturgan Mountain (4) |
Crossmaglen Village, County Armagh
| Crossmaglen Village (1) | Security Watchtower at Crossmaglen (2) | Crossmaglen Republican Memorial (1) | Mural: 'Barrack-buster' | Mural: 'Demilitarisation' | Mural: 'Talk / Fight' |
Crossmaglen Hunger Strike Memorial (1) | Crossmaglen Hunger Strike Memorial (4) | Crossmaglen Hunger Strike Memorial (5) | Crossmaglen Hunger Strike Memorial (6) |
Portadown, County Armagh ... thumbnail images
Drumcree Church, Portadown, County Armagh
Drumcree (1) | Drumcree (2) | Drumcree (3) | Drumcree (4) | Drumcree (5) |
Garvaghy Road, Portadown, County Armagh
Garvaghy Road (1) | Garvaghy Road (2) | Garvaghy Road (3) |
County Derry
Coleraine, County Derry
The Diamond
University of Ulster, Coleraine Campus, [Google StreetView ]:
Central Building
Pates Lane [Google StreetView ]: Two Flags
Claudy, County Derry
Claudy Memorial (1)
Greeysteel, County Derry
Memorial to Greysteel victims | The Rising Sun bar, Greysteel
Limavady
Scroggy Road | Catholic Church of Christ the King | First Limavady Presbyterian Church
Sign at Limavady United Football Club | Rugby Game (1) | Rugby Game (2) |
Portstewart
The Promenade | Portstewart Strand |
County Down

County Fermanagh
Enniskillen, County Fermanagh
War Memorial, Enniskillen
Irvinestown, County Fermanagh
Irvinestown main street
County Tyrone
Omagh
Omagh (1) view of High Street | Omagh (2) view of site of bomb | Omagh (3) view of site of bomb | Omagh (4) flowers at bomb site |
Teebane Memorial
Teebane Memorial (1) |
Derry City
Aberfoyle House - base for CAIN Project (1996-2016)
| Aberfoyle House (1) |
Bogside
| View of Bogside (1) | View of Bogside (2) | View of Bogside (3) | View of Bogside (4) |
| Mural: 'Bloody Sunday (3)' | View of Bogside (5) | Free Derry Corner (1) | Westland Street (1) | Bloody Sunday Memorial (1) | Bloody Sunday Memorial (2) | Bloody Sunday Memorial (3) | Long Tower Church |
| Mural: 'No Consent' (1) | Mural: 'No Consent' (2) | Mural: '68-96' |
| Street Art: Inquiry | Sign of Support (1) |

Bogside Artists - the murals
| Mural: 'Battle of Bogside' | Mural: 'Bernadette Devlin' | Mural: 'Bloody Sunday (1)' | Mural: 'Bloody Sunday (2)' | Mural: 'Annette McGavigan' | Mural: 'Hunger Strike' | Mural: 'Rioter' | Mural: 'Operation Motorman' |
| Street Art: 'Bloody Sunday (4)' |
See also information on The Bogside Artists and recent photographs of the murals and their street context
Brandywell
City - views of the city
| View of Derry (1) | View of Derry (2) | View of Derry (3) | View of Derry (4) | View of Derry (5) | View of Derry (6) | View of Derry (7) | View of Derry (8) | View of Derry (9) | View of Derry (10) | View of Derry (11) |
City - views of the city by night
| Derry by Night (1) | Derry by Night (2) | Derry by Night (3) | Derry by Night (4) | Derry by Night (5) | Derry by Night (6) | Shipquay Street by Night (2) |
City centre - the city walls
| Butcher Gate (1) | Butcher Gate (2) | Ferry Quay Gate (1) | Bishop's Gate (1) |
Magazine Gate (1) | Magazine Gate (2) | Plinth (1) |
Cannon (1) |
Walls and Guildhall | Looking up Magazine Street | British Army barrier on Walls at Butchers' Gate | Butchers' Gate with Bogside beyond | Cannon (2) | Cannon (3) | Cannon (4) | Guildhall and Cannon (2) | Guildhall and Cannon (3) | Guildhall and Cannon (4) |
Sign on Walls (1) | Sign on Walls (2) |
British Army Watch Tower (1) |

