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Quand on parle comics, on pense tout d'abord au Marvel et au DC, de vrais super-héros! Alors que l'origine des comics date de plus d'un siècle avant que l'on entende parler de Capitaine América, Iron Man ou Thor! Ceux-ci arrivant au cours de la seconde guerre mondiale, la guerre froide et après. Lorsque l'Amérique avait besoin d'héros, de supersoldats, pour motiver les troupes!

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1971 CAPTAIN AMERICA AND IRON MAN Vintage Comics COMIC BOOK.JPG

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Une case est, dans le domaine de la bande dessinée, une zone de dessin délimitée par un cadre. On dit aussi vignette.

Caractéristiques

Une case est souvent rectangulaire ou carrée et bordée par un trait qui peut être dessinée à main levée ou à la règle et d'épaisseur variable. Plus rarement, elle peut avoir des formes plus variée (ronde, en étoile, ...), ou ne pas comporter de limite visible.

1. Le moment représenté, inscrit au sein d'une séquence de cases ;

2. L'image, avec son style graphique ;

3. Les mots, notamment les bulles et les bruitages ;

4. Le flux, c'est-à-dire le mouvement du regard du lecteur.

Succession des cases

Comme le nom " bande dessinée " l'indique, les cases sont pensées pour être enchainées en séquence.

De nombreuses dispositions de cases sont possibles pour former une planche.

On appelle gaufrier, une planche où les cases sont de taille identique et réparties régulièrement, comme, ci-dessous, 2 colonnes de 3 cases mais on peut aussi rencontrer des gaufriers de 3 cases horizontales sur 3 cases verticales par exemple. La lecture se fait par contre toujours en partant du coin supérieur gauche de la planche, de la case gauche vers la droite, puis en répétant cela sur chaque ligne jusqu'au coin inférieur droit.

En bande dessinée, on parle de strip ou Comic strip pour une bande dessinée de 3 ou 4 cases alignées de manière horizontale et se lisant de gauche à droite qui raconte souvent un gag à l'instar de , ou . Ce sont souvent des bandes dessinées publiées dans la presse papier ou sur des blogs. On peut aussi avoir des strips verticaux, c'est le cas de La vie secrète des jeunes de Riad Sattouf publié dans Charlie Hebdo par exemple.

Transition entre deux cases

La zone entre deux cases est l'inter-case, ou le caniveau. Cet espace laissé blanc est en quelque sorte une ellipse car il symbolise le passage du temps entre les deux cases qu'il sépare.

Scott McCloud définit cinq types de transitions entre deux cases :

1. De moment à moment ;

2. D'action à action ;

3. De sujet à sujet ;

4. De scène à scène ;

5. De point de vue à point de vue ;

6. Du coq à l'âne.

Utilisation

La succession des cases (généralement dans le même sens de lecture que pour le texte) permet de rythmer le récit : l'espace devient le temps. Mais ce rythme n'est jamais complètement imposé au lecteur, lui laissant une bonne part d'interprétation. Ce fameux " espace entre les cases " forme une des grandes spécificités de la bande dessinée.

Sur l'exemple ci-contre, on voit le personnage du Petit Sammy évoluer sur 6 cases entourée d'un trait noir. Chaque case décomposant un mouvement à un instant T du personnage d'un état statique jusqu'à l'éternuement. L'effet comique de Winsor McCay est de montrer que l'éternuement provoque la rupture de la case sur l'enfant comme s'il s'agissait d'une fenêtre placée face à lui et qu'il aurait brisée par la force de son éternuement.

Dans une bande dessinée, les personnages acteurs de l'action au sein de la case ne sont pas conscients d'être dans une case. Certains auteurs s'amusent du support de la bande dessinée pour explorer de nouvelles manières de faire interagir leurs personnages avec le support même de la bande dessinée qu'est la case. On peut citer les travaux des membres de l' Oubapo, Ouvroir de Bande Dessinée Potentielle, qui montrent les possibilités du support de la bande dessinée. Par exemple Lewis Trondheim utilise l' itération iconique qui consiste à répéter plusieurs fois une même case pour raconter une histoire. Étienne Lécroart également membre de l'Oubapo fait également intervenir ses personnages avec les cases dans Cercle Vicieux et Le Cycle.

Dans l'album , premier tome de la série Julius Corentin Acquefacques, Marc-Antoine Mathieu joue avec ce concept en créant une anti-case, c'est-à-dire une case remplacée par un trou dans la planche et laissant voir la case située sur la planche située 2 pages plus loin ou 2 pages précédentes une fois qu'on a tourné la page. L'idée de l'auteur est de créer un nouveau niveau de lecture en intégrant dans la narration la case vue à travers le trou une fois que l'album est relié.

Références

Bibliographie

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Une case est, dans le domaine de la bande dessinée, une zone de dessin délimitée par un cadre. On dit aussi vignette. Une case est souvent rectangulaire ou carrée et bordée par un trait qui peut être dessinée à main levée ou à la règle et d'épaisseur variable.

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Quand on parle de scénario pour la BD, on pense évidemment au travail d'écriture pour le cinéma ou la TV. Or, il faut bien comprendre que, dans la BD, la collaboration entre le scénariste et le dessinateur n'est pas du même ordre. Alors qu'une production audiovisuelle est lourde et implique beaucoup de personnes, pour une BD, il s'agit essentiellement d'un échange entre le scénariste et le dessinateur, et, éventuellement le coloriste. On est bien plus dans un rapport d'intimité et de complicité.

En outre, le standard franco-belge qui impose un format fixe de 46 pages, oblige à beaucoup de rigueur de la part des auteurs, qui doivent s'assurer de caler leur narration dans ces 46 pages : ni plus ni moins. C'est pourquoi le travail de découpage est partagé entre le scénariste et le dessinateur.
Ce qui n'est pas le cas dans l'audiovisuel : le scénariste se contente de suggérer, par la description, les plans envisagés.

La symbiose entre scénario et dessin est en effet essentielle dans la BD. N'oubliez pas non plus que les textes (cartons et dialogues du scénariste) vont de pair avec les images (les illustrations du dessinateur).

Pour autant, la BD n'a pas vraiment un process bien établi quant à la rédaction des scénarios. Certains auteurs, qui sont également dessinateurs, envoient directement des storyboards à ces dessinateurs : on y trouve les esquisses des pages, des cases et les bulles de texte. D'autres envoient de simples propositions de découpage la page. Enfin, d'autres envoient des scripts qui ressemblent au modèle audiovisuel : découpage en séquence, description, dialogue. En résumé, cela dépend, tant des habitudes du scénariste, que celles du dessinateur, voire de leur méthode propre de collaboration.

Scénario BD : les 6 étapes

La réalisation de planches BD prend environ un an. L'écriture de son scénario : quelques mois. Il y a un décalage incompressible entre les deux activités. Même si le scénario peut se faire au fur et à mesure de l'avancé du dessin, il est forcément premier.

Si le dessinateur n'illustre pas plus d'une BD dans l'année, le scénariste BD, s'il veut en vivre, travaille sur plusieurs projets en même temps. Il devient rapidement utile, voire indispensable, pour le scénariste, de fractionner le travail global d'écriture en tâches intermédiaires, de plus petite taille.

L'intérêt pour le scénariste est d'avancer pas-à-pas dans l'écriture tout en ne perdant pas de vue la vision d'ensemble (de l'album, voire de la série). Intérêt double, car cela permet au scénariste de jongler avec ses autres activités : d'autres scénarios, des cours d'écriture, des animations artistiques, des piges, etc.

Je ne vous propose LA METHODE d'écriture de scénario BD, puisqu'il n'y en a pas réellement, mais celle qui m'est propre, celle que j'ai mise au point avec le temps. Cela fait presque 20 ans que j'écris des scénarii pour la BD.

J'ai fini par scinder mon processus d'écriture en 6 étapes intermédiaires. 6 étapes qui se suivent dans la chronologie et marquent le travail de maturation du projet, du projet à la livraison finale. 6 étapes qui me permettent d'aller encore un peu plus loin dans la scénarisation d'une BD.

Voyons désormais plus précisément ce qu'elles signifient

1) scénario BD : le synopsis

Une idée ou un pitch permet de vendre un concept mais ne suffit pas quand il s'agit d'approfondir le sujet : d'aborder sa concrétisation. Il faut désormais se mettre d'accord sur l'histoire à raconter. C'est le synopsis, un résumé assez précis de l'histoire. Il permet aux auteurs (et à l'éditeur) de valider le projet dans ses grandes lignes narratives.

Un synopsis est chronologique, il présente l'histoire telle qu'elle se déroule objectivement. Il fait environ 3 ou 4 pages pour un album de 46 pages.

2) le séquencier

Le synopsis est maintenant validé. Le scénariste et le dessinateur partagent désormais une vision, une histoire en commun : le synopsis. Le scénariste se doit d'aller plus loin : proposer au dessinateur une version plus scénarisée de cette histoire, le séquencier.

Le séquencier est l'intention de narration, le déroulé de la narration au public. Ce document explique comment le lecteur va lire/découvrir l'histoire. Contrairement au synopsis, une narration n'est pas forcément chronologique. C'est un choix des auteurs : comment veulent-ils raconter leur histoire à leurs lecteurs ?

Le séquencier liste la succession des scènes qui vont s'enchaîner dans l'album. C'est également l'occasion pour le scénariste de proposer une première version du découpage de l'album : telle scène = 3 pages par exemple, telle autre scène 2 pages, etc.

3) le découpage

Les auteurs sont maintenant d'accord sur le déroulé narratif. Le scénariste va encore plus loin et propose cette fois le découpage page par page, case par case. Il réalise le découpage de l'album.

