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https://humanparts.medium.com/laziness-does-not-exist-3af27e312d01

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I' ve been a psychology professor since 2012. In the past six years, I've witnessed students of all ages procrastinate on papers, skip presentation days, miss assignments, and let due dates fly by. I've seen promising prospective grad students fail to get applications in on time; I've watched PhD candidates take months or years revising a single dissertation draft; I once had a student who enrolled in the same class of mine two semesters in a row, and never turned in anything either time.

I don't think laziness was ever at fault.

Ever.

In fact, I don't believe that laziness exists.

I'm a social psychologist, so I'm interested primarily in the situational and contextual factors that drive human behavior. When you're seeking to predict or explain a person's actions, looking at the social norms, and the person's context, is usually a pretty safe bet. Situational constraints typically predict behavior far better than personality, intelligence, or other individual-level traits.

So when I see a student failing to complete assignments, missing deadlines, or not delivering results in other aspects of their life, I'm moved to ask: what are the situational factors holding this student back? What needs are currently not being met?And, when it comes to behavioral "laziness," I'm especially moved to ask: what are the barriers to action that I can't see?

There are always barriers. Recognizing those barriers- and viewing them as legitimate - is often the first step to breaking "lazy" behavior patterns.

It's really helpful to respond to a person's ineffective behavior with curiosity rather than judgment. I learned this from a friend of mine, the writer and activist Kimberly Longhofer (who publishes under the name Mik Everett). Kim is passionate about the acceptance and accommodation of disabled people and homeless people. Their writing about both subjects is some of the most illuminating, bias-busting work I've ever encountered. Part of that is because Kim is brilliant, but it's also because at various points in their life, Kim has been both disabled and homeless.

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I've been a psychology professor since 2012. I've witnessed students of all ages procrastinate on papers, skip presentation days, and miss assignments. None of them were lazy. Ever.

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https://twitter.com/rissachem/status/1557961986775822336?s=21&t=moiY6H4HdSGB6rND5Z58yQ

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@DrCJSobers Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested  with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…
https://t.co/lapTaS98eb

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The Power of Feedback - John Hattie, Helen Timperley, 2007

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Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mention...

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@DrCJSobers Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested  with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…
https://t.co/lapTaS98eb

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And for Ch.4 and the temporary pause in this thread, let's talk feedback. Is there research about the order of positive vs constructive feedback? There has to be. I'll look it up...eventually.

I love the idea of doing a Jigsaw but for skills (my words not Starr's) 8/

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Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…https://t.co/lapTaS98eb
— Rissa Sorensen-Unruh (@RissaChem) August 12, 2022

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@DrCJSobers Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested  with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…
https://t.co/lapTaS98eb

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.entities.urls[].title
The Power of Feedback - John Hattie, Helen Timperley, 2007

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.entities.urls[].description
Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mention...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.includes.tweets[].text
And for Ch.4 and the temporary pause in this thread, let's talk feedback. Is there research about the order of positive vs constructive feedback? There has to be. I'll look it up...eventually.

I love the idea of doing a Jigsaw but for skills (my words not Starr's) 8/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.original_text
@DrCJSobers Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested  with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…
https://t.co/lapTaS98eb

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.text
@DrCJSobers Oh yes. There’s research on good feedback. It’s why I specifically say we need to give positive, clear, task-focused feedback that is interpreted by the end user as the giver intended.

If you’re really interested  with Hattie and Timperley (2007)…
https://t.co/lapTaS98eb

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].title
The Power of Feedback - John Hattie, Helen Timperley, 2007

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].description
Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mention...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.referenced_tweets[].text
And for Ch.4 and the temporary pause in this thread, let's talk feedback. Is there research about the order of positive vs constructive feedback? There has to be. I'll look it up...eventually.

I love the idea of doing a Jigsaw but for skills (my words not Starr's) 8/

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https://keepteaching.unc.edu/flexibility-with-boundaries/

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Flexible pedagogical practices that recognize diverse learner needs and situations have the potential to foster not only student and instructor wellness, but also student thriving. To be most effective, though, absence, extension, and missed-work policies must have clear and well-defined boundaries. Otherwise, even well-intentioned flexible course frameworks can quickly become too taxing for faculty and/or too unstructured for students.

This resource provides a series of scenarios with tips and approaches as well as related model scripts that can be used on course syllabi.

General Acknowledgement of Flexible Learning

Scenario: You want to be flexible with your students, but you're worried about them taking advantage of your compassion.
Tips & Approaches:

Determine what flexibility you're comfortable allowing from the outset and develop policies that are mindful of both student needs and your own.

Communicate policies and expectations clearly to your students via Class Features in Connect Carolina, in the syllabus, during the first session, and often during the term .

Reiterate your policies and goals consistently and frequently throughout the course.

Discuss statements and policies with department colleagues for consistency and support.

Consider your resources: how can you leverage TA or IA support? What university resources are available?

Use a welcoming and collegial tone; avoid assertively punitive language.

Consult and collaborate with unit leadership about department-wide expectations.

Be open to co-constructing a flexibility statement with the class at the beginning of the term.

Include information about and contact information for UNC's Accessibility Resources and Services (ARS) office.

Sample Syllabus Text
We all come to this course with a variety of experiences, responsibilities, needs, and feelings. This means we have much to learn from each other, but it also means that we may all learn differently and at different paces. I practice a "whole learner" approach to instruction. This means that all learners in our classroom (myself included) are not just students/instructors, but people with outside lives that will both inform and possibly sometimes interfere with this class. As such, the course policies below offer options for seeking extensions, making up missed classes, and taking an incomplete (IN grade) in the course. All of these policies offer flexibility, but also ask for accountability. Both are integral to creating a productive learning experience for our entire classroom community.

Extensions & Missed Work

Scenario: A student requests an extension on an assignment or assessment.
Tips & Approaches:

Decide before the first day of class what assignments are eligible for extensions and clearly detail all applicable policies in the syllabus. For example, you might allow paper assignments to be turned in late without explanation, but not allow for quiz/text make-ups for unapproved absences. Or, you might allow extensions on any course work, but only for a pre-determined time frame.

Avoid open-ended extensions; you or the student should determine an alternate submission date.

If you're teaching a large class with recitation sections, work with TAs to standardize extension policies.

For low-stakes assessments, consider a generous "drop" or "oops token" policy that allows students to show progress toward outcomes but still allows room for temporary underperformance or missing work.

Communicate policies and expectations clearly to your students via via Class Features in Connect Carolina, in the syllabus, during the first session, and often during the term.

Maximize University Resources, such as the Undergraduate Testing Center

Create a system for tracking extension requests and/or late submissions (e.g. with Google Forms, Qualtrics, or MS Bookings). Such systems can also be managed by TAs or IAs.

Consider student privacy rights and needs when determining whether to require students to provide a reason for extension requests.

Consult and collaborate with unit leadership about department-wide expectations, strategies, support, and/or policies.

Sample Syllabus Text #1:
Our due dates in this class are not arbitrary. The course's pacing is designed to help you make steady and productive progress toward the learning objectives, so all work should ideally be submitted by the specified due dates. A 10% per day penalty may be applied to any work not submitted at the specified due date unless I have been notified in advance of the due date (or as soon as possible after the due date if there are extenuating circumstances) via this form that you need an extension. Then, please use this form to inform me that work has been submitted after the due date. Work will be graded within 3 business days of form submission.

Sample Syllabus Text #2:
I assign due dates for class assignments because they afford the course structure and become natural milestones for course progress. Assignments will be accepted up to four days late, with a 20% penalty for each day late. If you know something will be late, or are otherwise struggling, please let me know you need an extension at least 24 hours before it is due. It can be as simple as "Would it be possible to submit this assignment on Thursday instead of Wednesday?" I don't need proof that you "need" extra time, and chances are, I will give you the extension.
Sample Syllabus Text #3:
Sample Syllabus Text #4:
Sometimes things happen that get in the way of your best intentions to complete an assignment on time, study for an exam, or simply do homework prior to class. To account for the unexpected Tips & Approaches: situations in a way that is caring and flexible, I am implementing the use of "life tokens," which Engagement is the heart of this course, as it is how we learn the most from each other; therefore, it is imperative that all students attend class and actively contribute ideas and reflections. Class session attendance is required and will be a part of your course grade as outlined on the syllabus. For each class session, please: are a set number of "cards" or "passes" that give you the opportunity to redo an assignment or Also, this course is designed to be in person, so attending in-person/synchronously will likely provide the best class experience. However, I realize that in-person/synchronous attendance is not always possible, so class sessions will be live-streamed and recorded (participation will not be available during the course). If you cannot attend a class session for any reason, you can watch the live-stream/recording and complete an alternate assignment to earn the same participation credit as in-person/synchronous attendance. To complete this assignment: retake a quiz with no questions asked. "Life tokens" can soften the impact of class policies in Participation will be evaluated via various assignment submissions during class (LMS assignments, PollEverywhere polls, paper to be turned in). There will be at least one (but possibly more) submissions each class session, and each submission (even if on the same day) will be counted separately. Some assignments will be individual; others will be collaborative. If you are watching the live stream of our class session, you may complete individual participation assignments, but not collaborative assignments; assignments are only available during class, so they cannot be submitted when watching a recorded class. ways that avoid negatively impacting your overall grade in lieu of an unexpected event, because as we all know: life doesn't stop for school work! There will be "guided readings" for many of the assigned readings in this course. Guided readings are essentially open-book quizzes on key points from the texts. The goal of these guided readings is to make sure that these key points catch your attention, perhaps for further consideration in other unit activities. Guided readings are not timed, and the lowest 5 guided reading scores will not count toward your final course grade. Submissions that are not received because of unapproved absence, technical problems, etc., will be a part of the 5 scores that are not counted unless you have a University Approved Absence (please see full University Approved Absence policy above). Tips & Approaches:
Attendance and Participation

Scenario: A student asks to attend one or more classes remotely, even though the course is taught primarily in person.

