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Megan Fortier

University of Calgary

EDPS 693.27 S04

Dr. Anna Rissanen, PhD

July 19, 2022

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Fatahi, Z., Ghorbani, A., Ismail Zibaii, M., & Haghparast, A. (2020). Neural synchronization between the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices during effort-based decision making. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 175, 107320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107320

Get Body smart (2022). Stimulation of skin receptors [Image]. https://www.getbodysmart.com/nervous-system/touch-pathway

Gollhofer, A. (2008). Muscle mechanics and neural control. In Y. Hong & R. Bartlett (Eds), Routledge handbook of biomechanics and human movement science. Routledge. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.4324/9780203889688

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Holstege, G., & Subramanian, H. H. (2016). Two different motor systems are needed to generate human speech. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 524(8), 1558–1577. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.23898

Hwang, H.C., & Matsumoto, D. (2016). Facial expressions. In D. Matsumoto, H.C. Hwang, & M.G. Frank (Eds.), APA handbook of nonverbal communication (pp. 257–287). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14669-010

[Image of a brain labelling the structures involved with memory]. (n.d.) https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/psychologyh5p/chapter/parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory/

[Image of the inner ear]. (2022). https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hearing-loss/multimedia/ear-infections/sls-20077144?s=5

Kidstock (2020, Nov. 28). [Photograph of two children fighting over a toy]. Very Well Family. https://www.verywellfamily.com/gentleness-training-can-help-toddlers-adjust-616596

Lee, T.W., & Xue, S.W. (2018). Does emotion regulation engage the same neural circuit as working memory? A meta-analytical comparison between cognitive reappraisal of negative emotion and 2-back working memory task. PloS One, 13(9), e0203753. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203753

McGill (n.d.). [Image of areas on the brain involved in speech]. The Brain from Top to Bottom.https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_10/d_10_cr/d_10_cr_lan/d_10_cr_lan.html

McGill (n.d.). The Brain from Top to Bottom. https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/pop/pop_plan/plan_a.html

Neuroscientifically Challenged. (2018, Nov. 2). 2-minute neuroscience: Optic nerve (cranial nerve II) [Video]. Youtube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ai7QnHS7C7g

Neuroscientifically Challenged (n.d). 2-minute Neuroscience: Touch and the dorsal columns-medial lemniscus.[Video]. Youtube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nQfRUehU4zQ

Neuroscientifically Challenged (2022). Motor Cortex. https://neuroscientificallychallenged.com/posts/know-your-brain-motor-cortex

Neuroscientifically Challenged (2019, Sep. 4) 2-miunute neuroscience: Prefrontal cortex. [Video]. Youtube,  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i47_jiCsBMs&list=PLNZqyJnsvdMr5DGiq0XhTnspQqaFh8vEu&index=38

Owlkids Intern (2019). Child Thinking [Photograph]. Owl Kids https://www.owlkids.com/happy-simplicity-day/child-thinking/

[Photograph of adults and children engaged in play]. (2019). https://harderco.com/improving-child-outcomes-through-home-visiting/

[Photograph of child with arms crossed]. (2018). https://parentswithconfidence.com/discipline-with-the-strong-willed-child/

[Photograph of children and adults in a school hallway] (2020). https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/jul2020/rocking-rolling

[Photograph of legs and feet of a walking person]. (2021). https://brainworldmagazine.com/walking-is-brain-exercise/

Pinell, J.P.J., & Edwards, M. (2008). A colorful introduction to the anatomy of the human brain: A brain and psychology coloring book (2nd ed.). Pearson.

Preston, A.R., & Eichenbaum, H. (2013). Interplay of Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex in Memory. Current Biology, 23(17), R764–R773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.05.041

Ribeiro, F. S., Santos, F. H., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2019). How Does Allocation of Emotional Stimuli Impact Working Memory Tasks? An Overview. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 15(2), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0265-y

Rikhye, R.V., Gilra, A., & Halassa, M.M. (2018). Thalamic regulation of switching between cortical representations enables cognitive flexibility. Nature Neuroscience, 21(12), 1753–1763. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-018-0269-z

Rissanen, A. (2022). Brain Lobes [Powerpoint slides]. D2L https://d2l.ucalgary.ca/d2l/home