Le découpage détermine la forme et le rythme de la narration, l'articulation entre texte et image. Le séquencier comme le découpage sont des étapes essentielles dans la collaboration des auteurs. Ils matérialisent leur vision de la dramatisation de l'histoire : la mise en scène, l'artistique (graphisme) et le littéraire (textuel). Je rappelle que la BD est un médium hybride, i.e. un livre qui exploite conjointement les conventions de la littérature et de la dramaturgie.

4) la continuité (non dialoguée)

Les auteurs ayant validé le travail de mise en scène, ne reste plus au scénariste qu'à écrire son script, ce qu'on appelle en audiovisuel, la continuité dialoguée. Personnellement, je segmente ce travail en deux sous-parties, car j'utilise un gabarit de script propre à la BD. Je scinde mes pages de scénario en deux colonnes : description (le visuel) et dialogues (les bulles et les textes off).

Le travail d'écriture BD, je le répète étant contraint par le format fixe (le nombre de pages et la taille de la page), je m'assure d'abord de bien dérouler la narration page après page.

Même si les étapes de séquencier/découpage ont bien préparé mon travail, il peut y avoir des surprises (c'est trop petit ou trop grand), je peux aussi avoir de nouvelles idées. Il faut se laisser la possibilité d'ajuster son tir. N.B. Réécrire une bulle n'est pas aussi long que redessiner une case.

5) les dialogues

Maintenant que la continuité (le visuel) est posée, je me concentre sur le littéraire : les bulles. Elles viennent en dernier. Elles n'ont d'utilité que parce qu'elles clarifient la narration, lui donnent plus de force ou de nuance. Si je sépare la rédaction des dialogues de la description c'est parce qu'elle ne sollicite pas mon cerveau de la même manière. Quand j'écris des dialogues, je veux être dans le flow de la narration, dans la tête des personnages. Je ne veux plus trop me préoccuper des questions de cadrage, de mise en scène, du visuel quoi.

Comme vous vous en rendez compte, mon travail de dialoguiste n'est que la partie émergée de l'iceberg. Il est pourtant significatif : c'est lui qui, aux yeux du public, matérialisera mon empreinte dans l'album.

6) scénario BD : le polissage

J'ai désormais le scénario au complet, en tout cas, un premier jet. Il ne reste plus qu'à le relire et le polir jusqu'à ce qu'il soit le plus efficace possible. Dans les faits, je passe surtout du temps à retravailler les dialogues. Il faut qu'ils sonnent justes, qu'ils s'enchaînent bien, qu'ils ne soient pas trop long, qu'ils soient lisibles (qu'on devine le sous-texte sans trop de difficulté).

Je dois être le premier satisfait de la lecture du script avant de l'envoyer au dessinateur.

Une 7e étape ?

Pour être tout à fait honnête, mon travail d'écriture ne s'arrête pas là. J'accompagne le dessinateur jusqu'à la fabrication de l'album. Lui, le coloriste ou l'éditeur me fait part de ses doutes, de ses suggestions. Il m'arrive, après la livraison du script, de devoir encore retoucher le texte. L'idée étant d'arriver à un résultat qui fasse l'unanimité auprès des auteurs, le bonheur de son éditeur et le plaisir de ses lecteurs.

À la différence des 6 précédentes phases, celle-ci ne dépend pas de moi, mais des retours de mes collaborateurs. C'est pour cela que je ne la compte pas dans la liste. Il ne s'agit pas ici de méthode personnelle d'écriture, mais de prendre en compte les avis de ses interlocuteurs.

Pour finir, j'espère que ce témoignage vous aidera à (mieux) écrire vos scénarios et n'hésitez pas à me partager dans les commentaires votre propre méthode d'écriture BD.
Si vous voulez en savoir plus, je vous invite maintenant à lire l'article sur les règles de présentation d'un script de BD.

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les 6 étapes de l'écriture d'un scénario BD - Scénario 2.0

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Quand on parle de scénario pour la BD, on pense évidemment au travail d'écriture pour le cinéma ou la TV. Or, il faut bien comprendre que, dans la BD, la collaboration entre le scénariste et le dessinateur n'est pas du même ordre.

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Le premier facteur qui différencie majoritairement la BD du comics est la géographie. La BD a des origines principalement franco-belge, enfin européenne. Alors que le comics nous vient d'Amérique, surtout des États-Unis, mais est souvent ramener au monde anglosaxon tout simplement.

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Évidemment, d'autres différences que l'origine entre en ligne de compte. Notamment la longueur de l'histoire. Au début, les BD, en Europe, étaient plus dense, avec des couvertures cartonnées, comme n'importe quel autre livre. Alors que les comics, chez les américains, étaient très courtes. Allant d'une simple planche dans un journal à une quinzaine ou une vingtaine de planches sous un format plus magazine.

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Pour les lecteurs de BD, Manga et Comics aguerri, faire la différence entre les styles est très facile, mais ce n'est pas le cas de tout le monde. C'est plusieurs détails qui font en fait la différence, comme l'allure des personnages, le style des décors, les ambiances… Par exemple, comme les comics sont plus court, il y a toujours plus d'action dans chaque case et chaque case est nécessaire.

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Ce dessinateur de comics pour Marvel est à l'origine (avec son frère) d'une application disponible sur Android et IOS offre des tutos de débutant gratuit et des tutos plus avancés payant. (Plus d'infos dans la colonne « Auteurs et dessinateurs célèbres)

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Mais qu'il se ressemble de case en case!

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Style Comics!!!

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Les comics. Quel mot étrange. Quel monde étrange. Où un hercule en collants bleus et slip rouge fend les cieux. Où des orphelins se déguisent en chauve-souris ou en homme araignée pour combattre le crime. On y trouve une amazone qui joue du lasso, un scientifique introverti qui se transforme en monstre vert énervé ou encore un canadien caractériel et griffu. Et dire que tout a commencé avec un gamin en chemise de nuit jaune...

Les comics, ou comic books, pour les Américains ça signifie tout simplement la bande dessinée. De Superman à Tintin en passant par Naruto, tous sont des comics pour eux. Cependant, au sens où on l'entend habituellement, le mot comics désigne plus spécifiquement la bande dessinée Américaine, qu'on distingue de la BD (européenne) et des Mangas (Japonais). Les premiers comics remontent à la fin du XIXème siècle, avec The Yellow Kid in McFadden's Flats (1897) qui réimprimait sous forme de magazines des épisodes du comics strip Hogan's Alley mettant en scène le fameux gamin en chemise de nuit jaune. Bien d'autres suivirent, surtout dans les années 30. Il s'agissait essentiellement de récits comiques (d'où le nom de comic books, et le surnom de funny books), de westerns ou d'histoires d'aventure. C'est en 1938, avec la création d'un certain Kryptonien, que l'histoire des comics va réellement débuter.

Le Golden Age (1938 - 1955) : gloire et infamie

Un jour de juin 1938, Action Comics #1, publié par DC comics, débarque sur les étals des marchands de journaux pour la modique somme de 10 cents. C'est la première apparition de Superman, personnage créé par deux amis, Jerry Siegel et Joe Shuster. Extra-terrestre seul survivant de sa planète disparue, il porte un costume aux couleurs vives, a des pouvoirs extraordinaires et les utilise pour combattre le crime. Il est le premier super-héros au monde et le succès sera aussi immédiat que colossal. Action Comics se vend à des millions d'exemplaires. Un an après, DC réussit un second coup de maître avec Detective Comics #27, la première apparition de Batman.. Les éditeurs concurrents ne sont pas en reste et veulent tous leur part du gâteau : bien d'autres super-héros sont créés dont Captain America chez Timely Comics (futur Marvel). La seconde guerre mondiale contribuera grandement à la popularité de ces personnages, qui combattent les ennemis des Etats-Unis.

Après guerre, un autre éditeur fait beaucoup parler : EC Comics. Il se spécialise à partir des années 50 dans les polars et histoires d'horreurs d'une rare violence. Le succès est là aussi considérable au point qu'EC devient le numéro un de l'industrie. Il réussit même à attirer un public plus adulte, alors que les comics étaient à l'époque exclusivement destinés aux jeunes adolescents.

Hélas, cet âge d'or ne durera pas. Cela principalement à cause d'un homme, le docteur Frederic Wertham. Ce psychiatre publie en 1954 Seduction Of The Innocents, un pamphlet extrêmement virulent contre les comics qu'il rend responsables de la délinquance des jeunes, de l'homosexualité et du communisme. Son ouvrage fait grand bruit. Le spectre de la censure étatique qui plane alors sur la toute jeune industrie des comics incite ses acteurs à prendre les devants en créant leur propre code d'autocensure : le Comic Code. La conséquence est la disparition de tous les polars et titres d'horreur.

A cela s'ajoute un constant déclin de la popularité des super-héros après guerre (seuls Superman et Batman y résisteront) entraînant la disparition de nombreux titres. C'est de cette triste manière que le Golden Age s'achève.

Le Silver Age (1956 - 1972) : renaissance et renouveau

Symboliquement, on considère que le Silver Age commence en octobre 1956 avec Showcase #4. C'est dans ce numéro qu'apparaît une nouvelle version de Flash, un super-héros DC créé durant le Golden Age et dont la série avait été annulée. De l'original il ne garde que le nom de code et les pouvoirs (courir vite). Pour tout le reste, il s'agit d'un nouveau personnage nommé Barry Allen. Ce nouveau départ sera l'origine de la renaissance des super-héros, qui redeviennent populaires. Ainsi DC relancera des nouvelles versions de tous ses personnages les plus populaires ( Wonder Woman, Green Lantern ...) dont la plupart ont encore leur propre série aujourd'hui.