Set expectations ahead of time regarding if/when/how accessing class live-streams and/or recordings will be allowed and how accessing these alternate options will impact any attendance grading. For example, you might decide alternate options for class viewing and attendance points are only allowed in emergencies (a student is ill, there is a family emergency, etc.); or you might not allow remote or make-up attendance, but you could still record all your class sessions and post them to Panopto for students to access as a review resource.

Communicate policies and expectations clearly to your students via Class Features in Connect Carolina, in the syllabus, during the first session, and often during the term .

If participation grading is linked to attendance, clarify what participation options are available during live-streamed and/or recorded sessions.

Clarify what the live-stream/recording experience will/won't be (i.e., will live-stream students be allowed to engage with the in-person students or chat with each other?)

Create alternate attendance assignments that encourage students to interact meaningfully with the class recording.

Include a link to the University Approved Absence policy and form on the syllabus in the LMS (Sakai/Canvas).

Consult and collaborate with unit leadership about department-wide expectations, strategies, support, and/or policies.

Arrive on time and stay for the entire session

Participate actively by asking questions and/or contributing comments. In order to receive full credit for a session, please make/post at least two relevant and constructive comments during the session. Poll participation will count toward the requirements. All comments in small groups/pairs participation will not count in this requirement; however, by joining a group, you will receive credit for one comment/contribution.

1. Watch the full live stream/class recording (available within 24 hours of the session)

2. Write a 1-2 paragraph summary of the session. This summary should include at least 3 quotes from classmates from throughout the session.

3. Write a 1-2 paragraph reflection on the session: How did the session help you better understand the course material? What did you learn from your classmates that you hadn't considered before? What would you add to the discussion (provide at least 2 comments and indicate where you would have offered them).

4. Submit the summary and reflection in a single document within 5 business days of the missed class session.

To receive credit for PollEverywhere polls, you must be registered and you must have proper access to UNC's wireless. Please carefully review the instructions on registering for PollEverywhere to familiarize yourself with the process.

Each submission is worth 3 points. Full credit is given if we see 100% effort and > 50% accuracy; less than full credit may be given if less than 100% effort is seen.

85% of your best submissions will be counted. Submissions that are not received because of unapproved absence, technical problems, etc. will be a part of the 15% which is not counted unless you have a University Approved Absence (please see full University Approved Absence policy above).

Incomplete (IN) Grades

Scenario: A student tells you that they are struggling with keeping up during finals due to family or other personal concerns and asks what options are available for finishing up the course.

Determine a specific amount of work a student must ideally complete before requesting the incomplete and include this information on the syllabus.

Require students to submit a detailed work plan with specific deadlines when requesting an incomplete.

Set clear expectations for post-semester interaction (meeting frequency, grading timelines, etc.) to make clear that you will not be "re-teaching" missed material.

Direct students to applicable university grading policies.

Consult and collaborate with unit leadership about department-wide expectations, strategies, support, and/or policies.

Sample Syllabus Text
Wrapping up a course on time at the end of a semester is a satisfying feeling; it's also often necessary for graduation or other academic progress requirements. However, I realize that circumstances may make this on-time finish unrealistic. Therefore, I'm willing to give an incomplete grade (IN) for students who:

Have completed at least 50% of the course assignments (by number, not weight, i.e. if a paper is worth 50% of the grade, but we also have 20 quizzes in the class, completing just the paper doesn't meet the requirement).

Submit an incomplete request Qualtrics form with a detailed work plan and timeline for completing all outstanding work. This work plan should accompany the incomplete request unless extenuating circumstances prevent it.

Provide email documentation of communication with an academic advisor regarding the student's intention to take an IN and any potential academic eligibility impact thereof.

Thanks to syllabus text contributors:

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Flexible pedagogical practices that recognize diverse learner needs and situations have the potential to foster not only student and instructor wellness, but also student thriving. To be most effective, though, absence, extension, and missed-work policies must have clear and well-defined boundaries. Otherwise, even well-intentioned flexible course frameworks can quickly become too taxing for faculty and/or too unstructured for students.

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WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW

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Facing History and Ourselves + Pear Deck — Pear Deck

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As we return to school this year, Pear Deck has partnered with Facing History and Ourselves to help build community and trust within classrooms — both physical and virtual. With these ready-to-teach, interactive lessons, educators can foster a sense of belonging and prioritize social-emotional learn

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WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW

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WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW
— ☮️Alfredo Silva (Teach4Justice) (@2teach4justice) August 7, 2022

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Facing History and Ourselves + Pear Deck — Pear Deck

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.entities.urls[].description
As we return to school this year, Pear Deck has partnered with Facing History and Ourselves to help build community and trust within classrooms — both physical and virtual. With these ready-to-teach, interactive lessons, educators can foster a sense of belonging and prioritize social-emotional learn

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.text
WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.original_text
WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.text
WOAH. @PearDeck and @facinghistory just saved me a bunch of time figuring out how to present these lessons week one. If you plan to start the year with relationship and community building this is amazing stuff. Thank you https://t.co/KiHk279bLW

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].title
Facing History and Ourselves + Pear Deck — Pear Deck

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].description
As we return to school this year, Pear Deck has partnered with Facing History and Ourselves to help build community and trust within classrooms — both physical and virtual. With these ready-to-teach, interactive lessons, educators can foster a sense of belonging and prioritize social-emotional learn

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The RIOS Institute provides resources for STEM education and organization leaders to implement social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion (SJEDI)-centered Open Education and Open Science pedagogy, materials, and resources. We work with and provide support for leaders to bring change to their communities and members of their organizations. Read more about Our Mission, and learn !

As we work towards equity and justice in STEM Education, the RIOS Institute promotes collaboration among the network of leaders we serve. We offer two primary opportunities, Working Groups and Learning Communities.

Have an exciting idea? We will be accepting proposals for new Working Groups and Learning Communities in May 2022.
Join us for 2 new Learning Communities in Spring 2022!
Open Education Practices Grounded in Social Justice: This learning community will meet for 6 sessions, on Mondays at 4pm (EST) from March 14 - April 18 via Zoom. To learn more and register, see the full announcement here.

Difficult Dialogues of Social Inequities in STEM Classrooms: This learning community will meet for 5 sessions, from April 6 - May 31 via Zoom. To learn more and register, see the full announcement here.

Join the group and follow us at @RIOSCommunity on Twitter to stay updated on all news and announcements as we launch RIOS together!

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quantitative undergraduate biology education and synthesis

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The RIOS Institute provides resources for STEM education and organization leaders to implement social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion (SJEDI)-centered Open Education and Open Science pedagogy, materials, and resources. We work with and provide support for leaders to bring change to their communities and members of their organizations.

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Start by Trusting Students; Start by Trusting Teachers (Dearborn)

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https://twitter.com/wvupress/status/1549791928895553536?s=21&t=NCoggr4rT0q68_9pbOTkBA

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Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK

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Inclusive Teaching: An excerpt Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s new book

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Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s book Inclusive Teaching: Strategies for Promoting Equity in the College Classroom is new in West Virginia’s series Teaching and Learning in Higher Education…

# data[].attributes.wish_content.attachment_props.original_text
Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK https://t.co/Lt8i3oF2dQ

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Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK pic.twitter.com/Lt8i3oF2dQ
— WVU Press (@WVUPRESS) July 20, 2022

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.entities.urls[].title
Inclusive Teaching: An excerpt Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s new book

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.entities.urls[].description
Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s book Inclusive Teaching: Strategies for Promoting Equity in the College Classroom is new in West Virginia’s series Teaching and Learning in Higher Education…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props_source.data.text
Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK https://t.co/Lt8i3oF2dQ

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.original_text
Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK https://t.co/Lt8i3oF2dQ

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.text
Excited to share an excerpt from Inclusive Teaching, a much-anticipated book by @DrMrsKellyHogan and @vijisathy. It’s new in our higher education series with Michelle Miller and @LangOnCourse, and ships now when ordered from our site: https://t.co/TCz9RGm2iK

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].title
Inclusive Teaching: An excerpt Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s new book

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.metadata.attachment_props.entities.urls[].description
Kelly Hogan and Viji Sathy’s book Inclusive Teaching: Strategies for Promoting Equity in the College Classroom is new in West Virginia’s series Teaching and Learning in Higher Education…

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Viji Sathy on Purpose, Values, and Inclusion - the agile academic

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On this episode , I speak with Dr. Viji Sathy about purpose, values, and inclusion.