City centre - city within the walls
| Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall (0152) | Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall | O'Doherty's Tower | Artillery Street (1) | Shipquay Street (1) | St Columb's Cathedral (1) | St Columb's Cathedral (2) |
| Craft centre, Shipquay Street | Statues, near Craigavon Bridge | Guildhall, Guildhall Square | Derry City Council offices | Union Hall Place (2) |
City centre - city centre outside the walls
| New housing and Protestant Cathedral |'Peace Wall' at Fountain Estate | Street of terrace housing | UDA mural |
| 'Hands Across the Divide', statues near Craigavon Bridge (14 new photographs) | Statues, near Craigavon Bridge (11 older photographs) |
| Carlisle Road (1) | Guild Hall (1) | Guild Hall (2) | RUC Station (1) | Statues at Waterloo Place (1) | Jail (1) | Cannon Shipquay Place (1) | Guildhall and Cannon (1) |

Fountain Estate
| Hawkin Street (1) |'Peace Line' (1) |

Rosemount
River Foyle
Photographs of the Peace Bridge
Waterside
| View of Derry (2) | View of Derry (6) |
Bond's Street area of the Waterside
Loyalist murals ... thumbnail images
| Mural: Apprentice Boys | Mural: President Buchanan | Mural: Eddie | Mural: Flags and symbols | Mural: LPOW | Mural: Cecil McKnight | Mural: The Mountjoy | UU ARK CAIN INCORE Events Mural: The Queen | Mural: UDA | Mural: UDA |
| Mural: Bond's Street (1) | Mural: Bond's Street (2) | Mural: Bond's Street (3) | Mural: Bond's Street (4) |
University of Ulster at Magee
| View of Magee Campus (1) | View of Magee Campus (2) | View of Magee Campus (3) |

See also: Black and white photographs of Derry 1968-1974 by Eamon Melaugh

'Battle of the Bogside' 12 - 14 August 1969
n.a. (1969?) Battle of Bogside, [booklet of photographs].
'Bloody Sunday' 30 January 1972
Photographs related to 'Bloody Sunday'
Bogside Artists
Photographs of the murals painted by the Bogside Artists
British Army
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh of the Army in Derry 1969-1974
Photographs by Paul Crispin of the Army in Belfast 1986
Children
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh
Civil Rights Campaign 1968 - 1978
The booklet"We Shall Overcome" contains 24 black and white photographs.
'Free Derry' 1968 - 1971
The extract from the book'No Go, A Photographic Record of Free Derry' contains 12 black and white photographs.
Derry (1899 - 1999)
The extract from the book'100 Years of Derry' contains 9 black and white photographs.
Photographs of Derry 1968-1974 by Eamon Melaugh
The Human Face of Conflict
Photographs of those killed (currently 2,154 images)
Internment 9 August 1971 - 5 December 1975
The book'Internment' contains 16 black and white photographs.
Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Derry 1970 - 1974
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh
Memorials
Photographs of physical memorials by Martin Melaugh (currently 1560 images)
Information, and a series of 444 photographs, by Elisabetta Viggiani of physical memorials in Belfast (2006)
Parades, marches, bands and banners
Photographs taken by Neil Jarman
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh
Photographs of the Apprentice Boys of Derry 'Lundy Parade', 1 December 2007
Peacelines
Photographs by Frankie Quinn
Peace Bridge, Derry
Photographs of the Peace Bridge
People's Democracy March 1 January 1969 - 4 January 1969
The booklet'Burntollet' contains 29 black and white photographs.
Political Posters
The section on posters contains photographs of examples of political posters from the past 30 years
Political Wall Murals
Extracts and photographs from a number of books on murals
Protests and Demonstrations
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh
Referendum on 'The Agreement' 22 May 1998
Government Referendum Poster, Belfast | Part of the 'Yes' Campaign, Belfast | Part of the 'Yes' Campaign, Belfast |
Riots
Photographs by Eamon Melaugh
Symbols in Northern Ireland
The section on symbols contains photographs and other images

Examples of photographs, from the photographers listed at the top of this page, featured in the PhotoIreland Festival 2022 (7 July to 25 August 2022) in The Printworks, Dublin Castle, Dublin. (Photo on right shows the CAIN presentation in situ. See also: Copy of CAIN presentation [ PDF; 8187KB].)