Mais le véritable renouveau viendra d'ailleurs. De chez Timely Comics précisément, rebaptisé Marvel Comics, et de deux génies à l'imagination aussi extraordinaire que leur talent : Stan Lee et Jack Kirby. En novembre 1961, le duo lance Fantastic Four #1 et c'est une révolution. Les quatre héros sont aux antipodes des codes des super-héros. Nos héros se disputent entre eux et ont des problèmes qui n'ont parfois rien à voir avec le fait de sauver le monde, comme payer leur loyer. Bref ils ont leurs défauts et sont fondamentalement humains. Ce principe de " héros imparfaits " sera décliné dans toutes les créations du duo Lee / Kirby (Hulk, Thor, les X-Men...) et ne sera jamais aussi bien exploité que chez Spider-Man (pour le coup créé par Lee et Steve Ditko).

Le Silver Age c'est aussi l'époque où les comics s'intéressent au monde réel pour la première fois depuis la guerre. Racisme, drogue, politique sont autant de thèmes abordés par les auteurs, qui n'hésitent pas à l'occasion à s'affranchir du Comic Code pour pouvoir raconter leurs histoires. Cela y compris dans des séries majeures comme Amazing Spider-Man. Un autre aspect de cette prise de conscience sociale des comics est la naissance des comics underground (ou comix) avec Zap Comix #1 de Robert Crumb. Trash, provocateurs, ces comics sont tirés à très peu d'exemplaires et abordent sexe, politique et drogue d'une manière qui n'a rien à voir avec ce qu'on peut voir dans la production grand public. Ici aucun tabou n'est de mise.

Bref, les comics mûrissent et on voit l'aboutissement de cette évolution avec l'âge suivant.

Le Bronze Age (1973 - 1991) : maturité et mercantilisme

Les comics avaient déjà commencé à perdre de leur innocence au Silver Age en se penchant sur les maux de la société. Mais c'est durant le Bronze Age qu'ils lui diront définitivement adieu. On peut symboliquement faire démarrer cette époque en Mars 1973 avec la mort de Gwen Stacy, la petite amie de Spider-Man, dans les pages d'Amazing Spider-Man #121. Ce fut la première mort réellement marquante d'un personnage important d'une série (par opposition à des morts qui sont des ficelles scénaristiques comme celles des parents de Batman ou de l'oncle de Spider-Man, des personnages qu'on a vu uniquement dans le numéro où ils disparaissent). L'histoire déchaîne les passions chez les lecteurs. Bien d'autres morts suivront : Jean Grey dans Uncanny X-Men, Elektra dans Daredevil, Robin dans Batman... Plus que des astuces commerciales, ces histoires sont le symbole de l'entrée des comics dans l'âge adulte. Ils n'hésitent plus à être sérieux, voire tragiques. Cette nouvelle maturité permettra l'apparition d'histoires plus fouillées, plus riches, dont bon nombre deviendront des classiques incontournables tels que Watchmen par Alan Moore, ou The Dark Knight Returns et Daredevil Born Again par Frank Miller.

Le Bronze Age sera aussi une période faste pour un titre qui peinait durant le Silver Age : Uncanny X-Men. Sous la houlette de Chris Claremont et John Byrne les mutants atteindront les sommets en termes de popularité avec une nouvelle équipe très internationale incluant le Canadien Wolverine. Le duo offre ses lettres de noblesse à la série en multipliant les histoires qui deviennent des références comme la Saga du Phoenix Noir. Le même John Byrne sera l'artisan du reboot de Superman quelques années plus tard avec The Man Of Steel.

L'époque voit aussi l'apparition d'un phénomène qui est à la fois l'un des plus grands attraits et des pires repoussoirs du monde des comics : le méga crossover. Il était déjà arrivé que des personnages de séries différentes (voir d'univers différents) se croisent dans les pages d'un même titre. Mais avec Secret Wars #1 en 1984, Marvel passe au niveau supérieur en créant une mini-série impliquant tous ses personnages. Le succès commercial est au rendez vous et en mars 1985 DC lance sa réponse : Crisis On Infinite Earths (qui aura en plus pour objectif de remettre de l'ordre dans la continuité de l'univers). Les crossovers deviendront une habitude et seront annoncés avec force battage médiatique à chaque fois, tendance qui perdure encore aujourd'hui.

Le Modern Age (1992 - Présent) : décadence et grandeur

Cette dernière période est la moins bien définie. Il n'existe en effet pas de réel consensus quant à son début, ni même quant à son nom. La seule certitude est qu'on a quitté le Bronze Age. Symboliquement, Comicsblog a donc décidé de fixer le début du Modern Age à la naissance d'Image Comics, en raison de son impact sur l'industrie des Comics.

En 1992, sept artistes superstars décident de claquer la porte de Marvel pour fonder leur propre maison d'édition. Les meneurs de cette fronde sont Rob Liefeld, Todd McFarlane, Jim Lee et Marc Silvestri. La raison de leurs départs : ils en ont assez de voir Marvel gagner des millions grâce à leur travail et de ne toucher que des miettes. Alors ils lancent Image Comics pour y créer leurs personnages creator-owned, c'est-à-dire dont les droits appartiendront en intégralité à leurs créateurs. Ils rencontreront un succès incroyable, dépassant leurs attentes les plus folles.

La raison pour laquelle la création d'Image a été un évènement si marquant dépasse son succès commercial. L'éditeur a en effet incarné à la perfection toutes les tendances de l'industrie des comics dans le Modern Age. D'abord dans les années 90, où les artistes sont les rois. Ce sont leurs noms qui font vendre. Les scénarios sont par contre souvent des histoires simplettes de super-héros débordant de testostérone, d'antihéros torturés et violents ou de bad girls hyper sexy. C'est l'héritage du Bronze Age perverti. L'autre tendance majeure de la décennie, c'est la collection. Le marché des comics connaît un boom et le comic devient un objet précieux. Les variant covers se multiplient à outrance et s'échangent pour des sommes folles (jusqu'à des centaines de dollars). Du côté des deux gros éditeur, Marvel et DC, on surfe sur la vague mais comme en réaction à la prise de pouvoir des créateurs chez Image, les éditeurs encadrent de plus en plus fermement les auteurs.

Cependant cette période où l'argent coule à flots ne dure pas. Un effondrement aussi dramatique que soudain du lectorat entraîne une crise pour l'industrie qui se retrouve saturée. Les ventes s'effondrent..

Mais durant les années 2000, les comics sortent la tête de l'eau en se renouvelant. L'accent est de nouveau mis sur les scénarios et plus seulement sur les dessins. Une nouvelle génération d'auteurs émerge ( Brian Michael Bendis, Ed Brubaker, Mark Millar...) et de véritables passionnés prennent les rennes de Marvel et DC (respectivement Joe Quesada et Dan Didio). On laisse les mains plus libres aux créateurs et l'archaïque Comic Code est enfin abandonné. Les comics envahissent aussi la culture " grand public " par le biais du cinéma, avec une pléthore d'adaptations à succès. Ainsi une nouvelle ère de créativité et de popularité naît des cendres des années 90, et dure encore aujourd'hui. Jusqu'au prochain âge...

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Les comics. Quel mot étrange. Quel monde étrange. Où un hercule en collants bleus et slip rouge fend les cieux. Où des orphelins se déguisent en chauve-souris ou en homme araignée pour combattre le crime. On y trouve une amazone qui joue du ....

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L' histoire de la bande dessinée américaine commence en 1842 avec la traduction d'une œuvre de Rodolphe Töpffer : The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck . Des artistes locaux s'emparent par la suite de ce nouveau média et créent les premières bandes dessinées américaines. Néanmoins, c'est le développement de la presse quotidienne qui permet à celle-ci de toucher un lectorat important avec les . Les premières années sont celles de la mise en place de codes canoniques de la bande dessinée (personnage récurrent, phylactères, etc.) et des premiers genres ( family strips , récits d'aventures). Des personnages acquièrent une célébrité nationale et font l'objet d'adaptation trans-médiatiques tandis que les journaux se livrent un combat féroce pour avoir les auteurs les plus populaires.

La seconde évolution majeure est celle du , en 1934, qui permet la diffusion de bande dessinée (d'abord des rééditions de comic strips ) dans des supports dédiés. En 1938, lorsque Superman apparaît dans un de ces comic books, commence ce qui est appelé communément l'" âge d'or des comics ". Durant les années de guerre, les super-héros et l' animalier sont les genres les plus populaires. À la suite du déclin des super-héros, de nouveaux genres se développent (western, romance, science-fiction, etc.) et touchent un lectorat toujours plus important. Au début des années 1950, avec l'émergence de la télévision, la vente de comic books commence à décliner. Parallèlement, ils subissent de nombreuses attaques quant à leur prétendue nocivité pour la jeunesse. L'instauration de la Comics Code Authority fait disparaître les séries policières et d'horreur incriminées. Les comic strips ne sont pas touchés par ces attaques, ni les magazines.

En 1956 commence l'" âge d'argent des comics " avec la remise au goût du jour des super-héros , par . Si Dell Comics et ses bandes dessinées pour enfants reste la première maison d'édition de comic books, les genres autres que celui des super-héros commencent à décliner et de nombreux éditeurs ferment. Des super-héros très populaires, essentiellement créés par Stan Lee et Jack Kirby, apparaissent chez Marvel Comics. Celui-ci devient le premier éditeur de bande dessinée et le reste lors de la période suivante nommée l'" âge de bronze " (du début des années 1970 à 1985) pendant laquelle les histoires deviennent moins manichéennes alors que le comic book de super-héros assoit son hégémonie. La distinction entre ces deux périodes est souvent liée par les historiens à un évènement mais il s'agit plutôt d'une série de changements qui affectent plusieurs aspects du monde des comics. Dans le même temps apparaît la bande dessinée underground, qui, sur le plan esthétique, aborde des thèmes inédits et, sur le plan économique, s'appuie sur un nouveau modèle de diffusion. Les comic strips continuent à être diffusés dans tout le pays, certains connaissant une diffusion internationale, comme les .