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https://hybridpedagogy.org/pedagogy-of-care-gone-massive/

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Sometimes, the most valuable thing we can offer our students is genuine care for them, their well-being, their happiness. Not just their grades. Not just their learning. But their whole selves.

This article is inspired by a discussion with a friend who suggested that medical ethics should not be about "do no harm" but rather about caring. As one who comes from a family of doctors, I often hear about how medical people sometimes focus on the body and forget to look at the whole person. The same reductionism can be found in education. bell hooks critiques this, calling for educators to engage with students' whole selves, with their souls. Inspired by her, Jesse Stommel and I recently wrote that in seeking to empower students, "teachers must...show the kind of care for the work that only comes when we make ourselves at least somewhat vulnerable."

It is one thing to do this in small classes, but a totally different thing to do it in larger classes, or even online on a massive scale in MOOCs.

I'd like to share a story from my personal experience teaching small classes of eight or so students, then compare it to connectivist MOOCs (aka cMOOCs, where learner engagement is distributed over multiple sites like blogs, Twitter and Facebook) in order to clarify the amount of effort that goes into a cMOOC facilitator behaving in caring ways and maintaining a caring pedagogy.

One day, my student Riham blogged that the most important thing she had learned in class that day was how a teacher can show care for her students. I had been late for class, attending the funeral of a friend's mother. I asked a colleague to meet my students before I came. I made sure not to tell them where I had been (they knew my friend so needed to know) until after class was over. Why? Because I knew that this particular student's mother had recently passed away, and I knew hearing news would affect her; I wanted to be there to hug her when she cried, and not put her through two hours of class time afterwards.

So let me step back from this situation. First of all, I had to know about this student's situation, because she had shared with me; I had to empathize with how it would make her feel, I had to imagine her reaction, and respond in a certain way, and I had to be ready to hug her.

Nel Noddings calls this attentive and receptive "engrossment" of a carer towards others. It also requires action from the cared-for to affirm they feel cared-for.

Now take this to a massive scale.

No, wait.

Even in a small class of eight, I would not normally know if anyone has lost a parent recently, especially on our second meeting of the semester. I actually only knew about this student's situation because I had taught her a year before and we got back in touch before the new semester started, and she had told me. In a normal situation, I would not have known.
Care requires personal knowledge of people. How do you achieve that in a MOOC? Care requires sharing Care requires choosing the most appropriate response Expressing care is sometimes physical. That part is not possible to do online. in the context at hand. How can you envision this on a massive scale? and empathy with others different from ourselves. How do you achieve this at a massive scale with diverse others?
Empathy. I had to recognize that the impact of news of someone else's mother might affect her the way it did. This might sound obvious to many people, but I honestly have to say that I did not fully realize what it meant to lose a parent until I lost my own father. I did not break down when it happened but a part of me was changed forever by the experience, and every time I hear of another person's parent's passing I feel it more profoundly than before-like one hundred times stronger.

I think the reason my student felt comfortable sharing personal information with me is that I do the same. I know about my students' children because I talk about my own child, for example.

I also needed to couple my empathy with action: behavior based on what I imagined her reaction would be. Empathy was imagining how she might feel, while compassion was acting in a way to support her.

And then, this one last thing which cannot be ignored or underestimated: the power of physical support. The power of the hug. Because in our culture it is not inappropriate for me to hug a female student, and also because I knew her well, I could hug her. I could not do it with a male student. I could not do it with a Western student.

But I am writing this article to suggest it is, in fact, possible to practice a pedagogy of care online, in a MOOC. And I will show you how I have experienced it.

In Rhizomatic Learning: The Community is the Curriculum (aka #rhizo14), some tension occurred during the Europe/Africa time zones involving, coincidentally, participants from that region. I remember Dave Cormier, the course facilitator, finding a long Facebook thread, and asking, "What's going on? Is there bullying happening here? Can someone email me what happened while I was asleep?" The participants had been trying to handle the tension amongst themselves (they were, after all, adult autonomous learners), but it still mattered that he cared to ask what was happening. Dave also surveyed participants midway through the MOOC to get feedback on how it was going.

In another MOOC, Connected Courses (aka #ccourses), Howard Rheingold (a co-facilitator) asked for participant feedback. He did this via two different synchronous sessions at different times to listen to participant suggestions on how to make the MOOC better for them, and made changes to the design and running of the MOOC accordingly.

Of course, they also had to observe, recognize that something needed to be done, and that is the hardest part of all, because at the potentially massive scale of a MOOC, you can only pay attention on so many platforms and to so many people. You cannot possibly know every individual or see every blog post, comment, or tweet. This often means that you will miss some things, and in missing them, miss entire consequences built upon them. So there will also always have to be a humility of "knowing we do not know." It is possible that someone enters your space and disrupts it in some way. And you need to realize as a facilitator that this could happen. If brought to your attention, you would probably want to act if it poses danger to participants and they are unable to handle it. Fortunately, most MOOCs and cMOOCs in particular target adults who are able to handle themselves.

Actually, cMOOCs are often more flexible than for-credit courses and are better at a form of care Nel Noddings emphasizes: "Caring teachers listen to [learners] and help them to acquire the knowledge and attitudes needed to achieve their goals, not those of a pre-established curriculum."

There are some incredible facilitators of MOOCs who somehow manage to keep their finger on the pulse. For example, in eLearning and Digital Cultures (aka #edcmooc), the team of facilitators often referred to participant posts by name during the weekly Google Hangouts. Some cMOOC facilitators like Howard Rheingold and Alan Levine in #ccourses make a point of commenting on blog posts of many participants. Some, like Mia Zamora, actively amplify participant posts via Twitter, and I try to mimic their practices when co-facilitating similar experiences. It is time-consuming but also very rewarding-it makes my participation so much more valuable to me even. The key thing about doing it regularly is this: You begin to know each participant as a person and not just as a blog by a faceless writer. You begin to know more about their background, personality, interests, and you get to also ask them more questions about themselves. I have found in MOOCs with many facilitators it is quite possible to have enough people who manage to do this, and amongst them, to cover a wide range of participants. But in a MOOC facilitated by someone alone, it is probably not humanly possible. Because even though in a MOOC like #ccourses only a few of the facilitators engaged fully with participants, the others were handling other parts of the course. I have often seen MOOC participants step in and take facilitator-like roles (this is not strange since I join MOOCs where participants are themselves educators in some other context).

If you want students to share of themselves, to make themselves vulnerable, you need to start with yourself, as bell hooks suggests. And I have seen MOOC facilitators do this. Dave Cormier blogs about explaining #rhizo14 to his son, and it made me comfortable to blog about my own parenting. Alan Levine blogs about his late mother and it makes me comfortable to blog about my late father. Mia Zamora blogs about her thinking behind her teaching, and I do something similar. It is both a kind of modeling, and a kind of opening up. If I feel I know them personally, I feel like I can open myself up to them, too.

Empathy is much more complicated, and for a MOOC with diverse participants, I think it requires sustained engagement with individuals and the building of one-on-one relationships, possibly through private conversation. Thus, it is probably impossible to empathize with hundreds of people of different cultures and backgrounds.

We all make mistakes.

I remember a mistake I made with regards to empathy in a small face-to-face class of around ten students. I am Egyptian but was mainly raised in Kuwait in British schools. I was teaching a class for teachers about the ethics of educational technology. One student (a senior science teacher in her school), talked about how traumatizing the secondary school exams had been for her and that she had cried once during an exam because it had been so hard. My immediate reaction was dismissive: "Why would you cry at an exam? So what that it's hard?" And I failed to recognize the sociocultural complexity of the anxiety these secondary exams imposed on people in Egypt. They were the one and only gateway to college for the majority. I had heard of it, but not experienced it first or even second hand. I couldn't sleep that night because of what I had done, and I sent an email to students apologizing for my reaction and promising to give the student time in the next class to tell her story more fully.

I have seen this in MOOCs as well-a facilitator doing something and later apologizing publicly. I have also admired facilitators who show their vulnerability and their recognition that they don't have all the answers, that they learn from participants. This post by Mimi Ito exemplifies this.