Slotnick, S. (2016, August 7). Visual Pathway [Image]. http://drslotnickblog.com/2016/08/visual-pathways-roadmaps-impacts-following-brain-injury/

Spreng, R.N. & Mar, R. A. (2010). I remember you: A role for memory in social cognition and the functional neuroanatomy of their interaction. Brain Research, 1428, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.024

Trafton, A. (2014, August 27). Neuroscientists reverse memories’ emotional associations. MIT News. https://news.mit.edu/2014/brain-circuit-links-emotion-memory-0827

Wang, Y.R., Tyszka, J.M., Zhen, S., Kovach, C., Sun, S., Huang, Y., Hurlemann, R., Ross, I.B., Chung, J.M., Mamelak, A.N., Adolphs, R., & Rutishauser, U. (2017). The human amygdala parametrically encodes the intensity of specific facial emotions and their categorical ambiguity. Nature Communications, 8(1), 14821–14821. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14821

Whalen, P.J., Raila, H., Bennett, R., Mattek, A., Brown, A., Taylor, J., van Tieghem, M., Tanner, A., Miner, M., & Palmer, A. (2013). Neuroscience and Facial Expressions of Emotion: The Role of Amygdala–Prefrontal Interactions. Emotion Review, 5(1), 78–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912457231

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Jack is able to clearly articulate his thoughts using verbal language.

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Jack walks to his teacher and uses his language skills to communicate the situation. His teacher, with many more years using their executive functioning skills, as well as expert knowledge on the neurological development of young children, is able to intervene and coach Jack and his peer through a successful interaction!

More negative memories have a stronger connection between the hippocampus and the amygdala, but this can be weakened as new connections are formed that have a more positive emotion associated (Trafton, 2014). As Jack and his peer have more positive interactions, they will both experience weakening of these connections, and they will be primed to have more positive experiences together, leading to a more peaceful school experience for both children.

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Note. From McGill (n.d.). The Brain from Top to Bottom. https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/pop/pop_plan/plan_a.html 

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o   Upper neurons in the corticobulbar tract carry signals to move the head, neck, or face from Broca’s area to the motor cortex, and the signal continues to the cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem (including the medulla and pons) (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.). From here neurons communicate to different parts of the face-allowing for facial manipulation to change vocalizations into speech; these include the mouth and jaw, lips, tongue, and throat. (Holstege & Subramian, 2016).

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Note. From Holstege, G., & Subramanian, H. H. (2016). Two different motor systems are needed to generate human speech. 

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o   Vocalization or sound production involves the signals from the periaqueductal gray (located in mesencephalon) travelling down the spinal cord, and synapsing on the nucleus retroambiguus areas in the caudal medulla (Holstege & Subramanian, 2016). The nucleus retroambiguus areas control the production of vocalization by transmitting signals to the diaphragm, abdominal wall and cavity, pelvic floor, larynx and soft palate (Holstege & Subramanian, 2016).

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o   Broca’s Area is located in the inferior frontal gyrus in the frontal lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere and controls speech production and patterns of speech (Neuroscientifcally Challeneged, n.d.). The primary somatosensory cortex, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the inferior parietal lobule of the left hemisphere are all closely connected to allow Jack to hear, understand, and process words, statements and their meanings; once Jack has an appropriate response, Broca’s area communicates this to the primary motor cortex (McGill, n.d.).

o   There is evidence that two separate motor pathways are involved in speech production-vocalizing and using muscles to control and shape those vocalizations (Holstege & Subramanian, 2016).

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Note. From [Photograph of legs and feet of a walking person]. (2021). https://brainworldmagazine.com/walking-is-brain-exercise/

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o   Axons of the corticospinal tracts carry signals about a desired movement through the midbrain, pons, and medulla, and through the pyramids on the brain stem (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.).

o   Pyramidal neurons carry information through the brain stem, where they decussate and continue to the spinal cord; they can either synapse with lower motor neurons, which extend from the spinal cord to elicit response in muscles (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.), or they may synapse with interneurons, which will carry the signal on to the motor neurons (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

o   Studies provide strong evidence that the circuitry to produce locomiotion is held in the spinal cord through a neural network called the central pattern generator (CPG) (Gollhofer, 2008). Patterns of movement (in this case, walking) are initiated by the motor cortex, carried out by the CPG, which receives signals from the CNS and sensorimotor systems to correct motions of adapt to new stimuli (Gollhofer, 2008).