La période moderne apparaît d'abord comme un nouvel âge d'or lorsque des scénaristes et des dessinateurs recréent les personnages classiques ou lancent de nouvelles séries qui attirent des millions de lecteurs. Cependant, elle est ensuite marquée par un ensemble de crises qui menacent l'équilibre financier de nombreux acteurs. La bande dessinée alternative, fille de la bande dessinée underground se développe dans la lignée d' Art Spiegelman et son . Le comic strip connaît quant à lui une crise de plus en plus marquée dans les années 2000 liée à celle de la presse dans son ensemble alors que dans le même temps se développent les webcomics, nés aux États-Unis.

Les historiens américains des comics utilisent généralement un découpage chronologique en " âges ". La première période, baptisée " âge d'or " est celle qui s'étend de 1938 (première apparition de Superman) à 1954 (instauration du Comics Code). La période suivante, l'" âge d'argent ", va de 1956 au début des années 1970 et celle qui lui succède immédiatement et qui va jusqu'en 1986 est l'" âge de bronze ". Enfin, la dernière période, de 1986 à nos jours est l'" âge moderne ". Cette division est habituelle mais tous les critiques ne l'appliquent pas ; certains proposent leurs propres périodes,. De plus les dates retenues peuvent varier selon les auteurs (il existe au moins quatre dates pour marquer la fin de l'âge de bronze).

Shirrel Rhoades dans son ouvrage A Complete History of American Comic Books reprend la division canonique mais cite Ken Quattro qui dans The New Ages : Rethinking Comic Book History propose trois périodes héroïques (de 1938 à 1955, de 1956 à 1986 et de 1986 à maintenant). Rhoades cite aussi Steve Geppi qui, prenant en compte les comic strips, divise l'histoire des comics en âges " victorien " ( Victorian Age , de 1828 à 1882), " de platine " (" Platinum Age ", de 1882 à 1938), " d'or " (" ", de 1938 à 1945), " atomique " (" ", de 1946 à 1956), " d'argent " (" ", de 1956 à 1971), " de bronze " (" ", de 1971 à 1985), " de cuivre " (" ", de 1986 à 1992), " de chrome " (" ", de 1992 à 1999) et " moderne " (" ", depuis 2000). Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith dans The Power of Comics: History, Form and Culture préfèrent parler d'ère de l'invention, de la prolifération, de la diversification, etc. La prise en compte des comic strips dans l'histoire générale des comics a amené certains, dont Steve Geppi, à ajouter deux périodes précédant l'âge d'or : la période victorienne (des origines, de 1828 à 1882) et l'âge de platine (la période des comic strips ). En effet, à l'origine seuls l'âge d'or et l'âge d'argent avaient droit de cité depuis que les termes Golden Age et Silver Age étaient apparus dans une lettre d'un lecteur publiée dans le 42 de Justice League of America de qui affirmait : Si vous continuez à ramener les héros de l'âge d'or, dans vingt ans les gens parleront de cette décennie comme des sixties d'argent,.

La bande dessinée aux États-Unis tire son origine des premières œuvres européennes. En effet, dès 1842, Les amours de M. Vieux-bois de Rodolphe Töpffer est publié sous le titre The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck . Cette édition est un piratage de l'œuvre originale car elle se fait sans l'autorisation de Töpffer et sans que celui-ci touche de droits d'auteur. Cette première publication est suivie de celle des autres œuvres de cet auteur, toujours sous formes d'éditions pirates. Les bandes dessinées de Töpffer sont régulièrement rééditées jusqu'à la fin des années 1870, ce qui donne à des artistes américains l'idée de produire des ouvrages semblables. Journey to the Gold Diggins by Jeremiah Saddlebags de James A. et Donald F. Read est en 1849 la première bande dessinée américaine,.

La production indigène reste cependant limitée jusqu'à l'émergence de magazines satiriques qui, sur le modèle du britannique , publient dessins et courts textes humoristiques, mais aussi des récits en images et des bandes dessinées muettes. Les trois principaux titres sont , et . Des auteurs comme Arthur Burdett Frost y créent des histoires aussi innovantes que celles produites à la même période par les Européens.

Ces revues n'atteignent cependant qu'un public cultivé et assez riche pour pouvoir se les payer. Il faut attendre les progrès technologiques permettant une reproduction aisée et bon marché des images pour que la bande dessinée américaine prenne son envol. Quelques magnats de la presse comme William Randolph Hearst et Joseph Pulitzer se livrent alors une concurrence acharnée pour attirer des lecteurs et décident de publier des bandes dessinées dans leurs journaux.

La période de la fin du siècle se caractérise par la mise en place progressive des éléments essentiels de la bande dessinée de masse américaine. On trouve alors dans ces journaux des pages d'humour, les , qui sont publiées dans l'édition dominicale afin de fidéliser le lectorat. En effet, ce ne sont pas les informations données qui distinguent les journaux mais le discours éditorial et les pages qui ne sont pas informatives, dont les illustrations sont une composante importante. Ces pages portent alors le nom de comic supplément . En 1892, William Randolph Hearst fait paraître des dessins humoristiques dans son premier journal, le San Francisco Examiner . James Swinnerton crée à cette occasion les premiers dessins d'animaux humanisés dans la série Little Bears and Tykes (" Les Petits Ours et les Mômes "). Cependant, les dessins publiés dans la presse sont plutôt des séries de dessins humoristiques indépendants occupant une page complète. L'objet bande dessinée même, en tant que séquence narrative exprimée au moyen d'images qui se succèdent, ne s'impose que lentement.

En 1894, Joseph Pulitzer publie dans le le premier strip en couleurs, dessiné par Walt McDougall, montrant que la technique permet dorénavant ce genre de publications. Des auteurs commencent à créer des personnages récurrents. Ainsi, toujours en 1894 et dans le New York World , Richard F. Outcault propose , créé quelque temps avant dans le périodique . Dans cette série de grands dessins pleine page fourmillant de détails humoristiques, il met en scène des gamins des rues, dont l'un est habillé d'une chemise de nuit bleue (qui devient jaune en 1895). Rapidement, le petit personnage devient la coqueluche des lecteurs qui le surnomment " " (" Le Gamin en jaune "). Le , le prononce ses premières paroles dans un phylactère (elles étaient auparavant écrites sur sa chemise). Outcault avait déjà utilisé ce procédé mais cette date est le plus souvent considérée aux États-Unis comme celle de naissance de la bande dessinée.

Le succès du dope les ventes du New York World , attisant la convoitise de Hearst. La concurrence féroce que se livrent Hearst et Pulitzer aboutit en 1896 au débauchage d'Outcault par Hearst pour travailler au . Une âpre bataille judiciaire autorise Pulitzer à continuer la parution de Hogan's Alley (qu'il confie à Georges B. Luks) et Hearst à publier la série sous un autre nom. Richard Outcault choisit comme titre The Yellow Kid . En 1897 est publié Yellow Kid Magazine constitué de planches précédemment parues dans des journaux et qui est le premier magazine de ce genre.

Les histoires de quelques cases disposées horizontalement sur deux bandes ou une page s'imposent rapidement : c'est le début des . En 1897, Rudolph Dirks crée dans American Humorist , supplément hebdomadaire du New York Journal , The Katzenjammer Kids , connu en France sous le nom de Pim Pam Poum. Très vite, Dirks utilise des bulles et sa série de bande dessinée devient la première à utiliser systématiquement la narration linéaire.

Les lecteurs de ces journaux spectateurs de tous ces débauchages qui donnent lieu à des procès surnomment cette presse le " Yellow journalism ", expression qui désigne un journalisme fondé sur le sensationnel et les " coups ".

À la suite du succès d'Outcault et Dirks, de nombreux dessinateurs s'essaient au comic strip . Beaucoup ne font que suivre les séries à succès. Mais se devant de séduire un lectorat de plus en plus exigeant mais versatile, d'autres auteurs rivalisent d'imagination. Qu'elles soient inspirées par le quotidien ou plus fantastiques, certaines bandes dessinées jouent avec les codes de leur art, comme Le petit Sammy éternue de Winsor McCay (1904-1905), (1906-1907) du futur peintre Lyonel Feininger ou les Upside-Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo de Gustave Verbeck (1903-1905). Dans celle dernière série, publiée dans le New York Herald, Verbeck crée des strips en palindrome qui se lisent dans le sens normal de lecture de gauche à droite puis l'histoire se continue en retournant tête-bêche le journal et en relisant les cases dans le sens inverse, ce qui transforme Lady Lovekins en Old Man Muffaroo, le chapeau de l'une devenant la barbe de l'autre. De telles expérimentations inspirent, bien plus tard, des auteurs comme ceux de l' Oubapo.

À partir du , Winsor McCay publie Little Nemo in Slumberland dans le New York Herald de Pulitzer. Cette série est la plus emblématique de cette période. Les qualités de dessinateur et de l'imagination effrénée de McCay, son utilisation systématique des phylactères et son abandon des bandes pour une mise en page innovante où la taille des cases varie selon les besoins du récit donnent à cette bande dessinée une grande importance. Les couleurs jouent aussi un rôle important car McCay utilise des couleurs entre tons pastels et couleurs pures dans un style art nouveau. Little Nemo in Slumberland rencontre un grand succès public et McCay ne tarde pas à être débauché par le groupe de presse de Hearst en 1911, ce qui oblige McCay à renommer Little Nemo in Slumberland en In the Land of Wonderful Dreams ; la série continue jusqu'en 1914.

