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A portrait by William Hensel depicted Rahel Levin Varnhagen, one of the first widely accepted intellectual Jewish women who played an integral role in spreading Jewish thought during the Salons.

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The Berlin Salons (Late 18th and 19th Century)

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The Berlin Salons (Late 18th and 19th Century)

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Berlin salons that developed in the late 18th century owe their existence and development to Jewish women.

They resulted from the interrelation between the German enlightenment, Haskalah, and young, educated Jewish women from well-off families that wanted a role in life outside of the patriarchal structures of their families.

Such salons have been criticized for being a symptom of failing Jewish tradition, but they also have been welcomed as a phenomenon of emancipation and acculturation.

They have highlighted salon culture and the process of women’s emancipation in Germany.

In the mid-18th century, social classes in Berlin remained strictly separated and Jews were discriminated against by Prussian law and were socially stigmatized.

The rich yet small Jewish upper class in Berlin had a protected status in exchange for the financial and economic services to the crown they provided. After the end of the Seven Years War their lifestyle became aristocratic. Daughters of these families became the first Jewish salon women.

Most important were - the Itzig daughters: Sara Levy in Berlin, and Fanny von Arnstein in Vienna.

The very first Berlin salons by Jewish women though, were of the more modest Bildungsbürgertum model, which later became common for Berlin salons.

Starting in 1780, Christians and Jews sat together at the tea-tables of gifted and enthusiastic (upper) middle-class Jewish women who had grown up in the Mendelssohn era. Many enjoyed an excellent education, and others developed a passion for reading and learning on their own, with help from their husbands and friends (such as Henriette Herz and Rahel Levin Varnhagen.)

Henriette Herz can be regarded as the first salonnière in Berlin.

Salon circles welcomed the American fight for freedom and early stages of the French Revolution

Berlin Salons: Late Eighteenth to Early Twentieth Century | Jewish Women's Archive (jwa.org)

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A widespread text, The Jewish Unions in America: Pages of History and Memories, depicts first and second-hand descriptions from the German rabbinical conferences. This book stands as a testament to Jewish will, as even in a country where Jews were oppressed, a book on Jewish thought and history could be made and preserved.

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The German Rabbinical Conferences (1837-1871)

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The German Rabbinical Conferences (1837-1871)

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-Idea of a synod to provide authoritative guidance and meet current needs of Jews in the area led to rabbinic conferences in Germany in mid-19th century.

-In Wiesbaden in 1837, Abraham Geiger called a convention to discuss proposals for reform, but led to no practical results.

-Conference led by Ludwig Philippson met in Brunswick in 1844 was attended by 25 reform rabbis, including Geiger and Samuel Holdheim. No substantial resolutions passed, and the conference was attacked by all sectors. Orthodox protested against rejection of Jewish tradition, Philippson regretted theorizing instead of practical solutions, and Zacharias Frankel criticized discussions and results.

-Afterwards 116 Orthodox rabbis declared nobody could “abrogate the least of the religious laws.”

-In 1845, 31 rabbis, now including Frankel, met at Frankfurt on the Main. Three representatives of the Reform Association of Berlin said their purpose was to strengthen Judaism by rescuing it from legalistic stagnation and adapting it to modern needs, making it more attractive to the new generation.

-A third conference took place in 1846 at Breslau which was attended by 25 rabbis.

-In 1868 24 rabbis met in Kassel to prepare a “synod” and decide on a number of liturgical reforms.

-The “synod” assembling at Leipzig in 1869 consisted of 49 lay and 34 rabbinical delegates from 60 communities. It dealt with Jewish education, liturgical reforms, and other questions.

-In 1871, the “synod” in Augsburg was attended by representatives from only 30 communities. Its resolutions covered marriage, halizah*, and other things. 133 Orthodox rabbis published a strong protest, claiming that the participants were unfit to hold religious office.

-Neither “synod” came up to the expectations of its promoters, and no further meetings of the kind were convened in Germany.

Rabbinical Conferences (jewishvirtuallibrary.org)

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A 1903 pogrom of Jewish leaders meeting to address the possible creation of a Jewish state to prevent attacks from Russian forces. Many of these meetings would happen in secrecy as Russia was fully against the idea of the formation of a large Jewish union or possible state. These meetings would work to improve Jewish life under Russian oppression and act as a place the faithful could practice.