Photographs of a protest against the NI Troubles Legacy Bill, Derry, Tuesday 28 June 2022.

Photographs of the event to mark the Public Prosecution Service decision on prosecutions related to Bloody Sunday, Thursday 14 March 2019.

Photographs of the ('final') 2011 Bloody Sunday Commemoration March, Sunday 30 January 2011.

Photographs [ PDF; 1711KB] of the march to Guildhall Square to hear the outcome of the Bloody Sunday Inquiry, Tuesday 15 June 2010.

Photographs [ PDF; 665KB] of the march to Guildhall Square to hear the outcome of the Bloody Sunday Inquiry, held on Tuesday 15 June 2010. Photographs © Luke Kelleher and CAIN.

Photographs [ PDF; 441KB] of the meeting between leaders of the main Protestant Churches and representatives of Bloody Sunday families, at the Bloody Sunday Monument, Wednesday 16 June 2010.

Photographs [ PDF; 1124KB] of the 2008 Bloody Sunday Commemoration March, held on Sunday 3 February 2008.

Photographs [ PDF; 195KB] of the 2008 Bloody Sunday Families Commemoration, Wednesday 30 January 2008.

Photographs of the Apprentice Boys of Derry 'Lundy Parade', 1 December 2007

Photographs taken at CAIN Seminar Series on Victims, Survivors and Commemoration, 2007-2010.

Photographs of INCORE Public Lecture, 'Commemoration and Conflict', 24 March 2011, and Roundtable, 25 March 2011.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
CAIN: Photographs of Northern Ireland and the Conflict

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
CAIN: Photographs of Northern Ireland and the Conflict

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
From the late 1960s, armed groups from both sides, such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), carried out bombings and shootings - and British troops were sent to Northern Ireland.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From the late 1960s, armed groups from both sides, such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), carried out bombings and shootings - and British troops were sent to Northern Ireland.

# data[].attributes.body
Please review before playing in front of your class

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds.

Aug 3, 2020 · RIP John Hume (1937 - 2020). Put up in his honour. This video was put up for educational ...
Duration: 51:41
Posted: Aug 3, 2020

Mar 18, 2011 · John Hume graduated from Maynooth with a BA in French and History in 1958.
Duration: 14:48
Posted: Mar 18, 2011

Aug 3, 2020 · I wrote this song this morning in 5 minutes after I heard the sad news that John Hume had ...
Duration: 5:25
Posted: Aug 3, 2020

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ireland's greatest john hume - Google Search

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Please click here if you are not redirected within a few seconds. Aug 3, 2020 · RIP John Hume (1937 - 2020). Put up in his honour.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Barter: A long time ago, people traded for what they wanted. Perhaps one person had a wonderful spear made of stone and wood. Another person had a beautiful necklace made of stones and shells. Each wanted what the other had. To solve this, they traded. This is called barter.

Different Kinds of Money: Sometimes, it was hard for people to put a barter price on things. Instead of barter, people began to use money as a form of payment. For a definition of money, visit Word Central for Kids.

In the beginning, things were not very consistent.

The Aztecs used small doll figures made of solid gold to buy things.

The ancient Egyptians used ring money. Ring money was an actual ring made of bronze, copper, or gold. In ancient Egypt, people like to wear their wealth. When it came time to pay their bills, they simply pulled off a ring or two to use as payment.

The Celts in ancient Ireland also used ring money, plus bracelet money. The Celts also liked to wear their wealth.

The ancient Africans invented knife money.

In other places in the world, people tried to use rice, or bread, or chocolate as money. But that did not work very well. The food went bad, or it was eaten.

People soon learned that although many things would work as money, to be useful, the item or items they chose to use as money had to follow a few simple rules:

It had to be accepted as money by others

It had to have an assigned value or worth

It had to be easy to carry

It had to be made of a strong material, something that could be handed from person to person.

Coins:

Ancient Turkey: About 2,700 years ago, somebody came up with the idea of using metal coins as money. The first coins appeared in ancient Turkey. Everybody loved this new idea. The amount that each coin was worth was stamped right on it. The coins were round and flat and made of gold and silver. They were small and easy to carry. They could be decorated with pictures and designs. The use of coins made trade simple.