En 1912, Dirks, auteur des Katzenjammer Kids prend une année sabbatique en Europe. Hearst, ne souhaitant pas interrompre une série si populaires, confie alors les Kids à Harold Knerr. À son retour, Dirks propose alors sa bande au New York World de Pulitzer ; un procès oppose ensuite les deux éditeurs au sujet de la série. Finalement, le jugement permet à Dirks ce continuer à publier chez Pulitzer les aventures des personnages qu'il a créés, mais il doit adopter un nouveau titre (d'abord Hans and Fritz , puis The Captain and the Kids ). Le titre The Katzenjammer Kids demeure en effet la propriété de Hearst, qui continue de son côté à publier la version de Knerr. Deux séries très similaires, avec les mêmes personnages principaux mais avec des titres différents, coexisteront ensuite dans la presse américaine durant plusieurs décennies. Cette jurisprudence, capitale dans l'histoire de la bande dessinée américaine, établit qu'une série appartient à l'éditeur de celle-ci plutôt qu'à son auteur. En laissant les mains libres aux éditeurs, elle encourage également ceux-ci à développer le merchandising autour des séries les plus appréciées des lecteurs,.

Si les comic strips se sont bien imposés dans le paysage de la presse américaine dominicale, ce n'est cependant qu'en 1903 qu'apparaît le premier daily strip (" bande quotidienne "), c'est-à-dire le premier comic strip publié quotidiennement, en noir et blanc, dans les pages intérieures d'un journal. Cette innovation est due au Chicago American de Hearst et à l'auteur Clare Briggs qui lancent en décembre A. Piker Clerk. Cette série dure peu et c'est seulement en 1907 que cette expérience du daily strip est tentée de nouveau. Le de cette année est publié dans le San Francisco Chronicle de Hearst Mr A. Mutt Starts In to Play the Races de Bud Fisher. Peu après, Fisher ajoute à Mutt un acolyte, Jeff, et la série devient Mutt and Jeff,. Le succès de la série amène cette fois les autres journaux à proposer des daily strip d'une bande en noir et blanc en semaine et un d'une page ou une demi-page en couleur le dimanche.

Cinq ans plus tard, Hearst est à l'origine d'une autre innovation qui structure en profondeur le comic strips : la syndication systématique. Ce procédé apparu au dix-neuvième siècle consiste pour un auteur à céder à l'éditeur ses droits de diffusions. Celui-ci peut alors proposer aux journaux américains et du monde entier des abonnements aux différentes œuvres de son catalogue, permettant à l'auteur de connaître une diffusion beaucoup plus importante que s'il ne publiait que dans un seul quotidien. En 1914, Hearst fonde avec Moses Koenigsberg le King Features Syndicate , le premier très gros américain. Il y distribuait des éditoriaux, des nouvelles, des dessins d'humour et politiques mais aussi des bandes dessinées. Dans ce cadre, l'auteur n'est qu'un employé de l'agence et il peut être remplacé à tous moments par un autre dessinateur qui reprend alors ses personnages. Les dessinateurs abandonnent tous leurs droits au profit des patrons de presse et cela dure jusqu'en 1950. Ainsi apparaît le principe du héros de bande dessinée passant de dessinateur en dessinateur. D'autres syndicate voient le jour durant cette période comme le United Feature Syndicate , le New York News Syndicate , le Field Newspaper Syndicate , etc.

C'est dans ce cadre qu'émerge une autre série importante, , de George Herriman. À l'origine, le chat Krazy Kat et la souris Ignatz Mouse n'était que le topper (courte bande dessinée située en haut, d'où le nom, ou en bas d'un sunday strip du même auteur) de , série familiale assez classique apparue dans le New York Journal en 1910. En 1913, Herriman lance le daily strip, suivi en 1916 du sunday strip. Cette série qu'il poursuit jusqu'à sa mort en 1944, moyennement appréciée des lecteurs mais soutenue par Hearst qui l'appréciait beaucoup, est l'une des rares à être remarquées par les critiques culturels et les artistes légitimes dans l'entre-deux-guerres. Elle est aujourd'hui considérée comme une œuvre majeure de la bande dessinée internationale compte tenu du nombre important de dessinateurs qui se déclarent influencés par le dessin de Herriman ainsi que par sa maîtrise de l'absurde et l'inventivité de son langage et de ses dialogues.

C'est à ce moment que les comics vont prendre un premier tournant. Si en Europe la bande dessinée est avant tout enfantine, aux États-Unis le comic strip est familial ; c'est ainsi que se développe ce qui est appelé plus tard les " family strips " : des séries racontant l'" " naissant. ouvre en 1912, dans le New York Evening , le chemin des family strips . Cliff Sterrett dessine les peines de cœur de Polly sans oublier de s'intéresser à toute la famille. À partir de 1918, le dessin de Sterrett subit l'influence des cubistes et du surréalisme, une approche qui fait de lui un des pionniers du graphisme moderne. Un autre dessinateur s'engouffre dans la brèche du family strip avec succès en 1913 : Geo McManus raconte l'histoire d'un couple de nouveaux riches partagé entre la reconnaissance sociale pour l'épouse, Maggie, et les copains de bar pour le mari, Jiggs. Geo McManus dessine La Famille Illico ( Bringing Up Father ) avec un trait particulièrement épuré.

Après ces deux séries qui précèdent la Première Guerre mondiale, d'autres vont suivre pour exploiter le filon des family strips . Ainsi, en 1918, Frank King fait rentrer la vraie vie dans sa série . Ses personnages vont vieillir comme dans la vie réelle, se marier, avoir des enfants et ce sous sa plume jusqu'en 1951. La série existe toujours en 2012. En 1920, ( Winnie Winkle) de Martin Branner pour le , un journal de Joseph Medill Patterson, autre magnat de la presse rival de William Randolph Hearst, est emblématique de l'évolution des mœurs. La femme américaine vient d'acquérir le droit de vote et Winnie vit comme une jeune femme libérée ses amours en tous genres. En France, la bande dessinée prend pour titre le nom de son frère Bicot (Perry dans la version américaine) et non de Suzy (Willie dans la version américaine).

Suit en 1924, en plein développement du capitalisme triomphant, créé par Harold Gray pour le , un autre titre de Patterson. Les héros Annie et Oliver " " Warbucks obtiennent tout ce qu'ils veulent par leur volonté et leur sens des affaires. Pour eux, l'audace paie toujours.

La Grande Dépression plonge les États-Unis dans le marasme, heureusement un héros va résoudre tous les problèmes avec une simple boîte d'épinards. Depuis 1919, Elzie Crisler Segar dessine dans les pages du New York Journal la série dans laquelle des personnages apparaissent et disparaissent au fil des strips ; l'un de ses personnages prend la vedette dès 1929 et impose son nom à la série : Popeye. E. Segar rebaptise donc sa série Popeye, the sailor (" Popeye le marin ") en 1931.

C'est en 1930, avec dessinée par Chic Young dans le " New York American Journal " qu'apparaît l'archétype du family strip : Blondie sacrifie sa vie facile et tranquille de jeune aristocrate pour aider Dagwood Bumstead. Surnommée " la petite fiancée de l'Amérique " par ses admirateurs, elle se marie quand même avec lui en 1933, sans perdre ses lecteurs.

En 1930 King Features Syndicate achète les droits à de Mickey Mouse apparu en 1927. Si le premier strip est scénarisé par Walt Disney et dessiné par Ub Iwerks avec un encrage de Win Smith, c'est Floyd Gottfredson qui assure l'évolution graphique de Mickey et de . Donald Duck apparaît en 1934, tandis que Carl Barks crée en 1947 l'oncle Picsou.

À partir du milieu des années 1920 apparaissent les séries mettant en scène des héros confrontés à toutes sortes d'aventures. Le premier artiste à proposer ce type de personnage est Roy Crane qui crée en 1924 pour le Newspaper Enterprise Association , et son aventurier éponyme à la recherche de trésors perdus. Cette aventure prend de l'importance en 1929 avec l'arrivée aux côtés de Wash Tubbs d'un nouveau personnage particulièrement athlétique : Captain Easy . Celui-ci prend de plus en plus de place pour finir par obtenir une page dominicale en 1933 sous le nom de Captain Easy, Soldier of Fortune . Wash Tubbs et Captain Easy sont repris dans les années 1930 en comic books par plusieurs éditeurs comme Dell, Hawley ou Argo.

Après Wash Tubbs d'autres héros vont arriver dans les pages des quotidiens. Parmi les plus célèbres figurent l'adaptation du personnage de roman Tarzan lancée par Hal Foster en 1929, Scorchy Smith créé en 1930 par John Terry et repris en 1933 par Noel Sickles, Dick Tracy, une bande dessinée policière de Chester Gould lancée en , Mandrake le magicien de Lee Falk, Flash Gordon, une bande dessinée de science-fiction d' Alex Raymond et Terry et les Pirates de Milton Caniff toutes trois créées en 1934.

En 1933, la bande dessinée américaine connaît une nouvelle révolution avec l'apparition des comic books. Max Gaines, à partir de strips publiés dans les journaux, crée un magazine destiné à être offert comme cadeau promotionnel par des entreprises. Par la suite, il a l'idée de vendre ces fascicules sans qu'ils soient liés à un produit. Cependant d'autres ont la même année et en 1933 paraissent deux comics Detective Dan, Secret Operative No. 48 , qui est le premier dans lequel est publié un récit inédit, et The adventures of Detective Ace King , tous deux édité par la société Humor Publication. Aucun de ces pionniers des comic books ne dépassent le premier numéro et leur manque de notoriété les fait tomber dans l'oubli Ainsi en , paraît un comic book de cent pages vendu au prix de dix cents et qui reprend des strips de journaux tels que , , Dixie Dugan,. Un seul numéro paraît cependant et, en , sort le premier numéro de Famous Funnies , série deux, qui est un mensuel publié jusqu'en 1955. Ce comics n'est pas immédiatement rentable et il faut attendre le septième numéro pour que Eastern Color Printing, la société qui l'édite, commence à gagner de l'argent. Bientôt de nouvelles maisons d'édition apparaissent pour profiter du succès grandissant de ce nouveau média et les différents genres du comic strip (humour, western, science-fiction, etc.) font l'objet de publications dédiées.