And so this is the thing: In caring, we won't always know all the answers, and we will make mistakes. In a small class we have easier opportunities to rectify our mistakes. In MOOCs, the scale and distances make it much more complex and complicated to show how we care. We will make mistakes. It will hurt us when we realize we have made them and hurt others. Very often, we do not realize we are making mistakes or hurting others, and in the massive scale and high speed of an active MOOC with diverse participants we are just starting to get to know, it is very difficult to notice everything with just two ears and two eyes and no extrasensory perception. Not everything is visible, some people prefer to keep some things private, and some messages are too subtle or nuanced for us to interpret them as intended. It helps if someone enlightens us when something is going wrong or we are making mistakes, to help us understand how we can make it better. But what if they don't, and we don't recognize this ourselves? Well, we are all only human.

Hybrid Pedagogy uses an open collaborative peer review process. This piece was reviewed by Valerie Robin and Rolin Moe.

[Photo, " Curl", by Fio licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0.]

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Sometimes, the most valuable thing we can offer our students is genuine care for them, their well-being, their happiness. Not just their grades. Not just their learning. But their whole selves. This article is inspired by a discussion with a friend who suggested that medical ethics should not be about

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Critical Citizenship for Critical Times

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Critical Citizenship for Critical Times” read by its author, Maha Bali. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web.

09:56

July 01, 2022

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Pedagogy as Protest” read by its author, Jessica Zeller. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web.

12:28

June 24, 2022

Assessing So That People Stop Killing Each Other

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Assessing So That People Stop Killing Each Other” read by its author, Asao B. Inoue. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

22:00

June 08, 2022

When One Class is Not Enough

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “When One Class is Not Enough” read by its author, Amanda Licastro. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

26:13

June 07, 2022

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads “From PhD to Poverty” by Tiffany Kirwan. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web.

09:18

May 31, 2022

N=1: A Social Scientific Inquiry into Happiness and Academic Labor

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads “N=1: A Social Scientific Inquiry into Happiness and Academic Labor” by Ioana Literat. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

11:24

April 08, 2022

A Soliloquy on Contingency

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “A Soliloquy on Contingency” read by its author, Joseph P. Fisher. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

13:44

April 01, 2022

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “On Silence” read by its author, Audrey Watters. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

10:33

March 25, 2022

Do You Trust Your Students?

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Do You Trust Your Students?” read by its author, Amy A. Hasinoff. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

12:55

March 18, 2022

Confessions of a Subversive Student

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Confessions of a Subversive Student” read by its author, Leif Nelson. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

13:41

March 11, 2022

Trust, Agency, and Learning

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Trust, Agency, and Learning” read by its author, Jesse Stommel (@jessifer). The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

11:02

March 04, 2022

Pedagogical Violence and Language Dominance

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Pedagogical Violence and Language Dominance” read by its author, Maggie Melo. The piece is Chapter Nine from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

24:22

February 10, 2022

Messy and Chaotic Learning

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Messy and Chaotic Learning” read by its author, Martha Fay Burtis. The piece is Chapter Eight from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

26:21

January 31, 2022

Seeking Patterns, Making Meaning

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Seeking Patterns, Making Meaning: Digital Life in the Tangerine Era” read by its author, Sherri Spelic. The piece is Chapter Seven from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

16:39

December 26, 2021

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads “Learning to Let Go: Listening to Students in Discussion,” Chapter Six from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

09:51

December 02, 2021

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads “The Process of Becoming” by Marisol Brito and Alexander Fink, Chapter Five from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. The episode cover art is “Crayons” from Rafael J M Souza on Flickr. The theme music, cover art, the chapter text, and this audio recording are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

17:07

November 19, 2021

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents Abby Goode’s “Slow Interdisciplinarity,” Chapter Four from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

28:56

November 11, 2021

Pedagogy, Prophecy, and Disruption

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents Ian Derk’s “Pedagogy, Prophecy, and Disruption,” Chapter 3 from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

16:13

November 04, 2021

Building Castles in the Air

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents Stephen R. Barnard’s “Building Castles in the Air: Pedagogy and the Pursuit of Praxis,” Chapter 2 from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere. That song, the text of Hybrid Teaching, and this audio are all available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Thanks to each of the contributors for allowing their material to be re-used in this project.

11:58

October 28, 2021

Technology is not Pedagogy

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents Sean Michael Morris’s “Technology is not Pedagogy,” Chapter 1 from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere, which is available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license. The text and audio of Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics are licensed under Creative-Commons Attribution 3.0, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Licenses like these make multimedia works like this one painless to create. Thanks to each of the authors for allowing their material to be re-used in audio.

10:17

October 21, 2021

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads his introduction chapter from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere, which is available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license. The text and audio of Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics are licensed under Creative-Commons Attribution 3.0, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Licenses like these make multimedia works like this one painless to create. Thanks to each of the authors for allowing their material to be re-used in audio.

23:00

October 14, 2021

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents Robin DeRosa’s foreword from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a pay-what-you-will downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere, which is available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license. The text and audio of Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics are licensed under Creative-Commons Attribution 3.0, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Licenses like these make multimedia works like this one painless to create. Thanks to each of the authors for allowing their material to be re-used in audio.

09:53

October 07, 2021

Hybrid Teaching: Coming Soon

Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University reads the back-cover text from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, first published in February 2021 and available as a Kindle ebook, as a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable PDF, and as open-access articles published at Hybrid Pedagogy and elsewhere on the open Web. The theme music is “Where Was I?” from Lee Rosevere, which is available under a Creative-Commons Attribution license. The text and audio of Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics are licensed under Creative-Commons Attribution 3.0, which means they can be re-used with author acknowledgement. Licenses like these make multimedia works like this one painless to create. Thanks to each of the authors for allowing their material to be re-used in audio.

03:49

September 30, 2021

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Critical Citizenship for Critical Times by Hybrid Teaching

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Chris Friend (@chris_friend) from Kean University presents “Critical Citizenship for Critical Times” read by its author, Maha Bali. The piece is from the edited collection Hybrid Teaching: Pedagogy, People, Politics, which is available as an ebook, a print-on-demand paperback, as a free downloadable…

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A new study from Bryan Dewsbury, an associate professor in biological sciences at Florida International University, and his coauthors addresses this head on. The , published in PLOS ONE, follows students at a large, public research university in the northeast who took the introductory-biology sequence in a variety of formats to see how they perform in the next level of biology.

Three sections of the first-semester course used a traditional lecture format; a fourth used a form of active and inclusive instruction. One section of the second-semester course used active learning, and the other was a traditional lecture.

Students who took the inclusive section of the first intro course and the active section of the second course went on to earn the highest grades in their 200-level biology courses, the study found. That pushes back against the objection that active learning provides a disservice to students later on.

On Twitter, Dewsbury summed it up like so: "Let's be brave and reduce content. I promise you. If done thoughtfully, and with the aim of centering humanism, the students will be more than fine. Inclusive and active pedagogies reduce academic outcome gaps and improve long-term performance." (For background on why active learning yields good student outcomes, check out this article from our colleague Dan Berrett.)

Professors who are loath to cover less content are sometimes painted as curmudgeons, Dewsbury said in an interview. But that characterization fails to reckon with their context. All the incentives in science reward making very specialized discoveries, Dewsbury noted, and expertise is the coin of the realm. It's only natural that professors care about passing that knowledge on.

Still, there's a difference between covering something-which might mean saying it aloud once or putting it in the fine-print of a slide-and giving students a real shot at learning it. This, Dewsbury noted, is a place where STEM is a bit out of step with how things work in some other disciplines.

"You would never go to an English class and walk in and see the professor reading The Sound and The Fury," he said. "The class only makes sense if you read the book and came to class to talk about themes and things like that. But go back to the science side of campus and yes, you have 45 slides in 50 minutes, and it's all summarized in bullet points."

But that is starting to change. "I've only been a faculty member for eight years," he said. "And I can tell you that so many conversations that I'm having now, that I'm giving speeches on now, that I'm doing workshops on now, were literally dead on arrival in 2014."

That offers some hope. "In these dark times-for other reasons," Dewsbury said, "where it's easy to despair about what we haven't achieved yet, I think it's worth reflecting a little bit on how far many of our colleagues and universities have come. And maybe think a little bit more on: What are the things that successfully brought them to that place of growth? And how can we leverage those things to push people even further?"
Evidence on Active Learning
In our conversation, Dewsbury described the culture that can make active learning a hard sell for faculty in STEM. His comments resonated with what Scott Freeman, an author of two meta-analyses of active learning, told me in a recent interview, which The Chronicle published as a Q&A. "The nut of the problem," Freeman said, "is that the system doesn't reward change, especially in teaching." You can read the full conversation here.
More Advice for New Instructors
In a recent newsletter, I shared highlights from a Twitter thread of advice for first-time instructors and asked readers to weigh in with their own ideas. Here's some of what you shared:

Autar Kaw, a professor of mechanical engineering at the University of South Florida, provided three tips: "Be organized. If you are fumbling around in-class and/or off-class, students notice. Before they show interest, you have to show interest. Align assessment with objectives/outcomes."