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Neurons that extend from the primary motor cortex diverge into two tracts: corticospinal (controlling movement of the body), and the corticobulbar (controlling movement of the head, neck, and face) (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.).

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Note. From [Photograph of children and adults in a school hallway] (2020). https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/jul2020/rocking-rolling 

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Step 4: Jack's Brain Initiates Motion to Enact His Decision 

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Step 4: Jack's Brain Initiates Motion to Enact His Decision 

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·   The motor cortex is in the frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus, and is divided into the primary motor cortex, and the non-primary motor cortex, consisting of the premotor and supplementary motor cortices (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.). Body movements are controlled contralaterally, with each hemisphere controlling the opposite side of the body (Pinell & Edwards, 2008). Much like the somatosensory cortex, the motor cortex can be divided somatotopically, into regions based on the part of the body that each area controls (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.). The primary motor cortex also receives somatosensory input from receptors in each respective region to allow for sensory feedback about movement as it occurs (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

·  The basal ganglia are heavily involved in facilitating movement in the body. The structures of the basal ganglia are part of a complex loop that acquires information from the frontal, prefrontal and parietal lobes, then communicates it to the supplementary motor area through the thalamus (McGill, n.d.).

·   The cerebellum is also incredibly important in movement. The cerebellum is responsible for storing and initiating learned sequences of movement and coordinates signals from other parts of the brain to allow for fluid movements (McGill, n.d.). The motor, somatosensory, and posterior parietal areas of the cortex send signals to the pons, which in turn sends signals to the cerebellum, which communicates back to the motor cortex to influence the muscles of the body (McGill, n.d.). While the basal ganglia plays a larger role in movement of distal limbs, the cerebellum plays a greater role in balance and postural adjustment (Pinell & Edwards, n.d.).

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o   His inhibitory control allows him to remain emotionally regulated and resist the urge to immediately take the object back or retaliate in another way.
o   His working memory has reminded him that in this situation, he has tools he can use that are more preferred to taking objects back or getting physical with his peer.

o   His cognitive flexibility has allowed him to switch roles in his play, from playing to reporting the incident to his teacher, which is ultimately the decision he makes.

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·   The process of decision-making uses past experiences to select the most advantageous option in the current context-usually guided by a cost-benefit analysis (Fatahi et al., 2020). The brain areas usually involved in such a computation include the prefrontal cortex, putamen, and nucleus accumbens, but the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) play an especially important role in deciding on the value of an action based on recent history of similar events, costs, anticipated benefits, and timing of those benefits: preferring shorter-term rewards (Fatahi et al., 2020). Jack recalls that in the last encounter with this peer, asking the child to give him the toy back was not effective, so his ACC and OFC prioritize other responses that are more likely to be successful.

·   Though Jack’s anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex may prefer he take the action with the most short-term reward: immediately taking the toy back, or retaliating physically, Jack is very practiced with his executive functioning skills:

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o   Inhibitory control is an executive function skill that allows Jack to display behaviour that is consistent with the rules and expectations of the context and inhibit the possible impulsive behavioural responses that could arise from the situation he is in (He et al., 2019).

o   Inhibitory control is related to emotional and behavioural regulation, which takes place in the orbitofrontal circuit, where limbic and emotional information are integrated into appropriate behaviour, however, when inhibitory control skill is low, the parietal, occipital, and limbic systems play a part in processing the stimulus instead (He et al., 2019).

o   The task-irrelevant stimuli can also affect Jack’s ability to make the best decision, as overstimulation can negatively impact inhibitory control (Blasco et al., 2014).

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o   Cognitive flexibility is “the ability to adapt our thoughts and behaviour in response to changes in our goals or our environment;” a complex ability that requires skill in inhibitory control and working memory (Blakey et al., 2016, p. 513). This is a challenge for Jack, because he was functioning in his play according to established roles, and by his peer taking his toy, the context has abruptly changed, and Jack must adapt to a new role.

o   Cognitive flexibility takes place in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Blakey et al., 2016).

o   The thalamus is also important in switching between rules for different contexts-In an experiment by Rikhye et al., thalamic influence on cognitive flexibility involved supressing rules that are not currently needed, while still preserving them in short term memory in case they are needed again (2018).

o   Cognitive flexibility allows Jack to change roles in play and prioritize his actions (Blasco et al., 2014): should his focus be on quickly grabbing the toy back, asking politely, getting help from a teacher, or by using physical aggression to retaliate?