En 1938, l'une de ces maisons d'édition, nommée National Allied Publications, décide de lancer un nouveau comic book. National Allied Publications, fondée en 1934 par Malcom Wheeler-Nicholson, est depuis 1938 la propriété de Harry Donenfeld et Jack Liebowitz. À l'origine, la maison est déficitaire mais sous cette nouvelle direction elle commence à gagner de l'argent. Pour ce nouveau titre, les éditeurs sont à la recherche d'histoires originales. Ils acceptent donc le projet de deux jeunes auteurs, Joe Shuster et Jerry Siegel, qui ont déjà créé deux séries d'aventures ( et Slam Bradley) pour National. Ils présentent cette fois une série qui met en scène les aventures d'un personnage doué d'une force surhumaine et nommé Superman. Ce projet était déjà ancien et avait été présenté à plusieurs maisons d'édition qui l'avaient toutes refusé. C'est grâce à Max Gaines que Siegel et Shuster travaillent de nouveau à leur création, et que Donenfeld et Liebowitz se laissent convaincre de le publier. C'est donc dans le premier numéro, paru en , de ce nouveau comic book intitulé Action Comics, qu'apparaît le premier super-héros, Superman.

Le succès est immédiat et rapidement Superman est copié. Victor Fox, propriétaire de Fox Comics, demande à Will Eisner de créer un ersatz de Superman. Cela finit par un procès que Fox perd. En 1941, National lance une nouvelle procédure judiciaire, cette fois-ci contre Fawcett Comics, qui édite les aventures de Captain Marvel créé en 1940 par C. C. Beck. Cela n'empêche pas la multiplication des éditeurs Charlton Comics, Timely, etc. et des super-héros en tout genre. Timely présente ainsi Namor de Bill Everett ou Human Torch de Carl Burgos ; All-American Publications, fondé par Max Gaines en 1939, publie les aventures de Flash de Gardner Fox au scénario et Harry Lampert au dessin, Green Lantern de Bill Finger au scénario et Martin Nodell au dessin et Wonder Woman de William Moulton Marston, etc. alors que DC dans le numéro 27 de Detective Comics fait paraître les premières aventures de Batman, créé par Bob Kane et Bill Finger.

Si la bande dessinée américaine se développe dans le nouveau format du comic book, elle reste toujours aussi importante dans le format du comic strip . En effet, de nombreuses séries voient le jour pendant cette période d'avant-guerre. Parmi celles-ci se trouvent ( The Phantom ) de Lee Falk, qui commence à être publié en 1936, et Prince Vaillant de Hal Foster en 1937. En paraît la première histoire du , de Will Eisner, dans un supplément de seize pages à un journal. Dans un autre genre, celui de l'humour " intellectuel ", Walt Kelly propose . Les strips les plus appréciés sont diffusés dans des centaines de journaux et sont lus par des dizaines de millions de personnes.

Dans le flot de personnages de comic book, un super-héros s'impose par son originalité. Captain America, créé par Joe Simon et Jack Kirby, apparaît en et se fait immédiatement remarquer. L'ennemi n'est plus un quelconque savant fou ou un génie du mal, mais Adolf Hitler et ses sbires. La couverture du numéro 1 montre d'ailleurs Captain America donner un coup de poing au Führer. Bien qu'il ne soit pas le premier super-héros patriote, puisqu'il a été devancé par édité par MLJ (la date sur la couverture est ), Captain America est celui qui va lancer ce type de personnage. Martin Goodman, éditeur de Timely, voyant le succès du comics, publie rapidement les aventures de nouveaux personnages semblables, USAgent, puis Bucky. L'assistant de Captain America va avoir son propre comic book dans lequel il est allié à Toro, l'assistant de Human Torch et de jeunes sans pouvoir mais prêts à lutter contre le nazisme. D'autres éditeurs profitent du filon et de nombreux ersatz de Captain America apparaissent ; Kirby et Simon créent ainsi pour DC Comics The boys commando . Ce succès va s'accentuer avec l'entrée en guerre des États-Unis mais il s'achève dans l'immédiat après-guerre quand tous ces héros patriotiques perdent leurs adversaires : les nazis et les Japonais.

Si les comics de super-héros attirent les adolescents, ce ne sont pas ceux-là qui dominent la production. Le genre qui est le plus important est celui des comics mettant en scène des animaux anthropomorphes comme Mickey Mouse ou Bugs Bunny. En 1940, Dell Comics, en partenariat avec Western Publishing, publie le premier numéro de Walt Disney's Comics and Stories . Ce alterne les réimpressions des de Donald Duck de Al Taliaferro et des récits originaux de Mickey dessinés par Floyd Gottfredson. L'année d'après, Dell toujours, édite Looney Tunes & Merrie Melodies Comics un comics consacré aux héros de la Warner Bros. Suivent les personnages des dessins animés de Walter Lantz comme Woody Woodpecker et le périodique publié jusqu'à deux fois par semaine dans lequel on retrouve des personnages de Disney mais aussi d'autres héros popularisés par les dessins animés comme Popeye.

D'autres genres connaissent aussi le succès : les comics humoristiques, les comics éducatifs comme ceux de Gilberton proposant des adaptations des classiques de la littérature, les séries mettant en scène des adolescents comme Archie qui raconte les aventures humoristiques d'un groupe d'adolescents, etc. Néanmoins, ce sont les super-héros et les animaux humanisés publiés par Dell qui dominent le marché.

Les super-héros patriotiques ne sont pas les seules victimes de la fin de la guerre, les autres super-héros (à l'exception des plus importants qui sont Superman, Batman et Wonder Woman) perdent aussi leurs lecteurs qui préfèrent se tourner vers d'autres genres. Cette désaffection pour le genre super-héros s'accompagne d'une crise de surproduction qui amène les vendeurs de journaux à refuser des comics avant même d'avoir ouvert les cartons dans lesquels ils se trouvent. Les comic books qui tirent leur épingle du jeu sont donc ceux avec un lectorat fidèle et ceux qui s'inspirent de succès déjà existants, car dans ces deux cas les kiosquiers sont assurés de vendre. Ainsi les comics policiers voient leurs ventes progresser de façon importante en suivant l'exemple de (dont le premier numéro date de 1942), édité par Lev Gleason Publications, qui se vend à plus d'un million d'exemplaires.

Le deuxième genre qui connaît des ventes importantes est à mille lieues de la violence du précédent puisqu'il s'agit des romance comics qui apparaissent en , alors que la crise de surproduction a cessé, avec la parution de de Joe Simon et Jack Kirby édité par Prize Publications. Avant cette date, ce genre n'existait pas, mais dès que le succès est patent (les ventes entre le premier et le troisième numéro sont triplées) les imitations fleurissent. Timely, avec , daté d', Fox avec () et Fawcett avec Sweetheart () sont les premiers éditeurs à suivre cette mode et bientôt les comics de romance envahissent les rayons pour atteindre le nombre de 147 comics publiés au plus fort de l'engouement pour ces histoires de cœur.

Enfin les comics d' horreur constituent le troisième genre qui attire les lecteurs. La principale maison d'édition, qui est à l'origine de ce genre, est , restée pour cette raison dans l'histoire des comics. Elle est fondée par Max Gaines en 1944, après qu'il a vendu All Star Comics à DC Comics. À l'origine EC Comics diffusait des comics religieux, pédagogiques ou enfantins mais après la mort de Max Gaines, l'entreprise passe entre les mains de son fils William Gaines qui change l'orientation de ses publications en proposant des westerns, de la romance et des histoires criminelles. Un tournant décisif est pris en 1949 lorsque paraissent les premiers comics d'horreur et . Une fois encore, de nombreuses imitations paraissent et envahissent les étalages des vendeurs.

Le contenu des comics évolue aussi avec le début de la guerre froide. Si l'immédiat après guerre propose des messages optimistes d'un monde pacifié, rapidement le conflit larvé entre les États-Unis et l'URSS trouve des échos dans les comics et le début de la guerre de Corée généralise le message anticommuniste. Si les comics de super-héros ignorent le plus souvent cette guerre, en revanche les comics de guerre trouvent un sujet parfait pour augmenter les ventes. Le message tient le plus souvent de la propagande (comme le montrent par exemple la série ), bien que certaines œuvres se veuillent plus réfléchies comme les comics et dont Harvey Kurtzman est le rédacteur en chef chez EC Comics. Cependant, quel que soit le message qu'ils délivrent, ces comics ne sont pas appréciés des associations familiales. D'une façon générale, ils sont jugés trop violents. De plus, s'ils sont trop réalistes, ils risquent d'amener les jeunes lecteurs à critiquer la guerre de Corée, s'ils sont trop idéalistes ils font passer la guerre pour un jeu. La période de la guerre froide n'est pas favorable aux comics car le Bien et le Mal ne sont pas aussi identifiables qu'à l'époque de la guerre contre le nazisme. Le choix est d'ignorer les changements de la société (ce que font les comics de super-héros qui présentent des personnages le plus souvent dans un monde insouciant) ou de les représenter au risque de subir les foudres des critiques bien-pensantes. Une autre option existe qui est d'opposer des super-héros et des super-vilains communistes, mais celle-ci conduit toujours à un échec car ces scénarios simplistes n'attirent plus des lecteurs qui ont grandi et cherchent plus de réalisme.

Si le comic book est la forme de bande-dessinée qui connaît la plus importante évolution, cela ne signifie pas que le comic strip disparaisse. Au contraire, ces bandes quotidiennes se retrouvent toujours dans les journaux. Ainsi, en 1947, Milton Caniff commence la série Steve Canyon.Par ailleurs c'est à cette époque, le , que paraît le premier strip des de Charles Schulz. Cette série persiste jusqu'à la mort de son auteur, le . Néanmoins, le comic strip évolue aussi car la taille des pages du dimanche comme celle des strips quotidiens diminue. Alors que le strip du dimanche occupait une page complète, sa taille se réduit et plusieurs séries finissent par occuper une seule page.