The clever people who invented the first coins from the kingdom of Lydia, which was a little coastal kingdom on the Aegean Sea, in ancient Turkey. Like most coastal civilizations, these early people needed something to use to trade with visiting merchants who came by sea. Coins were the answer.

Ancient Greece: The idea of metal coinage spread on rapidly. By 2,500 years ago, each Greek city-state had developed its own coinage. Each Greek city-state had banks where visiting traders could exchange their coins for Greek coins, coins they would then use to buy and sell in the great Greek marketplaces.

Coins were not only used as money. In ancient Greece, coins were also believed to have magical powers. The Greeks designed their coins with pictures of their gods and goddesses. The Greeks were the first civilization to use pictures of real people on their coins. The first was Alexander the Great, back around 325 BCE. As time went on, the Greeks created bigger coins, each designed to commemorate a special event.

Ancient Rome: The ancient Romans thought the use of coins was really clever. They copied it. At first, the Romans put pictures of gods and goddesses on their coins, an idea they borrowed from the ancient Greeks. Pretty soon, they began to put pictures of buildings on their coins. They were the first to add symbols like stars and eagles on their coins. Some of their coins pictured current emperors. These coins were supposed to help make an emperor popular.

Ancient India: In ancient India, people used money trees to store their coins. A money tree was a flat piece of metal, shaped like a tree, with metal branches. At the end of each branch was a round disk with a hole in the center. Each of these disks was an ancient Indian coin. When you needed money, you simply broke off a coin from your money tree. The ancient Indians often used pictures of dragons and other make-believe animals on their coins.

Ancient China: Ancient Chinese coins also had holes in the center. To keep their safe, and to be able to carry their wealth easily, coins were strung together on a string or rope. This was called a string of cash. Like the ancient Indians, the ancient Chinese also decorated their coins with pictures of mythical and magical creatures as well as designs. They believed coins were lucky. Coins were a popular present because they provided two gifts - the gift of wealth and the gift of luck.

Ancient Counterfeit Coins: In ancient times, there were crooks who chipped away at the edges of coins to get extra metal. If you were caught "chipping" coins in ancient times, the punishment was usually death. In spite of the risks, one gang who lived in ancient England distributed over 1600 fake coins to the Roman legionnaires who invaded their country!

When coins began to made by machines, counterfeiting dropped off considerably. It was much more difficult to copy the machine made coins. Besides, paper money had started to be an important form of money.

Paper Money: The ancient Chinese invented paper. Once paper was invented, the invention of paper money was predicable. It was light in weight, and could be colorfully decorated.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
All about money and barter in ancient times for elementary and middle school kids and teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Barter: A long time ago, people traded for what they wanted. Perhaps one person had a wonderful spear made of stone and wood. Another person had a beautiful necklace made of stones and shells. Each wanted what the other had. To solve this, they traded. This is called barter.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ancient Coins

The heyday of Chinese ancient paper note came during the Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368). Throughout the dynasty, paper note was used and the concerned system was developed and perfected. Surrounding countries such as India, Korea, Japan followed the Yuan Dynasty and issued paper note.

Coins were also minted during this time but they could not be compared to those made in the Song Dynasty either in quantity or quality.

The name of yuan bao originated from the Yuan Dynasty. It had the meaning of the treasure of the Yuan and later referred to gold and silver money. Though gold and sivler ingots were not in circulation any more, their mimics could be seen easily.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) issued Da Ming Tong Xing Bao Chao (paper note circulating in the Ming Dynasty) and this was the only paper note during the whole dynasty, which was unprecedented in the previous dynasties. The note, claimed to be the world's largest note, is 34 cm long and 22 cm wide.

With the depreciation of the paper note, mintage was started again. The reign of Jia Jing by Emperor Shi Zong of Ming Dynasty witnessed a breakthrough in the mintage technique. With the addition of zinc, brass coin emerged. Before this, all the coins were made of bronze.

Ancient Coins of Qing Dynasty

At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), there was not issuance of paper note until 1651. This issuance lasted only ten years. After the Opium War, to deal with the financial crisis, the Qing Dynasty began to issue paper note again in 1853.