Brenda Hawley, a part-time adjunct at Sierra College and retired high-school teacher, wrote: "Be overly prepared. A lesson will always go faster than you think it will. Students like a professor who is organized and confident."

Kurt-Alexander Zeller, coordinator of the division of music at Clayton State University, wrote: "Show your students, every day, every class, why you love and were drawn to this subject matter. Don't expect or require them to share your feelings about the subject, but make sure that you demonstrate or embody why psychology or botany or macroeconomics or opera (my field) became your life's vocation or fascination every time you see them."

I may include more advice in a future newsletter, so it's not too late to send me yours! Write to me at beckie.supiano@chronicle.com.
What Will College Look Like This Fall?
Does your college, or your department, have plans to focus on some of the problems with student disconnection this past year? Are you ramping up experiential-learning opportunities? Creating first-year courses that help rebuild academic and social skills? Modifying or developing new courses that connect to what's happening in the world right now? Creating stronger ties among academic departments and student-support services, including mental-health counseling?

Beth wants to hear your plans, even if you're just in the idea stage. You can fill out this Google form or write to her at beth.mcmurtrie@chronicle.com.

Thanks for reading Teaching. If you have suggestions or ideas, please feel free to email us at beckie.supiano@chronicle.com or beth.mcmurtrie@chronicle.com.

- Beckie

Learn more about our Teaching newsletter, including how to contact us, at the Teaching newsletter archive page.

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Worried About Cutting Content? This Study Suggests It's OK.

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A new study from Bryan Dewsbury, an associate professor in biological sciences at Florida International University, and his coauthors addresses this head on. The , published in PLOS ONE, follows students at a large, public research university in the northeast who took the introductory-biology sequence in a variety of formats to see how they perform in the next level of biology.

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Bryan M. Dewsbury,

Holly J. Swanson,

Serena Moseman-Valtierra,

Joshua Caulkins

Subject Areas

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here.

We want your feedback. Do these Subject Areas make sense for this article? Click the target next to the incorrect Subject Area and let us know. Thanks for your help!

Abstract

We assessed the impacts of the implementation of inclusive and active pedagogical approaches in an introductory biology sequence at a large, public research university in the northeast United States. We compared academic performance between these sections with other sections of the same course where didactic approaches were used over a five-year period. We also compared this five-year period (2014-2018) with the previous five years of the same courses. Additionally, we also tracked the academic performance of the students from the sections where active learning and inclusive teaching were used, as well as the more conventionally taught (lecture-based) sections in future, mandatory biology courses. We found that the inclusively taught section of the first semester of introductory biology increased the odds of students earning higher grades in that particular section. The active learning section in the second semester narrowed the ethnic performance gap when compared to similar sections, both historically and those run concurrently. Finally, students who matriculated into the inclusively taught section of biology in the first semester followed by the active learning section in the second semester of introductory biology performed better in 200-level biology courses than students who had zero semesters of either active or inclusive pedagogy in their introductory year. Our results suggest that active and inclusive pedagogies hold great promise for improving academic performance when compared to didactic approaches, however, questions remain on the most appropriate ways for capturing the impact of inclusive approaches. Implications for institutional approaches and policy are also discussed.

Citation: Dewsbury BM, Swanson HJ, Moseman-Valtierra S, Caulkins J (2022) Inclusive and active pedagogies reduce academic outcome gaps and improve long-term performance. PLoS ONE 17(6): e0268620. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268620

Editor: Kristin Vickers, Ryerson University, CANADA

Received: December 7, 2020; Accepted: May 4, 2022; Published: June 15, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Dewsbury et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data has been uploaded as supplementary material.

Funding: This work was graciously supported by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Hatch Formula project 1011285. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript."

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

In the last two decades STEM instruction has undergone a radical transformation in higher education. A STEM classroom experience, once assumed to be didactic, unidirectional and instructor-centered, is being reinvented on many campuses to be more student-centered and aligned with contemporary understandings of how humans learn [ 1]. The drivers of this change came from multiple directions. One was the plethora of federal reports calling for major upgrades in the way STEM pedagogy was administered [ 2, 3], in part as a need to address a workforce that was increasingly requiring more and more STEM professionals. Another was the greater attention being paid to the academic performance gaps between white students and students from historically disenfranchised identities [ 4]. Addressing the academic gap issue required a pedagogy that transcended blindly implementing physically active strategies and was truly inclusive of students' voices and identities.

There is a large body of evidence suggesting that both active learning and inclusive practices (collectively referred to here as 'learning-centered pedagogies') can effectively improve academic outcomes [ 5- 8]. However, these approaches have not necessarily penetrated STEM classrooms to the degree that its proponents expected [ 9]. There are many potential reasons why this may be the case.

First, researchers and practitioners have struggled to clearly define what active or inclusive teaching is in clearly identifiable ways [ 10]. Active learning for example may run the gamut from a few formative questions used during an interrupted lecture [ 11] to a fully flipped model where no lecturing is taking place whatsoever [ 12, 13 but see 7]. With such a sliding scale of student engagement, clearly measuring the impact of the 'active' component of the pedagogy becomes difficult. Inclusive teaching has been more clearly delineated in the K12 literature [e.g. 14] but is only recently being fully unpacked and operationalized in the higher education classroom [ 15]. Epistemological uncertainty results in practitioners having a hard time knowing and deciding what method or suite of methods are appropriate for their context [ 16]. This is further exacerbated by the material supporting those texts themselves being overrepresented by dominant identities [ 16]. Second, as Dewsbury [ 17] argues, the contexts of the courses where the pedagogies are being applied matter. Adoption of learning-centered pedagogical techniques without appropriate consideration of context may lead to little positive or even harmful outcomes. Third, many aspects of learning-centered pedagogies require existing practitioners to subvert their current understanding of teaching, and learn new skills, sometimes in entirely new disciplinary areas. The infrastructure required to support this type of reform and sustain it may not necessarily be available at all institutions, thus limiting what practitioners are able to adopt and sustainably support. Fourth, the critical mass of STEM classrooms in higher education is still mostly didactic lecturing [ 18]. Many students matriculate into college likely assuming that this passive model is standard fare for STEM instruction. Practitioners who ask their students to actively engage in the learning process during class time sometimes face resistance, especially if the students do not fully comprehend the value of that engagement [ 19, 20]. Where this resistance manifests into negative course evaluations, the potential impact on the practitioners' professional review and reward structure can cause them to shy away from future attempts of these practices. The third and fourth reasons in particular necessitate a professional structure that appropriately rewards and supports the cultivation of these practices. While some progress has been made on de-emphasizing singular evaluative components (e.g. SETS; [ 18]) more attention needs to be paid to creating holistic support for these practices.

The complexities and situation-specific factors associated with higher education STEM pedagogy makes the measurement of classroom interventions difficult. Studies measuring one-time interventions or reporting on small temporal scales present challenges for those interested in adoption but must translate findings for entirely new contexts. In this manuscript we report the results of the implementation of learning-centered pedagogies in two introductory biology sequenced courses (taught one after the other) at a large, public research university in the northeastern United States. We use learning-centered as an encompassing term to capture approaches that break from the conventional passive teaching approach where a single lecturer imparts information unidirectionally for the majority of the classroom time. The conventional classroom is also accompanied with a small number of high stakes assessments, with few other opportunities to demonstrate content proficiency. In the active classroom (the second semester course) the instructor used a suite of evidence-based methods (including the use of small-groups, interrupted lectures and in-class problem solving) to ensure that students were full participants in their learning process. The inclusive teaching course (the first semester Biology) in this study follows the Deep Teaching framework outlined in Dewsbury [ 21] and Dewsbury and Brame [ 22], where specific pedagogical approaches and strategies are enacted as a function of carefully cultivated relationships and continuous dialogue with the students. While an inclusive classroom incorporates several active learning methods, the dialogic relationship is the key driver of the classroom experience. We were interested in how five years (2014-2018) of utilizing these approaches impacted 1) academic outcomes between ethnicities within the courses where learning-centered pedagogies were used, 2) academic outcomes compared to didactically taught sections at the same time, 3) academic outcomes compared to the previous five years of instruction (also lecture-based) of the same courses, and 4) future academic performance of students who, after the introductory biology level matriculate into upper division biology courses. We also contextualize our findings within the institution where the study took place and discuss several nuances of the praxis of inclusive and active approaches.