La bande dessinée américaine connaît donc de très gros succès mais cela ne va pas durer et les comic books vont traverser des crises sévères. Le succès des trois genres cités ci-dessus ne va pas se poursuivre et, en 1955, ils ont disparu ou connaissent une brutale chute des ventes. Le premier des trois à connaître ce sort est le romance comics. En 1949, un cinquième des comics vendus est un comics de romance mais en 1950 le marché s'effondre : le nombre de séries est divisé par deux entre le premier et le second semestre 1950. En 1951, seules trente séries sont encore publiées. Les ventes déclinent ensuite peu à peu. L'effondrement des comics de romance s'explique par la désaffection du public ; il n'en est pas de même pour les comics policiers ou d'horreur qui vont disparaître lors de l'instauration du comics code en 1954.

Dès que les comics ont touché des millions de lecteurs, pour l'essentiel des enfants et des adolescents, des parents et des associations se sont inquiétés de l'influence de ce nouveau média sur la psychologie et le comportement des plus jeunes. Rapidement, il a été critiqué pour de nombreux motifs : les super-héros donneraient de fausses représentations de la réalité physique, les relations entre les héros et leurs assistants seraient troubles et suggéreraient des penchants homosexuels, la vision de crimes et de monstres perturberaient les esprits fragiles des enfants, etc. Ces attaques prennent parfois des expressions violentes telles que des autodafés de comics.

En 1954, la critique prend de nouvelles forces lorsque le psychiatre Fredric Wertham, dans son livre Seduction of the Innocent dresse un tableau catastrophiste de la lecture des comics en les liant au phénomène de délinquance juvénile. Repris dans des magazines, le rejet des comics prend de l'ampleur au point qu'une commission sénatoriale est créée pour juger de cette question. Fredric Wertham et William Gaines sont entendus et il apparaît que la prestation de Gaines n'a pas convaincu les membres de la commission. Aussi, pour empêcher la création d'un organisme de censure officiel, William Gaines propose-t-il aux autres éditeurs de se réunir et de financer une recherche universitaire dont le but serait d'évaluer sérieusement les méfaits supposés des comics.

Cette réunion débouche finalement, au grand dam de Gaines, sur la décision de financer un organisme, la ou CCA, qui éditerait un code listant ce qui est tolérable dans un comics et qui apposerait un sceau sur les comics acceptés. Cette décision va dans le sens des recommandations des sénateurs qui, dans leur rapport final signé par Estes Kefauver, refusent la promulgation d'une loi permettant la censure des comics mais invitent les éditeurs à réguler les publications. Les éditeurs n'ont pas l'obligation de présenter leurs comics à cette institution mais ne pas avoir le sceau de la CCA condamne de nombreux comics, qui ne sont même pas sortis des cartons par les marchands de journaux. Finalement ce sont vingt-six éditeurs (dont DC Comics, Atlas, Archie Comics) qui s'engagent à respecter le code.

Ce n'est pas le cas pour qui dès lors voit ses ventes chuter de 90 %. En désespoir de cause Max Gaines tente de produire de nouveaux comics acceptés par la CCA, mais il est contraint de cesser la publication de ses œuvres ; seul le périodique échappe à l'arrêt définitif. En effet, il n'est pas soumis à la censure du comics code car il n'est plus un comics : Mad a en effet troqué ce format pour celui de magazine. En revanche, certains éditeurs parviennent sans difficulté à vendre leurs comics sans se soucier du Comics Code . C'est le cas notamment pour Dell Comics qui est le plus important éditeur de comics (certains d'entre eux se vendent à près de trois millions d'exemplaires). D'une part, ses séries, qu'il s'agisse de celles consacrées aux personnages de dessins animés ou celles qui adaptent des films de cow-boys, s'adressent aux enfants et ne proposent rien qui puisse choquer ces lecteurs ou leurs parents ; d'autre part Dell affirme, par un insert dans ses comics, qu'il élimine entièrement, plutôt que de le réguler, tout matériel choquant,. Pour les mêmes raisons, Classics Illustrated refuse le sceau du Comics Code .

Après l'instauration du comics code, les attaques contre les comics s'estompent même si Fredric Wertham considère que la création de cet organisme est insuffisante. Les séries les plus horribles et les plus violentes ont disparu des kiosques mais on trouve toujours des westerns, des super-héros, des séries pour les plus jeunes, etc. Le renouveau des comics de super-héros a lieu en avec la parution du 4 du comic book qui marque le début de l' âge d'argent des comics. Dans ce comics, édité par est recréé le personnage de Flash par les scénaristes Robert Kanigher et John Broome et le dessinateur Carmine Infantino sur une idée du rédacteur en chef Julius Schwartz. Par la suite, toujours dans ce même comic book sont créés d'autres personnages qui gagnent leurs propres séries, ce qui lance définitivement l'âge d'argent. C'est le cas des Loïs Lane (), de Challengers of the Unknown de Dave Wood et Jack Kirby (), de John Broome et Gil Kane ( Green Lantern de Showcase 22 ), etc. Comme lors de l'âge d'or, ces super-héros partagent un univers commun et se rencontrent, ce qui aboutit en à la création de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique dans le comic book The Brave and the Bold 28 en . Les aventures de cette équipe sont ensuite présentées dans le comics éponyme dont le premier numéro, écrit par Gardner Fox et dessiné par Mike Sekowsky sort en .

Ce comic book est celui qui connaît les meilleures ventes et cela donne l'idée à Martin Goodman, le propriétaire de Atlas, de lancer aussi une série de super-héros. Il demande à son neveu, Stan Lee, scénariste et rédacteur en chef chez Atlas, de créer un mettant en scène un groupe de super-héros. Stan Lee, qui, songeait à démissionner de son poste, accepte mais il choisit de mêler aux scènes de combat des moments présentant les relations entre les personnages. Il crée donc les Quatre fantastiques en avec le dessinateur Jack Kirby qui participe aussi à l'élaboration de l'intrigue. Le succès est au rendez-vous et Atlas, qui devient bientôt Marvel Comics, publie de nombreuses autres séries de super-héros ou apparentés. Surgissent ainsi Hulk en mai 1962 (Lee et Kirby), Thor en (Lee et Kirby), Spider-Man en (Lee et Steve Ditko), Iron Man en (Lee et Don Heck), les X-Men et les Vengeurs tous deux en (Lee et Kirby), Daredevil en (Lee et Bill Everett), etc. Le succès de ces séries fait de Marvel la première maison d'édition devant DC.

Pour retrouver la voie du succès, DC nomme Carmine Infantino directeur de la publication en 1968. La politique éditoriale de celui-ci est de donner plus de liberté aux artistes. Ce faisant, DC retrouve l'éclat qu'elle avait perdu, même si Marvel domine toujours le marché. Ainsi, Carmine Infantino engage Neal Adams qui devient le dessinateur vedette de DC. Neal Adams et Infantino créent Deadman, puis Adams reprend le personnage de Batman et en fait un personnage plus sombre. Cet aspect de Batman est par la suite maintenu par Dick Giordano qui succède à Adams. Par ailleurs Infantino engage Steve Ditko qui crée Le Creeper et Hawk and Dove en 1968.

DC et Marvel augmentent le nombre de séries de super-héros mais, à côté elles continuent à proposer des comics d'autres genres. On trouve ainsi du western comme Rawhide Kid chez Marvel ou chez DC, des histoires de guerre telles que Nick Fury and his howling commandos de Lee et Kirby chez Marvel et Our Army at War , qui met en scène le Sergent Rock créé par Robert Kanigher et Joe Kubert, ou encore de l'espionnage avec Nick Fury agent of SHIELD de Lee et Kirby, etc.

DC et Marvel dominent peu à peu le marché des comics mais cela ne signifie pas la disparition des autres maisons d'éditions. , Dell Comics, Gilberton Publications, Harvey Comics ou encore Charlton Comics sont des éditeurs qui attirent toujours des lecteurs, le plus souvent en ne cherchant pas à publier des comics de super-héros mais en développant d'autres genres. Ainsi Gold Key, maison d'édition appartenant à Western Publishing distribue les aventures des héros Disney, publiés précédemment par Dell, et des adaptations de séries télévisées. Dell après la rupture de l'accord avec Western Publishing pour des raisons financières, publie ses propres comics dont de nombreuses adaptations de séries télévisées. Gilberton édite des adaptations de romans célèbres, Harvey vise le lectorat le plus jeune avec des titres comme Casper le gentil fantôme ou Richie Rich. En revanche Charlton tente de suivre le mouvement lancé par DC et Marvel mais avec moins de succès. Ainsi, cet éditeur publie racheté à la Fox Feature Syndicate, créé par Steve Ditko, Judomaster , , etc.

Après la disparition des comics qui mettaient le plus en cause la société américaine (dont l'action en Corée), les séries des années 1960 reprennent le discours anti-communiste qui domine alors dans le pays. Ainsi Thor ou Hulk combattent souvent des super-vilains communistes. Cependant, le récit de ces luttes ne s'attarde pas sur la réalité de la guerre froide. Les ennemis des héros sont communistes car l'ennemi de la nation est le communisme sans qu'il soit nécessaire de développer les raisons de l'animosité du vilain contre le héros. Les causes des dissensions entre les États-Unis et l'URSS ne sont pas abordées car ce qui importe est d'avoir un ennemi intéressant et des scènes de combat qui plaisent aux lecteurs. En effet, ce sont les attentes des lecteurs qui conduisent la stratégie des éditeurs et ceux-ci sont, pour cela, attentifs aux évolutions de la société et tentent d'attirer les adolescents en reprenant les sujets qui les intéressent, même si cela se fait de façon voilée. Ainsi le Docteur Strange quittant son corps pour voyager dans d'autres plans de l'existence peut être mis en relation avec les provoqués par l'usage des drogues tel qu'il se développe sur les campus américains.

