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(late 13th century–15th century) The Ottoman Empire began as a small Anatolian principality and expanded into a major Islamic empire. By the 15th century, it became a dominant force in the eastern Mediterranean.

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The Black Death was a bubonic plague that occurred in Europe from 1347 to 1351. It was one of the most fatal pandemics in human history

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(1300s–1800s, but cooling noticeable from the 14th century) A period of cooler temperatures caused shorter growing seasons, crop failures, and famines. It contributed to social unrest and economic challenges, especially in Europe and parts of North Africa.

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4. Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (1453)

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4. Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (1453)

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The fall of Constantinople, which occurred on May 29, 1453 was the final phase of the Byzantine-Ottoman Wars

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5-Expulsion of Jews from Spain; Columbus departs west

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5-Expulsion of Jews from Spain; Columbus departs west

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(1492) Spain expelled its Jewish population under the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. In the same year, Columbus, sailing for Spain, began his transatlantic voyage, initiating European colonization of the Americas.

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6.Ottomans conquer Egypt and take Mecca and Medina (1517)

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6.Ottomans conquer Egypt and take Mecca and Medina (1517)

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The Ottoman–Mamluk War was the second major conflict between the Egypt-based Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire

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7-Philip II rules Spain; Habsburg control peaks in western Mediterranean 

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7-Philip II rules Spain; Habsburg control peaks in western Mediterranean 

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(1556–1598)Philip II presided over Spain’s global empire at its height, including territories in Europe, the Americas, and the Philippines. The Habsburgs dominated Mediterranean politics and trade during this period.

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8.Battle of Lepanto—Spanish-led fleet defeats Ottomans (1571)

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8.Battle of Lepanto—Spanish-led fleet defeats Ottomans (1571)

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The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement that took place on 7 October 1571 when a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of Catholic states arranged by Pope Pius V, inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras.

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9- Ottoman-Habsburg wars drain both empires

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9- Ottoman-Habsburg wars drain both empires

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(16th–17th centuries) Prolonged warfare between the Ottoman and Habsburg empires weakened both sides, consuming resources and leading to military stalemates and internal decline.

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10. Atlantic empires rise: Dutch, English, and French dominate global trade (17th–18th centuries)

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10. Atlantic empires rise: Dutch, English, and French dominate global trade (17th–18th centuries)

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The Atlantic Revolutions (19 April 1775 – 4 December 1838) were numerous revolutions in the Atlantic World in the late 18th and early 19th century, which formed a significant portion of the Age of Revolution

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11- Coal-based industrial economy begins in northwest Europe 

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11- Coal-based industrial economy begins in northwest Europe 

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(late 18th century)
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, fueled by coal and innovations in manufacturing. This transformed economies, societies, and environments, giving Europe a significant global advantage.

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12. Napoleon invades Egypt—launches new phase of European imperialism (1798)

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12. Napoleon invades Egypt—launches new phase of European imperialism (1798)

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The French invasion of Egypt in 1798 was a military expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolutionary Wars. The campaign aimed to undermine British trade routes, expand French influence, and establish a scientific and administrative presence in Egypt.