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o   Jack’s parents and educators have coached Jack through similar experiences or discussed what Jack can do when events like this happens. The options that Jack have been presented with in the past include asking his peer for his toy back and asking a teacher for help if that fails. This will require Jack to use working memory to recall past events and link past solutions to current problems (Blasco et al., 2014).

o   Working memory takes place in the Jack must also resist the influence of task-irrelevant stimulus to ensure that working memory can focus on this problem; their prefrontal cortex works to lessen the impact that task-irrelevant stimulus (like another peer playing with a similar toy nearby, two peers singing across the room, or one shouting in the next center) has on working memory (Blasco et al., 2014).

o   Though negative emotion can decrease working memory performance (Ribeiro et al., 2019), making Jack more susceptible to forget his tools and effectively problem solve, there is an emotion-related circuit in the prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal junction that is integrated with subcortical and limbic structures that functions to lessen the negative emotional responses so that Jack can make sound decisions (Lee & Xue, 2018).

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Information from the somatosensory system is transported from the posterior parietal cortex to the prefrontal cortex, where it is processed with the memory information from the hippocampus, and interpretation of his peer’s facial expression from the amygdala and fusiform gyrus (Trafton, 2014; Wang et al, 2017).

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Information from the auditory, exteroreceptive, and optic sensory systems.

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Step 3: Jack Uses Executive Functioning to Make His Decision

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Step 3: Jack Uses Executive Functioning to Make His Decision

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·   The prefrontal cortex receives sensory information from other parts of the brain and begins to plan responses, which will be communicated with other areas of the brain (Neuroscientifically challenged, n.d.).

·   Jack must use executive function skills to make a decision on what to do next. Executive functioning can be defined as “a group of neurocognitive processes that direct, connect, and organize information in the brain, which is then manifested in planned behaviour” (Blasco et al., 2014, p. 3). These processes mostly take place in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Rissanen, 2022). Making a sound decision will require Jack to use cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory.

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Jack Remembers Past Experiences with Their Peer

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Jack Remembers Past Experiences with Their Peer

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o   Memories are stored in different parts of the brain. The context of a memory is stored in the hippocampus, while the emotions linked to the memory are stored in the amygdala; more negative memories have stronger connections between the amygdala and the hippocampus, which will influence which memories are retrieved by the prefrontal cortex (Trafton, 2014).

o   Jack has encountered a similar experience before with this peer-the peer took Jack’s toy and as a result, Jack experienced sadness, fear, and anger. Their ventromedial prefrontal cortex uses behavioural context to retrieve appropriate memories from the hippocampus to make predictions about this peer and calibrate his behaviour (Preston & Eichenbaum, 2013).

o   Jack’s left hippocampus also has to work with the right temporoparietal junction to combine autobiographical memory with his ability to infer the mental states of others, allowing Jack to react appropriately in this scenario (Spreng & Mar, 2012). The left hippocampus and right temporo-parietal junction do not directly connect in this pathway, but both overlap with a number of related areas in the brain (including the posterior superior temporal sulcus, the angular gyrus, the bilateral superior temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate, dorsomedial and ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala) (Spreng & Mar, 2012).

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o   Jack’s amygdala and fusiform gyrus work together to identify their peer’s expression as anger; the amygdala remains active to capture Jack’s attention in the event of a further threat and uses this information to respond appropriately to this interaction (Wang et al., 2017).

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The long route involves the same stimulus being passed through the prefrontal cortex, where reactions are adjusted based on context-including a detailed representation and conceptualization of the peer, followed by a comparison of this representation with Jack’s memories by the hippocampus (McGill, n.d).

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The short route takes information straight from the thalamus to the amygdala, so Jack could be quickly alerted in case his toy had been taken by a dangerous creature (McGill, n.d.).

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Note. From Hwang, H.C., & Matsumoto, D. (2016). Facial expressions. 