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Under the rule of Nicholas 1, Tsar of Russia, policies towards Jewish communities fluctuated between acts of liberation and suppression, making the period around the 1880s very volatile for Jews.

Pogrom - A word meaning to wreak havoc in Russia and was historically used as a term to refer to violent attacks on Jewish people in Russia.

To counteract the suppression of the Russian government, the Russian Haskalah group, comprising critical Jewish figures, made a deal to allow the integration of Russian Jews into society. This deal was relatively weak, though, making Jews fear Russian resistance could break out again, harming Jewish communities. Under this deal, members of the Haskalah worked with essential groups such as the Ministry of Education to develop state-sponsored systems to improve secular and religious learning in Jewish schools.

As the Haskalah movement progressed, adding secular education and Russian teaching, many traditional Jews, especially Hasidic groups, began to speak up in opposition. These groups did not like the government controlling what Jews learned, as they believed secular learning was an invitation to convert Jews to Russian Orthodoxy. This led to fewer Jewish children going to these schools.

Nicholas I, would go on to create Jewish conscription policies that forced Jewish boys and men from ages 12-18 forcing them to work 25 years of “Russification” aimed at converting them.

In 1881, the assassination of the Tsar led to a revolution that occurred in Jewish communities throughout Russia. While the assassination went unproven, many Jews were blamed even though, in actuality, only one jew, Hasia Helfman, was in attendance. In April of 1881, the first pogrom or anti-Jewish riot began in Elisavetgrad, starting what would become thousands of riots throughout every part of Russia against the existence of Jews.

Officials in the Russian government set their scope on the exploitation of Jews by passing measures to remove Jews from the countryside and bring them to urban areas(a place where pogrom rioters could get to them) and restricting all Jewish commerce and trade. These measures would be called the “May Laws,” which many Jewish philosophers saw as legislative pogroms, revealing even the government was against the survival of Jews in Russia.

Honors - Primary Source

https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jews-and-revolution-in-nineteenthcentury-russia/pogroms-of-18811882/3D8D76FD2AAEA1EF42DC5EC442193801

The pogroms of the 1880s have become an example of Jewish national consciousness and Zionism.

Haskalah, during The Pogroms, was a sudo-revolution that broke away from assimilationist tendencies forgoing Russian life for the upkeep of traditional values.

Maskilim - A person versed in Hebrew or Yiddish literature.

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This is a picture from a novel published soon after the Dreyfus Affair. It highlights the effect it had on Dreyfus, his family, and the Jewish community as a whole. The drawing itself depicts Dreyfus and his wife at the door speaking with another woman. Through the separation between Dreyfus and the woman, the painting reveals a disconnect between the accused man and the community at large.

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In 1894, Dreyfus was arrested and accused of spying. He was accused of selling French military secrets to the Germans

Dreyfus was a rich Jew from Alsace which is on the border of France, it was ceded to Germany. After, Dreyfus moved to Paris. This caused a lot of conspiracy if Dreyfus was German or French and if he was loyal to his country.

Colonel Henry, a French military intelligence agent, stated that he had information that proved that Dreyfus was guilty, but this information could not be revealed since it was a military secret.
Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil’s Island.

In March 1896, the French discovered another piece of paper in the same German office which declared that someone else was giving French military secrets away. It couldn’t be Dreyfus since he was imprisoned on Devil’s Island. Handwriting experts traced it to another officer, Walter Esterhazy.

After learning about this. Colonel Henry feared that the army’s credibility was at stake. A group of liberal senators charged the army with “undermining one of the very foundations of republican government, equality before the law,” and they demanded a retrial.

The army had no choice but to bring Esterhazy to court and despite evidence against him, the army voted to protect him.

The Dreyfus affair became a national public scandal. The press was filled with papers on both sides.

The Military court called Henry and demanded the secret Dreyfus evidence that exiled him. The evidence was exposed as a forgery and Henry was thrown in jail where he later killed himself.

The Dreyfus affair is an example of Anti-semitism in Europe. Even though Dreyfus was an assimilated Jew, people viewed him as an outsider.

https://www.jstor.org/site/johnshopkins/alfred-dreyfus-collection/lecalvaireduninnocent-34495909/?so=item_title_str_asc&searchkey=1713270258092

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A political cartoon from the time depicting the oppression of Jews and showcasing the world's outrage toward the undeserved mistreatment Jews suffered during the Pogrom had to undergo. 