Materials and methods

Institutional context

The study was conducted at a large, public research university in the northeast United States and approved by the institution's Institutional Review Board (#858301) from their Office of Integrity which is housed in the Office for Sponsored Research. Informed consent was waived by the IRB as this involved the gathering of archived data. Data was anonymized and coded with a numeric identifier so that the identities of the individual students were unknown to the researchers. The institution is predominantly white, with approximately 23% of the undergraduate population identifying as PEERS (Persons excluded because of ethnicity or race, [ 23]). Principles of Biology is a high-enrollment two-semester survey course that is offered from the Department of Biological Sciences. The first semester (Principles of Biology I) is taken by biology majors as well as several other STEM majors for whom the course serves as a prerequisite for other courses. The second semester is taken by biology majors only. Majors and those requiring the prerequisite are usually unevenly spaced between the four sections of the first semester. The first semester surveys the fundamentals of cells and molecules, molecular biology, populations genetics and anatomy and physiology. Students needing the second semester of Principles of Biology must earn a C or above in order to matriculate into that course (Principles of Biology II). Principles of Biology II focuses on evolutionary biology, plants and animal ecology. There are two sections of this second-semester course. Most students take the two-semester sequence during the Fall and then Spring semesters. The learning outcomes for both courses are generally similar between sections, but each instructor is allowed to operationalize those learning outcomes apropos to their personal pedagogical style. However, the institution also offers these courses as a Spring to Fall sequence. We focused on the Fall to Spring sequence in this study.

Prior to 2014, there were only three, simultaneously taught sections of the Principles of Biology I taught by different instructors, all of which were taught using a didactic, lecture-based style. While there were small differences between instructors' styles, in general, all heavily relied on multi-slide PowerPoint presentations, with little to no formative assessments embedded in the pedagogy. Summative assessments happened four to five times per semester and were usually the only mechanism for students to earn credit toward the final course grade. Principles of Biology II was also mostly taught using a primarily lecture approach until the 2014/2015 academic year. In 2014, a new instructor was hired, and a new section of Principles of Biology I was offered. The new instructor (first author Dewsbury) piloted what Dewsbury [ 21] refers to as 'Deep Teaching', an inclusive approach centered around the dialogic relationship between instructor and student. In this approach, an elaborate, ongoing process is enacted to fully understand the psychosocial contexts of the students who are entering the classroom each semester the course is offered. Decisions around active-learning strategies, support structures, and all other curricula nuances are driven by how this understanding unfolds and evolves. For example, even seemingly simple decisions such as the length of videos watched in the flipped classroom model is impacted by the instructor's knowledge of the work hours the students keep. While this approach necessitates the use of several active learning approaches, the centrality of the student voice in driving the process separates it as a fully inclusive practice. The three other sections of Principles of Biology I continued using a lecture-based approach. Of the two sections of Principles of Biology II, one transformed their section to incorporate several active learning approaches beginning in 2013. Students were placed into small groups where several activities were used to engage them in the learning process, provide multiple opportunities for formative assessment, and in general move the classroom away from passive approaches to learning. While the practices used were refined over time, we characterize this classroom as active and not inclusive largely because it did not follow the specifications pertaining to dialogue outlined in the Dewsbury [ 21] framework.

The truly inclusive classroom begins with recognizing how the instructor, and their social positioning play a key role in cultivating an inclusive environment. This self-awareness includes revisiting their own pathways through the profession, degree of knowledge about social structures and an understanding of their role in education beyond subject-area expertise. This step requires at the very least an understanding of the unconscious biases we all have, as shaped by our personal social histories, and recognizing the ways in which those biases may play out in classroom dynamics. The inclusive practitioner commits to self-education, particularly in areas of social structures about which they were previously unaware in order to interrogate their own ideologies, and to better understand the social contexts from which students arrive into the classroom [e.g. 24]. Cultivating this macro understanding of social context is then followed by specific approaches to get to know the students more personally. For example, the inclusive classroom uses a reflection assignment called 'I believe', using the exact prompt from the National Public Radio (NPR) weekly program ( http://thisibelieve.org). These reflection essays provide a window into the soul of the students, and after sharing their own essay, the dialogic relationship between instructor and student begins. Reflection essays also provide key clues into students' mindset, economic and identity contingencies and general beliefs about their personal strengths. This is informative, since it lets the instructor know that instructional practices that promote growth mindsets, confidence and increased task value, are crucial before content specific strategies are enacted. Another specific approach enacted in response to a better understanding of the students is the course's assessment structure. The course provides several opportunities for students to demonstrate proficiency including group assignments and pre-class assignments. More importantly the summative assessments (four) are each only worth 15% of the final grade. This is a significant enough percentage such that the performances on the individual summative assessments are mathematically consequential for the final grade. However, it is low enough that if there are initial struggles there are sufficient opportunities available for a pathway back for success in the course. This is particularly important in the early stages since early struggles may be more indicative of identity contingencies, college transition struggles or other social factors, none of which speak to the student's actual ability to do biology. Therefore, an inclusive assessment structure does not penalize students for social factors over which they have little control and provides the instructor an opportunity to mitigate those factors and help the students find their academic feet.

In this study, we are making a historical comparison between sections that used different pedagogical approaches. As a result, we are unfortunately unable to account for any differences between instructor styles (however small) of the lecture sections and/or the way in which assessments were administered in those sections. However, tracking all students to the 200-level classes allowed for a direct comparison of their academic proficiency regardless of the history of their instruction.

Statistical methods

For this quasi-experimental study, data was obtained from the Office for Institutional Research and included Principles of Biology I final course grades and course section number, high school grade point average (HSGPA), combined SAT scores (SAT), first generation status (FG), and ethnicity (underrepresented minorities, URM) for students enrolled during fall semesters from 2009-2018. Any subsequent biology final course grades were also collected for these students, including Principles of Biology II. During 2009-2018, SAT exams changed formats; for comparison purposes, conversions were made to the newest version's combined score according to concordance tables found on the College Board website [ 25]. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were run in SAS, version 9.4, followed by Tukey-HSD post-hoc comparisons and used to evaluate possible performance gaps in Principles of Biology I and future course outcomes. However, due to a non-normal distribution for final course grades in Principles of Biology II, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used followed by DSCF post-hoc comparisons of pairwise Wilcoxon ranked-sum differences. To compare academic outcomes between the treatment section of Principles of Biology I and the didactic sections, an ordinal regression model was run using SPSS, version 26, with final course grade as the dependent variable. The model included student-level descriptive predictors, URM and FG status, student-level measures of academic preparedness, HSGPA and SAT, and treatment. Correlations were determined to identify any collinearity and possible overfitting of the model. Intercorrelation coefficients (ICCs) and a vector of fixed effects were also calculated to evaluate the impact of clustering in the data. Due to large ICCs, a complex sample was designed in SPSS with clusters created for the year the data was collected and for course section. The ordinal regression was then conducted using this complex sample design.

Results

Overall, learning-centered pedagogies appeared to have varied effects on students' academic performance. Results reported here are informed by Wassertein and colleagues' [ 26] guidance on how probability values and confidence intervals should be interpreted and described. This article (and several others in a special issue of American Statistician) addresses the overuse and misuse of the term significance and over-reliance on p-values as indicators of treatment effects. Our reporting here attempts to partially comply with their advocacy of greater data transparency and a more comprehensive presentation of our quantitative findings. Therefore, we still report statistical significance test results (p-values) and describe overall trends seen in our data.

Academic performance gaps between ethnicities in learning-centered pedagogy classrooms

One-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine the appropriateness of combining sections for subsequent analyses at the student level. Based on academic preparedness measures, the treatment section was possibly at an academic disadvantage; SAT: F(1, 4295) = 2.66, p <1.03, and HSGPA: F(1, 4169) = 13.06, p < .0001 where the mean HSGPA for the lecture sections was 3.44 (SD = 0.50) and 3.36 (SD = 0.46) for the treatment section. Academic performance was measured by final grade earned in the course, which was converted to the GPA points that corresponded to the letter grade. In accordance with the institution's policies, A was equal to 4.0 GPA points, A- = 3.7, B+ = 3.3, B = 3.0, B- = 2.7, C+ = 2.3, C = 2.0, C- = 1.7, D = 1.0 and F = 0 points. Over the 2014-2018 five-year period, White and Asian students earned the highest median GPA points in the inclusively taught section of Principles of Biology I (F(3, 565) = 10.61, p < .0001; Fig 1, Panel B). Both earned, on average, almost the equivalent of a B grade, though the range of grades earned by Asian students was much smaller than those of White students. There were also far fewer Asian-identified students who enrolled in this course than students from any other self-reported identity. Students identifying as Black or Hispanic in Principles of Biology I averaged a C over the five years in the section where inclusive approaches were used. The interquartile range of grades of Hispanic students were slightly larger than those of Black students, and both these groups' interquartile ranges were much larger than those of White and Asian students. Median grade GPA values in the Principles of Biology II course where active learning was used ( Fig 1, Panel D) ranged between 3.0 (White students) to 2.2 (Hispanic students) [χ ² (3, N = 249) = 7.099, p = 0.069]. The interquartile ranges for Black and Hispanic students were less than those of White and Asian students. Both Black and Hispanic student groups' interquartile range included grades below the passing grade (C) for the course.