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o   Facial recognition occurs in the fusiform gyrus, which is heavily influenced by the amygdala (McGill, n.d). The amygdala is crucial to processing external visual stimulus, including facial expressions (Whalen et al., 2013). The two are structurally connected, sitting on opposite ends of the inferior longitudinal fasciculus, and there is evidence that the fusiform gyrus is more sensitive to faces that display emotion due to influence by the amygdala (Herrington et al., 2012).

o   The Amygdala has two pathways of receiving information, the short route (fast in case of real danger), and the long route (slow but more precise):

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Jack has heard, seen, and felt a toy being removed from his hand, and now sees that object in the hand of his peer. Jack must next analyze the situation in two ways: interpreting the facial expression of their peer, and accessing memories of past interactions with said peer.

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The ventral route transports the signal to the inferotemporal cortex, which has specific neurons that respond to images of faces-this helps Jack to identify his peer and the object they are holding as Jack’s toy (McGill, n.d.).

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The dorsal route transports the signal to the posterior parietal cortex, which also receives information from the auditory and somatosensory systems to help Jack’s brain perceive motion and location-in this instance, the motion of a hand grabbing an object (Rissanen, 2022).

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o   Upon hearing and sensing the toy being removed from his hand, Jack instinctively looks up to gather more information on the situation. A structure in the midbrain, the superior colliculus, connects with the auditory, somatosensory, and visual systems to direct Jack’s head and eyes toward an object of interest (Chung & Chung, 2020). The visual information Jack sees enters his eye and strikes the visual receptors in his retina (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

o   The retinal ganglion cells from across the retina carry the signal out of the eyeball in a bundle referred to as the optic nerve; the optic nerve leads to the optic chiasm, where half of the retinal ganglion axons decussate and half do not (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.).

o   The optic tract then carries the signal to the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus, where optic radiations carry it to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe where signals are organized according to their visual features like color, shape, location and/or movement in space (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

o   After organization in the primary visual cortex, visual information travels down one of two pathways:

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Note. From Get Body smart (2022). Stimulation of skin receptors [Image]. https://www.getbodysmart.com/nervous-system/touch-pathway

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o   The exteroceptive system senses touch through cutaneous receptors in the skin, and the signal is carried from Jack’s hand ipsilaterally through his right dorsal column to the nucleus cuneatus in the medulla, where they then decussate and are transferred toward the thalamus as the left medial lemniscus (Neuroscientifically Challenged, n.d.).

o   The signal is passed on to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and then to the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus. Sensory information is preferentially processed in the right half of the brain, so this information must also be shared with the right primary somatosensory cortex through the corpus callosum (Coghill et al., 2001).

o   This information from the somatosensory system, along with auditory and visual information is transmitted to the posterior parietal cortex, which will provide information to the frontal lobe to interpret appropriate somatosensory action, and help Jack determine what to do next (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

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o   The sound waves produced by Jack’s peer when he yells “mine!” travel through his inner ear to the cochlea, where the vibrations they create excite the auditory nerve (Pinell & Edwards, 2008).

o   The signal from the left auditory nerve travels to two left cochlear nuclei in the medulla, and on to the superior olivary complex in the pons, where the signals synapse with multiple neurons-half of these decussate and half do not, allowing both hemispheres to receive information from both sides of the body (Pinell & Edwards, 2008). This enables Jack to locate where a sound is coming from.

o   The signal continues into the thalamus by way of the medial geniculate nuclei, which passes the signal on to the auditory radiations where it is finally transmitted ipsilaterally to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe (McGill, n.d.).

o   The primary auditory cortex organizes sounds by frequency or tone and passes this information on to the secondary auditory cortex, which analyzes sound localization, and where Wernicke’s area lies (McGill, n.d.). Wernicke’s area and the inferior parietal lobule plays an important role in comprehending speech, allowing Jack to understand the words his peer is saying (Pinell & Edwards, 2008; McGill, n.d.).

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Note. From Kidstock [Photograph of two children fighting over a toy]. Very Well Family. https://www.verywellfamily.com/gentleness-training-can-help-toddlers-adj

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Almost instantaneously, Jack’s auditory, optical, and peripheral nervous system are activated when a peer with whom Jack has a strained relationship yells "mine!" and takes a toy from his hand.