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1. 1903, Kishineff Russia

4.  Jews began to grow and become more integrated into russian society

3. The massacre was organized and started by  local and central authorities who were backed by the minister.

3. There was also civilian participation which was the result of relentless propaganda led by  P. Krushevan, head of a russian newspaper

2. It was kicked off by the body of a young christian woman was found in a jewish hospital having committed suicide.

3. The newspapers circulated stories about it and it led to a riot which escalated

2. Resulted in Over 2,000 displaced families, 49 dead, over 500 injuries

4. Sparked the first jewish protest in america

The russian gov wouldn’t take the petition so it was sent to the vault as public literature

political cartoon from the time showcasing the world's outrage

Honors - Primary Source

https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/russian-immigration-table

This is a document from the american national archives from the years 1901-1906

It shows the number of immigrants from russia under ethnicity

Theres hebrew, polish, finnish, lithuanian, german, russian,

It shows the number of hebrew immigrants from russia is consistently the highest demographic

after 1903 the number goes from around 40,000 to 77,000 and then almost 100,000 the next year

Underneath the survey it notes about the kishinev pogrom program and how every other noted group’s immigration decreased while the jewish numbers skyrocketed

It also talks about the economic conditions caused by the pogroms for both jews and the polish and lithuanians

https://www.docsteach.org/documents/document/russian-immigration-table

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/kishinev-moldova

https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-kishinev-massacre-judaic-treasures

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A klezmer band playing for a Jewish wedding in the Shtetl. A painting originally by Isaak Asknaziy, who wanted to show the communal power and beauty of the Jewish people, especially in the Shtetl, a place he lived much of his life.

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The Shtetl, a Yiddish term for a small Jewish town or village, played a significant role in Eastern European Jewish history. Life in the Shtetl was characterized by close-knit communities, religious observance, and a strong sense of tradition. Here's an overview of the history of life in the Shtetl:

Origins: The Shtetl culture emerged in the late Middle Ages as Jews settled in Eastern Europe, particularly in the areas of present-day Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. These settlements often began as agricultural communities but evolved into centers of Jewish culture, religion, and commerce.

Community Life: Shtetl communities were tightly knit, with residents often sharing familial ties and common religious practices. Social life revolved around the synagogue, where Jews gathered for prayer, study, and communal events. The rabbi and other religious leaders played central roles in guiding the community.

Economic Activities: Many Shtetls were primarily agricultural, with Jews engaging in farming, livestock raising, and small-scale trade. However, due to legal restrictions in many regions, Jews were often barred from owning land and were instead involved in crafts, commerce, and moneylending. This economic activity contributed to the stereotype of Jews as urban traders and artisans.

Religious Life: Religious observance was central to Shtetl life, with adherence to Jewish law and tradition guiding daily activities. The synagogue served as the focal point for religious practice, and the study of Jewish texts was highly valued. Religious festivals and rituals were celebrated with enthusiasm, providing opportunities for community bonding and spiritual reflection.

Education and Culture: Shtetl communities placed a strong emphasis on education, particularly in religious studies. Cheders (religious elementary schools) provided basic education in Hebrew and Jewish texts, while yeshivas offered more advanced study for boys. Girls typically received education in domestic skills and religious instruction at home. Despite limited resources, Shtetls were centers of Jewish culture, producing renowned scholars, writers, and artists.

Social Structure: Shtetl society was hierarchical, with wealthy merchants and intellectuals occupying the upper ranks, while craftsmen, laborers, and the poor made up the lower classes. Social status was often determined by wealth, education, and religious piety. Matchmaking and arranged marriages were common practices, with family connections and reputations playing significant roles.

Challenges and Persecution: Life in the Shtetl was not without its challenges. Jews faced discrimination, economic hardship, and periodic outbreaks of violence, including pogroms (organized attacks) by anti-Semitic groups. Legal restrictions, such as the Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire, confined Jews to specific regions and limited their opportunities for advancement.

https://research.ebsco.com/c/o4lrj5/viewer/pdf/a6jmldll55

https://www.jstor.org/site/johnshopkins/alfred-dreyfus-collection/lecalvaireduninnocent-34495909/?so=item_title_str_asc&searchkey=1713189399405

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600px-Исаак_Аскназий_Еврейская_свадьба