In the late of the 19th century, foreign imperialist countries invaded China and set up banks and issued paper notes. The Qing Dynasty set up mintage factory in Beijing in 1908 and the first steel money template was made during this time. However, hardly were any notes issued, the Qing Dynasty collapsed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Money in Chinese Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The heyday of Chinese ancient paper note came during the Yuan Dynasty. Throughout the dynasty, paper note was used and the concerned system was developed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Template:IrishCoinInfobox The Irish pound ( Irish: punt) was the currency unit of the Republic of Ireland until 1999. The Irish pound first came to be as the currency of the Irish Free State in 1928, but was directly linked to the Sterling until 1979. The Irish pound was superseded by the euro on 1 January, 1999.

The Irish pound's ISO 4217 code was IEP, and the usual notation was the prefix £, or where confusion might have arisen with Sterling IR£ was used.

History

A distinct Irish pound existed before the Act of Union 1801, but this act lead to the disappearence of the currency in 1826 and it would not appear again until 1928, just over one hundred years later. The Irish pound that appeared in 1928 was originally called the ' Saorstát pound' ("Free State pound") and was pegged to the Pound sterling; the currency was referred to as the ' Irish pound' from 1938 after the Constitution of Ireland changed the states' name. In the mid 1960s it was decided to proceed with decimalisation and to this effect the number of pennies in an Irish pound was redefined from 240 to 100 pence - the pound itself was not revalued by this act.

The European Exchange Rate Mechanism broke the final one-for-one link with the Pound Sterling and the Irish pound in March 1979.

Legal Tender Note

The Saorstát pound first appeared as a banknote and was printed by the Currency Commission in 1928; the term "Pound" and "Punt" were used on the banknotes. This banknote, part of the so called "Series A", contained the portait of an Irish colleen of what is believed to be Lady Lavery, the wife of John Lavery. The head on the back was taken from the Custom House, Dublin and is now believed to represent the River Lee as it was unnamed at the time of commission. A faint watermark of the "Head of Erin" also appears on the rear right. The note is 84mm x 151mm and is predominately green, the first date on the notes was 10 September 1928 and the last date was 30 September 1976. The change of the states name from Irish Free State to Ireland in 1938 corresponded to a number of related changes in wording. The creation of the Central Bank of Ireland in 1943 required the substitution of "Currency Commission" with that of "Central Bank of Ireland". In the early 1960s the phrase "Payable in London" was removed from the notes.

The Series A note was withdrawn in the late 1970s and a replacement "Series B" note issued. The front of this note featured the bust of Medb Queen of Connacht and an early Irish geometric design; the rear of the note contains a extract from Lebor na hUidre a manuscript of the Tain. The note was predominately green and red with the first issue dated 10 June 1977 and the final dated 13 September 1989. The note measured 148mm x 78mm and was withdrawn in 1990 in favour of the new coin as paper was becoming too expensive to print on for such a low value.

A final series of banknotes was issued in the early 1990s, called "Series C" but without a Irish pound note, these were; £5 brown featuring Catherine McAuley, £10 green featuring James Joyce, £20 - purple featuring Daniel O'Connell, £50 - blue featuring Douglas Hyde, £100 - red featuring Charles Stewart Parnell.

The coin: A bad design?

On June 20 1990 the Irish pound coin was introduced using the design of a red deer, by the Irish artist Tom Ryan. The 2000 Millennium was used to issue a commemorative coin, the design was based on the "Broighter Boat" in the National Museum of Ireland; the coins design was by Alan Ardiff and Garrett Stokes and were issued on November 29 1999.

The Irish pound coin, which was introduced in 1990, remains the largest coin introduced since decimalisation at 3.11 centimetres diameter and was 10 grams weight. The coin, essentially a flat disk, had the misfortune of being almost identical in dimensions to the old penny coin that circulated before 1971, and was quite similar to but thinner than the half-crown coin. During the early circulation of the coins payphones and vending machines were changed over as expected, however soon the old penny, in particular, became used as a substitute for the pound coin in these devices. This created losses for the operators as these coins had little value, either face or marketwise, notwithstanding the fact that they were no longer legal tender. Soon the devices were changed so that pound coins were not accepted and this remained so until the coin was withdrawn with the advent of the euro.