Panel A: Analysis of variance detected achievement gaps in Principles of Biology I between 2009-2013 (F(3, 4423) = 62.75, p < .0001, R ² = 0.041, 95%CI [0.030, 0.052]). (Demographic group sizes, n = 198 Asian, 269 Black, 421 Hispanic, and 3702 White) Panel B: ANOVA detected medium differences in final grades for the first introductory biology course during 2014-2018 between ethnicities for the lecture-styled sections (F(3, 3398) = 70.88, p < .0001, R ² = 0.059, 95% CI [0.044, 0.074], Cohen's d = 0.68 (White and Black students), 0.57 (White and Hispanic students)) and the inclusive section (F(3, 565) = 10.61, p < .0001, R ² = 0.053, 95% CI [0.017, 0.089], Cohen's d = 0.58 and 0.55 respectively). (Demographic group sizes for lecture sections, n = 172 Asian, 217 Black, 426 Hispanic, and 2,705 White; Demographic group sizes for inclusive treatment, n = 17 Asian, 42 Black, 70 Hispanic, and 427 White). Panel C: A Kruskal-Wallis Test detected achievement gaps in Principles of Biology II between 2009-2013 (χ ² (3, N = 1889) = 76.513, p < .0001, Cramer's V = 0.116). (Demographic group sizes, n = 80 Asian, 94 Black, 188 Hispanic, and 1527 White) Panel D: In the second course in the introductory biology sequence, Kruskal-Wallis Tests detected small differences between grades as a function of student ethnicity in the lecture sections (χ ² (3, N = 832) = 9.924, p = 0.019, Cramer's V = 0.063) but not in the active learning section (χ ² (3, N = 249) = 7.099, p = 0.069, Cramer's V = 0.097). (Demographic group sizes for lecture sections, n = 37 Asian, 42 Black, 84 Hispanic, and 576 White; Demographic group sizes for active sections, n = 7 Asian, 10 Black, 16 Hispanic, and 216 White).

Academic performance in learning-centered pedagogy classrooms versus lecture-based approaches

Correlations between variables were calculated to ensure a lack of collinearity and overfitting of our model. The strongest correlation was detected between course section and treatment, r = 0.655, which is to be expected based on the dummy coding of treatment based on course section. The next strongest correlations were between final course grade and SAT score (r = 0.508) and high school GPA (0.480). An intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated of each of the models independent variables with the outcome variable, final grade. Approximately 44% of the variation observed in the data is found between sections therefore, a complex sampling protocol was created in SPSS to account for clustering of data by year and section.

Overall, the odds for students enrolled in the inclusive section to earn one grade interval higher (ie. B to a B+) are 2.287 (95% CI [1.566, 3.340]) times when compared to the lecture sections when all other variables are held constant ( Table 1). There were academic performance gaps in lecture-based classrooms in Principles of Biology I between 2014 to 2018 (F(3, 3398) = 70.88, p < .0001, Fig 1, Panel B). Black students' interquartile range of grade values on average were in the failing range during this entire period while the interquartile range of the white students was entirely within the passing range. This was the largest difference between any two ethnicities (MD = 0.870, 95%CI [0.632, 1.108]). The interquartile range was largest for Hispanic students during this period. White students scored higher than students of other ethnicities in the lecture-based section of Principles of Biology II (Χ ² (3, N = 832) = 9.924, p = 0.019, Fig 1, Panel D). They had higher median values and a smaller interquartile range when compared to other ethnicities. With the exception of Hispanic students, each ethnicity earned lower academic grades in this section than their counterparts where active learning approaches were used.

When first-generation status was removed from the analysis, sample size increased to 3927 students. When clustered by year and section, the treatment yielded a smaller odds ratio, 1.727 (95%CI [1.059, 2.818]). Additional analyses can be seen in the supplemental tables ( S1 File).

Comparison to preceding five years (2009-2013)

In Principles of Biology I, the performance of different ethnic groups followed a mostly similar pattern taught in the five years preceding 2014. White students in general earned the highest grades while Black students earned the lowest (F(3, 4423) = 62.75, p < .0001, Fig 1, Panel A).

Academic performances of students in Principles of Biology II of the 5 years preceding 2014 were very similar to the 2014-2018 period ( Fig 1, Panel C). In both cases Black students averaged a failing grade for the class over the entire time period, while the other ethnic groups averaged between a C and a B during the same period. The grades of Black, Asian, and Hispanic students ranged the entirety of A to an F during both periods, but that grade range was similar for whites during the 2009-2013 period. In the active learning section of Principles of Biology II, the 2014-2018 period saw a closing of the academic performance gap between Black students and White students as well as Black students and Hispanic students that existed during the 2009-2013 period. There was also a closing of the gap between Asian students and White and Hispanic students. The only group whose average grade decreased during the 2014-2018 period was Hispanic students, but their median grade was still at a C, the passing grade for the course.

Subsequent academic performance

The impact of utilizing learning-centered pedagogies was also seen in how students performed in the first set of upper division courses they took after the Principles of Biology I and II series. Students who matriculated into 200-level classes from the Principles of Biology I and II series from the 2009-2013 ( Fig 2, Panel A) had similar academic outcomes to students who took both the inclusive teaching section of Principles of Biology I and the active learning section of Principles of Biology II. These students also scored the highest median grades in 200-level courses compared to the other amounts of exposure to learning-centered pedagogies. This was followed by students who took lecture-based sections of Principles of Biology I followed by the active-only section of Principles of Biology II. Students who took the inclusive-only section of Principles of Biology I followed by the lecture-based section of Principles of Biology II scored third lowest, and students who had no exposure to neither learning-centered pedagogy earned the lowest grades.

Although data suggests there may be a small difference between the group who took the active and inclusive section both semesters (N = 23, M = 3.030, SD = 0.657) and the group who took them neither semester (N = 128, M = 2.541, SD = 0.907), F(1, 149) = 6.12, p = 0.015, R ² = 0.039, 95% CI [-0.021, 0.099].

Conclusions

Our exploration of five years of learning-centered pedagogies in an introductory biology course sequence yielded several lessons pertaining to how we consider general performance, as well as disaggregated performance in introductory STEM courses. Overall, we submit that the findings from the analysis of quantitative academic outcomes posits more questions than they answer. We lay these out below, in the context of existing literature pertaining to the social contexts of learning.

Academic performance and outcome gaps in introductory STEM courses

Our data suggest that the academic performance of students in the inclusively taught section of Principles of Biology I resulted in better performance of students in this section overall as they were more likely to get an A or B and least likely to earn a DFW grade. With the exception of black students in the lecture sections during the 2014-2018 period, outcomes patterns were overall similar to those in the time period before this pedagogy was introduced. In those sections Black students averaged a failing grade. This suggests that the key difference driving the improved overall performance was the improved outcomes for Black students. In the second semester of this introductory course however, the active learning section reduced the major differences in the performance of Black and Asian students when compared to both previous iterations of this section, and the lecture-based section taught during the same semester.

The implementation of the inclusive approach was in response to the nagging academic performance gaps between different ethnic groups. The persistence of these patterns potentially speaks to the possibility that there are non-cognitive factors impacting the academic experience for different individuals and groups in different ways. Quantitative explorations such as this study sometimes implicitly assume that regardless of the student's starting point, in-class instruction will singly drive all students to academic proficiency. The literature on the social context of education suggests that we should reconsider that argument. It is well-documented that metrics such as SAT score and HSGPA correlate strongly with socioeconomic indicators of privilege [ 27- 29]. Additionally, the transition to college for many students, especially those from historically disenfranchised identities may be exceptionally difficult due to issues pertaining to social belonging and reduced social capital [ 30]. If SAT and HSGPA predict success in an introductory biology course, then, it is unclear if that prediction is an indication of actual preparedness or that of an unknown non-cognitive social factor. Our data bears this out somewhat. If inclusive approaches (Principles of Biology I, section 4) reduce the predictive power of these variables, particularly for Black students, they may enact the very thing inclusive spaces are meant for-making negative socioeconomic indicators less relevant. While the impacts of this were reflected in content gains for black students' academic outcomes data do not fully capture the impact in terms of sense of belonging and affirmed identities. The relationship between inclusive approaches and the cultivation of these constructs should be an immediate area of research exploration.

In a similar vein, the narrowing of the achievement gap in the second semester of the introductory biology sequence is potentially a reflection of a more equal academic starting point for students successfully entering the course. One can hypothesize that students acclimated to the learning-centered pedagogical class experience at that point are less likely to be impacted by the negative externalities associated with the college transition process.