Furthermore, the rough milled edge did not have an attractive or consistent appearance and this, together with the coins' tendency to quickly tarnish and awkward size, meant that the coin was never a particular favourite among the public.

Withdrawal

Although the euro became the currency of the Republic on 1 January, 1999, it wasn't until 1 January, 2002 that the state began to withdraw Irish pound coins and notes, replacing them with euro. Old pound notes lost their legal tender status on 9 February, 2002, although they will be exchangeable indefinitely for euro at the Central Bank.

On 31 December, 2001, the total value of Irish banknotes in circulation was €4,343.8 million, and the total value of Irish coins was €387.9 million. The Irish cash changeover was the fastest in the Eurozone, with some shops illegally ceasing to accept pounds after the first week or two. With a conversion factor of 0.787564 Irish pounds to the euro, fifty-six per cent of the value of Irish banknotes was withdrawn from circulation within two weeks of the introduction of euro banknotes and coins, and 83.4 per cent by the time they ceased to have legal tender status on 9 February.

Withdrawal of coinage was slower, having a lower priority, with only 45 per cent of coins withdrawn by 9 February. This figure is somewhat misleading, as at that point, almost all coinage in circulation had indeed been withdrawn - the remainder being kept as souvenirs, or in hoards. One year after the changeover, €456 million of Irish pound banknotes remained unaccounted for, including one-third of all the £5 notes which, being the smallest denomination, were likely retained as souvenirs.

Notes

Of the 15 national currencies originally tied to the Euro (also including the currencies of Andorra, Monaco and San Marino), the Irish pound is the only one whose conversion factor is less than 1, i.e. the national currency is worth more than the Euro.

See also

External links

Template:IrishCoins

Template:PreEuroCurrencies de:Irisches Pfund es:Libra irlandesa fr:Livre irlandaise it:Sterlina irlandese

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Template:IrishCoinInfobox The Irish pound ( Irish: punt) was the currency unit of the Republic of Ireland until 1999. The Irish pound first came to be as the currency of the Irish Free State in 1928, but was directly linked to the Sterling until 1979. The Irish pound was superseded by the euro on 1 January, 1999.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Featured coin :

Morbiducci Pattern Shilling in Silver

Select the image or description to read about it.

Main Index

These links are to a series of overviews of the coinage of Ireland. They offer further links for ' drill down ' detail and they also offer cross links to the catalogue and the high resolution image pages.

Reference links:

Maintenance links :

High Resolution Irish Coin Picture Indices (these pages have many images - they may take a long time to load if you are on a slow link)

Irish Coinage - Web Site Structure Page (this page is primarily to enable me to get to any page from a single point - it may be useful if you know the site quite well)

If you spot any errors - or want more information on a particular area - or have any general comments on this site please send me an e-mail.

SITE HISTORY

This site first appeared on the World Wide Web on 16/Aug/1994 making it one of the oldest coin sites on the Web. I was leading a UNIX support team at the time and was interested in learning HTML soon after it was first developed. I had also just taken the first scans of my coin collection which gave me material for my first HTML trials.

Since then the site has grown considerably with currently over 150 separate pages some of which are very extensive and over 300 images between the in-line images and the high resolution series. In total the site takes about 500 pages of paper to print it out (I haven't tried it all together!) making it a larger reference source of material on Irish coinage than many printed reference books.

So far it is about 30% complete - and several of the completed parts (the catalogues) require regular updating. I estimate the effort involved is about 2,500 hours. The current work rate averages out at about 4hours per week. -- And I wonder why I never have time to complete my book on Edward IV.

I believe that it is a worthwhile effort - (confirmations or contradictions will be treated with equal respect).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
History of Irish Coinage - with an on-line catalog and high resolution pictures

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Welcome to the website of the President of Ireland.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mary Robinson (born May 21, 1944, Ballina, County Mayo, Ireland) is an Irish lawyer, politician, and diplomat who served as the first woman president of Ireland (1990-97). She later was United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR; 1997-2002).

Robinson was educated at Trinity College and King's Inns in Dublin and at Harvard University in the United States. She served at Trinity College ( University of Dublin) as Reid Professor of penal legislation, constitutional and criminal law, and the law of evidence (1969-75) and lecturer in European Community law (1975-90). In 1988 she established (with her husband) at Trinity College the Irish Centre for European Law. A distinguished constitutional lawyer and a renowned supporter of human rights, she was elected to the Royal Irish Academy and was a member of the International Commission of Jurists in Geneva (1987-90). She sat in the Seanad (upper chamber of Parliament) for the Trinity College constituency (1969-89) and served as whip for the Labour Party until resigning from the party over the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985, which she felt ignored unionist objections. She was also a member of the Dublin City Council (1979-83) and ran unsuccessfully in 1977 and 1981 for Dublin parliamentary constituencies.

Nominated by the Labour Party and supported by the Green Party and the Workers' Party, Robinson became Ireland's first woman president in 1990 by mobilizing a liberal constituency and merging it with a more conservative constituency opposed to the Fianna Fáil party. As president, Robinson adopted a much more prominent role than her predecessors, and she did much to communicate a more modern image of Ireland. Strongly committed to human rights, she was the first head of state to visit Somalia after it suffered from civil war and famine in 1992 and the first to visit Rwanda after the genocide in that country in 1994. Shortly before her term as president expired, she took up the post of UNHCHR. As high commissioner, Robinson changed the priorities of her office to emphasize the promotion of human rights at the national and regional levels; she was the first UNHCHR to visit China, and she also helped to improve the monitoring of human rights in Kosovo. In 2001 Robinson served as secretary-general of the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, held in Durban, South Africa. ( See also Sidebar: Children and Human Rights.) In 1998 she was elected chancellor of Trinity College; she held the post until 2019.

After stepping down as UNHCHR, Robinson founded the nongovernmental organization Realizing Rights: The Ethical Globalization Initiative (2002-10). Its central concerns included equitable international trade, access to health care, migration, women's leadership, and corporate responsibility. She was also a founding member of the Council of Women World Leaders, served as honorary president of Oxfam International (a private organization that provides relief and development aid to impoverished or disaster-stricken communities worldwide), and was a member of the Club of Madrid (which promotes democracy). She also held various posts at the UN, and in 2010 she established the Mary Robinson Foundation-Climate Justice, which operated until 2019.

Robinson was the recipient of numerous honours. In 2004 Amnesty International awarded her its Ambassador of Conscience award for her human rights work, and she later received the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom (2009). Robinson's memoir, Everybody Matters: My Life Giving Voice (cowritten with Tessa Robinson), was published in 2012.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mary Robinson, Irish lawyer, politician, and diplomat who served as president of Ireland (1990-97), the first woman to hold that post. She later was United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (1997-2002). Learn more about Robinson's life and career, including her other posts and various honors.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(born 1944). Mary Robinson was the first woman to become president of Ireland. She later worked as United Nations Commissioner for Human Rights. Her work in this area earned...

# data[].attributes.body
Mary Robinson

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mary Robinson has been elected Ireland's seventh president. There have been congratulations from President Patrick Hillery, An Taoiseach, Charles Haughey, Brian Lenihan, the Northern Ireland Secretary, Peter Brooke, among others.

Report shows Mary Robinson giving a speech after her election.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mary Robinson has been elected Ireland's seventh president. There have been congratulations from President Patrick Hillery, An Taoiseach, Charles Haughey, Brian Lenihan, the Northern Ireland Secretary, Peter Brooke, among others. Report shows Mary Robinson giving a speech after her election.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Mary Robinson becomes the first female president of Ireland in a ceremony at Dublin Castle.

In her address, Mary Robinson says that a new Ireland is emerging, one that will be more tolerant and more inclusive.

The Ireland I will be representing is a new Ireland - open, tolerant, inclusive.

While her primary role will be to represent the Irish state, she would also like to represent the 70 million people around the world who claim Irish descent. Mary Robinson hopes that Áras an Uachtaráin will be a place where representatives of the emigrant communities can meet annually.

Mary Robinson was president from 1990 to 1997. She resigned shortly before her term was due to expire to become UN High Commissioner for Human Rights.

The Presidential Inauguration was broadcast on 3 December 1990.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mary Robinson becomes the first female president of Ireland in a ceremony at Dublin Castle.

# data[].attributes.body
Digitised materials-drawings, photos, posters etc.