Overall, our data indicates that students benefit from the combination of the two courses taught using learning-centered pedagogies. This is important since STEM instruction is still largely didactic, and, as discussed previously, some hesitation still exists for the adoption of these methods. In this light, two concerns typically raised by practitioners include 1) the potential negative effects of content reduction to allow time for more activities [ 31] and 2) the perception that inclusive approaches are considered 'over coddling' of students [ 32]. We do not have space in this manuscript to fully address these concerns, but the fact that students from learning-centered pedagogy classrooms perform equally well or better in upper division courses should allay fears of negative impacts associated with content reduction.

How the academic experience is measured

Though our findings indicate that Deep Teaching can engender success in upper division classes, new questions, separate from the primarily academic measures discussed in this manuscript should be considered. Some reflection is necessary on what constitutes success in an educational experience, the components of that experience, and how the process is assessed. More specifically, inclusive teaching as discussed in this manuscript is built on the Freirean concept of dialogue [ 33], and the more recent theory of emerging adulthood [ 34]. At their core, both speak to inclusively minded practitioners facilitating meaning-making as a key component of the developmentally appropriate process of identity exploration. Some studies have shown a link between the affirmation of STEM identity and academic performance [ 32], but in this context, we are referring to meaning-making as an end unto itself. If current pedagogical assessment and research questions solely focus on content gains, how then is this meaning-making, a critical component of inclusion, captured as an effect of inclusive practice? Our point here is not to be dismissive of the importance of content mastery. But as we shift our paradigms to considering inclusive approaches as an expectation, the ways in which we assess the academic experience likely must expand or change.

As a crucial entry point into the STEM pathway, introductory biology can serve as an encouraging open door or an unwelcome sieve. Our exploration of 5 years of implementing learning-centered pedagogies meant to welcome suggests that much success can be gained from these approaches. However, our work also underscores that there is still much unknown about engendering success for students in the first critical semesters, and that new and more diverse metrics are needed to fully capture the impact of inclusive practices.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the students of introductory biology whose dedication to the course provided us with the opportunity to make it a better experience. Thanks to the anonymous reviewers whose feedback helped improve this manuscript.

References

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3. 4. Gonzalez Heather B., and Jeffrey J. Kuenzi. "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education: A primer." Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 2012.

4. 6. Schmid Megan E., et al. "Promoting student academic achievement through faculty development about inclusive teaching." Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning 48.5 (2016): 16-25.

5. 9. Brownell Sara E., and Kimberly D. Tanner. "Barriers to faculty pedagogical change: Lack of training, time, incentives, and... tensions with professional identity?." CBE-Life Sciences Education 11.4 (2012): 339-346. pmid:23222828

6. 11. Jenkins Alan. "Active learning in structured lectures." Teaching large classes in higher education: How to maintain quality with reduced resources (1992): 63-77.

7. 12. Bishop Jacob Lowell, and Matthew A. Verleger. "The flipped classroom: A survey of the research." ASEE national conference proceedings, Atlanta, GA. Vol. 30. No. 9. 2013.

8. 17. Dewsbury Bryan M. "Context determines strategies for 'activating' the inclusive classroom." Journal of microbiology & biology education 18.3 (2017). pmid:29854055

9. 27. Zwick Rebecca. "Is the SAT a "wealth test"? The link between educational achievement and socioeconomic status." Rethinking the SAT. Routledge, 2013. 225-238.

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Inclusive and active pedagogies reduce academic outcome gaps and improve long-term performance

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We assessed the impacts of the implementation of inclusive and active pedagogical approaches in an introductory biology sequence at a large, public research university in the northeast United States. We compared academic performance between these sections with other sections of the same course where didactic approaches were used over a five-year period.

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A large, comprehensive study reveals what privilege looks like in science: straight, white men who are not disabled get more pay, greater respect and a wealth of career opportunities compared with all other groups.

Past studies have shown how sexism, racism and other types of discrimination separately contribute to inequality in academia. But sociologist Erin Cech at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor compared the experiences of researchers who fit along a spectrum of 32 intersecting identities. She analysed data from a survey of roughly 25,300 researchers working in sectors including academia, industry and government in the United States, conducted between 2017 and 2019. The study was published in Science Advances last month.

Cech, who describes herself as a white, queer cisgender woman, says the results reveal consistent, striking patterns of privilege that persist after adjustment for differences in education, experience, hours worked, family responsibilities and more than a dozen other confounding factors. Heterosexual, white men without disabilities enjoy a raft of unearnt benefits that cannot be accounted for by such differences, the analysis shows. They get paid an average of US$7,831 a year more than other groups, adjusting for confounding factors. They are also granted more career opportunities, feel more respected at work and experience less harassment than people in every other intersecting demographic group that Cech studied, and so are less likely to leave science.

"Time and time again, I've heard [people say] there's no data to prove" that privilege exists, says Jessica Esquivel, a particle physicist at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. Now, marginalized groups have hard data that they can point to and say, "here, this is what you've been asking for. Now what?" says Esquivel, a Black, queer, neurodivergent, Mexican woman.

More money, more respect

Straight, white men without disabilities received at least an extra US$32,000 each year compared with queer people of colour who had the same level of experience, tenure, hours worked, family responsibilities, education and other factors, Cech found. The most privileged group also earnt US$20,000 a year more than disabled people of any gender, ethnicity or sexual identity.

Kelsey Byers, an agender, asexual and multiply disabled plant biologist, who works at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK, says the disadvantage that marginalized groups face is distressing, and the salary gap shocking: "As someone who has struggled to literally get in the door, [the findings] were a gut punch, but one I know is true."

Cech found that the groups that are most disadvantaged are LGBTQ-identifying women of colour, and people with a physical disability, chronic illness or mental-health condition. People in these groups had lower salaries and fewer career opportunities, garnered less respect from colleagues and often felt excluded - even when their education, experience and job characteristics equalled those of their straight, white, male, non-disabled peers.

Christopher Jackson, a Black geoscientist based in the United Kingdom, says Cech's study shows how identity and circumstance determines who gets to participate in science. "Being smart isn't enough," he says, because not everyone is given the same access to opportunities or peer support to help them to achieve what they wish. Many of the barriers that some people have to contend with also go mostly unseen, adds Jackson, who left academia in March to join a scientific consulting firm.

Esquivel hopes the data from Cech's study will help to counter something she has experienced - researchers from privileged groups questioning whether marginalized scientists hired under diversity initiatives deserve their places in academia. People who are not marginalized need to reflect on how privilege has made their careers easier, she says.

Culture change

Structural and cultural changes are needed to rectify the inequalities that contribute to people from minority groups leaving science, says sociologist Meredith Nash at the Australian National University in Canberra. "You can't bring people from historically excluded groups into these fields [and expect them to stay] without creating an environment for them to thrive," she says.

To create more equitable workplaces, Nash says, institutions and their leaders must overhaul processes that give unfair advantage to particular groups of people. She says that white, cisgender women such as herself often benefit from equity initiatives, also need to reflect on their privilege and use it to advocate in favour of greater diversity.

That means taking a critical eye to hiring and promotion practices, and rethinking how academia recognizes and rewards research excellence, says Cech. Given that systemic advantages are anchored in the historical over-representation of white men in science, structural and cultural change starts with that group, she adds. White men who are willing to reflect on and discuss these forms of privilege wield real influence, she says.

But past research has found that many white males in some fields claim to be unaware of racism or sexism around them, despite evidence that their field can be a particularly hostile environment for women and people from minority groups. In a survey of physicists, white men often distanced themselves from the problem, saying that it didn't occur in their laboratories, and that the solutions lay outside their sphere of influence.

That attitude propagates inequalities, says Timothy O'Connor, a disabled, white man and an evolutionary geneticist at the University of Maryland School of Medicine in Baltimore. "We need to constantly be vigilant in addressing bias wherever we see it, even and especially in ourselves." He adds, however, that more work needs to be done to appreciate the manifold experiences of researchers with diverse identities within groups that were "lumped together" in Cech's study. For example, in its main analyses, the study did not distinguish between people with different types of disability or between those with varying LGBTQ identities. It also used broad ethnic divisions with little nuance, such as "Asian". Cech says this was to protect respondent confidentiality.

Patterns of disadvantage and privilege are seeded long before people embark on careers in science, says Mohammad Taha, a materials engineer at the University of Melbourne, Australia, who identifies as a non-binary, transgender, queer person of colour. Academia needs to do a better job of measuring the performance of people who have experienced disadvantage. Many of these people will not have had the same opportunities as their majority-group peers, and need to be judged accordingly when applying for jobs and funding, Taha says.

They add that many researchers have a genuine interest in making academia more inclusive, but fail to act. "Your inaction isn't neutral; your inaction is contributing to this problem."
doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-01851-4

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Revealed: the pay bump for being a straight, white man in US science

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A large, comprehensive study reveals what privilege looks like in science: straight, white men who are not disabled get more pay, greater respect and a wealth of career opportunities compared with all other groups. Past studies have shown how sexism, racism and other types of discrimination separately contribute to inequality in academia.