La société américaine évolue et les éditeurs adaptent le contenu à ces changements mais cela est insuffisant pour une partie de la jeunesse. Une autre forme de bande-dessinée plus en phase avec les aspirations des adolescents apparaît alors. Les comics underground, ou " comix ", naissent lors de l'essor des mouvements contestataires des années 1960 et 1970. Ils développent, le plus souvent, un discours critique de la société américaine. Dès 1959 Gilbert Shelton dessine les aventures de Super Phacochère ( Wonder Wart-Hog ), et en 1961 paraît le fanzine de Don Dohler et Mark Tarka. Les comix sont alors publiés dans des journaux underground comme (avec des artistes tels que Vaughn Bode ou Spain Rodriguez) ou dans des fanzines. En 1964, Jack Jackson, sous le pseudonyme de Jaxon, publie ce qui est considéré comme le premier comics underground, God nose (snot reel) imprimé à 1 000 exemplaires. L'édition et la diffusion de ces premiers comix est confidentielle et dépend du soutien de propriétaires de magasins spécialisés dans la vente de produits de la contre-culture ou des premiers magasins de comics. Ces revues ne sont alors pas distribuées en grande quantité mais leur influence est importante.

La conséquence est l'arrivée d'auteurs qui se lancent dans cette aventure de l'underground. En 1967 Robert Crumb publie . Le premier numéro est imprimé à 5 000 exemplaires. Cela encourage la même année Jay Lynch et Skip Williamson à publier un comics nommé Bijou Funnies qui prend la place du magazine Chicago Mirror qu'ils éditaient. Si les thèmes abordés et le lectorat visé ne sont pas semblables, le monde des comix et celui des comics ne sont pas sans passerelles ; ainsi Crumb et Shelton produisent des histoires pour le magazine de Kurtzman. Les comics underground sont souvent des œuvres auto-éditées mais des maisons d'édition spécialisées commencent à apparaître. Ainsi en 1968 Shelton, Fred Todd, Dave Moriaty et Jaxon fondent Rip Off Press et en 1970 Ron Turner fonde Last Gasp. Le nombre de comix publiés augmente (300 en 1973) et leurs ventes se chiffrent en dizaine de milliers d'exemplaires.

Cependant, après avoir atteint ces sommets, la chute est brutale. Le monde de la contre-culture américaine s'essouffle et les ventes de comix s'en ressentent. La scène underground se transforme alors peu à peu en scène alternative.

D'autres éditeurs, sans choisir les voies de la contre-culture, veulent publier des œuvres plus adultes que celles présentes dans les comic books et publient des magazines, ce qui leur évite la censure du Comics Code. EC Comics continue de publier qui connaît un très grand succès malgré le remplacement de Harvey Kurtzman par Al Feldstein en 1955,. en 1964 est racheté par DC Comics mais Bill Gaines et Al Feldstein continuent d'occuper les fonctions qu'ils avaient avant la vente et l'identité du magazine ne change pas. connaît de nombreux imitateurs dont le magazine pour lequel officie John Severin. Enfin George Evans, Warren Publishing publie le magazine humoristique dont le rédacteur en chef est Harvey Kurtzman puis, à partir de la fin 1964, les magazines d'horreur , et en pour lesquels travaillent de nombreux artistes employés auparavant par EC comme Wally Wood, Joe Orlando, mais aussi de jeunes auteurs comme Richard Corben ou Archie Goodwin.

Parmi les dates le plus souvent retenues pour marquer le début de l'" âge de bronze " on trouve celle de mai- qui correspond à trois numéros de publiés sans le sceau du Comics Code , afin de pouvoir évoquer les dangers de la drogue. Cette initiative conduit à adopter une réécriture du Comics Code , qui autorise désormais la mention de drogues si celles-ci sont présentées sous un aspect négatif. Une autre date proposée parfois comme instaurant l'" âge de bronze " est celle de l'arrivée de Jack Kirby chez DC où il crée, seul, Le Quatrième Monde,. Enfin une dernière date est parfois préférée. C'est celle de car cette année-là Gwen Stacy, la fiancée de Peter Parker meurt dans le 121 de . Ce décès ancre le monde des super-héros dans la réalité car, dorénavant, des évènements importants peuvent survenir qui changent la vie des personnages. L'une des caractéristiques de cet " âge de bronze " est en effet le réalisme qui s'impose.

Cette évolution du contenu des comics est à mettre en relation avec les changements de la société américaine. Ainsi, les super-héros venant des minorités ethniques, bien qu'ils existent depuis un certain temps déjà, sont plus nombreux et mieux mis en valeur. La remise en cause de l'autorité se reflète dans les comics : Captain America change de nom pour devenir Nomad après la découverte d'un scandale semblable à celui du Watergate et Green Lantern s'allie à Green Arrow pour un voyage dans une Amérique raciste, sexiste et destructrice de la nature. Le monde des comics est alors plus complexe et plus sombre.

Les ventes de comics durant cette période diminuent mais certaines séries résistent, comme Superman ou Batman, qui bénéficient d'une base de lecteurs fidèles. De nouvelles séries s'imposent car elles bénéficient de la présence de jeunes auteurs talentueux. C'est le cas des X-Men de Chris Claremont et John Byrne, recréés en 1975. Ils font partie de la nouvelle vague d'auteurs qui arrivent dans les années 1970 parmi lesquels on trouve notamment comme scénaristes Dennis O'Neil, Len Wein, Marv Wolfman, et comme dessinateurs Dave Cockrum, Michael Wm. Kaluta, Jim Starlin, etc.

Dans les années 1970, de nouveaux genres apparaissent sur les stands comme l' heroic fantasy, l'horreur ou le kung fu. L'heroïc fantasy est représentée par des titres comme Conan de Roy Thomas et Barry Windsor-Smith édité par Marvel. Les comics d'horreur, autorisés après la refonte du Comics Code sont incarnés chez Marvel par et, chez DC, par House of Secrets dans lequel apparaît Swamp Thing. Enfin on trouve aussi des comics mettant en scène des personnages maîtres du kung fu comme Shang-Chi créé par Steve Englehart et Jim Starlin, pour Marvel, en ,.

Les années 1970 marquent aussi l'apparition du premier entre deux maisons d'édition. En 1975, DC et Marvel publient conjointement une adaptation du Magicien d'Oz et l'année d'après elles publient une aventure mettant en présence Superman et Spider-Man. Ce type de rencontres se renouvelle souvent par la suite.

Les comics underground pendant ce temps connaissent une crise, à l'image de la société américaine dans son ensemble. La contestation s'essouffle et la bande dessinée underground perd son lectorat. Les auteurs eux-mêmes ne se limitent plus à une bande dessinée contestataire et ils vont plutôt produire des œuvres personnelles dont ils restent propriétaires. Ils adoptent de nouveaux lieux de diffusion avec les magasins spécialisés dans la vente de comics. De nouveaux éditeurs indépendants voient alors le jour, car ils peuvent trouver des lecteurs sans être gênés par des problèmes de distribution. Parmi ces éditeurs on trouve Pacific Comics qui est le premier éditeur à proposer des comics accessibles uniquement dans les magasins spécialisés, mais aussi Kitchen Sink Press, NBM Publishing, Eclipse Comics, etc. A contrario, des éditeurs existant depuis les années 1930 disparaissent, ne parvenant pas à s'adapter à tous ces changements. Ainsi Dell disparaît en 1973, en 1984. Des éditeurs plus jeunes subissent le même sort comme Warren Publishing en 1983.

Le passage de l'underground à l'alternatif commence dès 1976 quand Harvey Pekar convainc Robert Crumb de mettre en image son scénario autobiographique. L'année suivante, Dave Sim commence à publier , un comics qui commence comme une parodie de Conan mais permet à l'auteur de présenter ses opinions philosophiques. Cette œuvre est auto-éditée et malgré son succès le restera jusqu'à sa fin au numéro 300 car Dave Sim désire garder le contrôle total sur son travail. En 1978, c'est Wendy et Richard Pini qui commencent leur série , elle aussi auto-éditée, qui connaîtra des tirages allant jusqu'à 100 000 exemplaires. La création de la revue RAW par Art Spiegelman et son épouse Françoise Mouly en 1981 puis celle de par Crumb sont deux autres étapes de ce glissement vers l'alternatif. En effet ces deux auteurs underground vont dans leurs revues donner un espace à de jeunes créateurs indépendants. Le passage de relais entre Robert Crumb et Peter Bagge à la tête de marque cette mise en avant progressive de la jeune génération.

Durant ces années 1970 deux nouveaux formats sont créés : la mini-série qui est un ensemble de comic books racontant une histoire complète en quelques numéros et le roman graphique ( graphic novel ) dans lequel on trouve une histoire complète. La première mini-série, The World of Krypton , date de 1979 et est publiée par DC Comics.T

L'origine du roman graphique est plus difficile à cerner, car plusieurs titres se disputent l'honneur d'être le premier publié sous cette forme. En 1971, Archie Goodwin et Gil Kane produisent un album de 119 pages qui rétrospectivement a été surnommé " le premier roman graphique américain ". En 1976, sort de Richard Corben qui se définit comme roman graphique sur la couverture. Enfin en 1978 est publié par Eclipse Comics, Sabre: Slow Fade of an Endangered Species de Don McGregor et Paul Gulacy qui est le premier roman graphique destiné uniquement aux magasins spécialisés de comics. Ce format se développe peu à peu et sert ensuite à désigner aussi des compilations d'épisodes de comics.

Alors que l'auteur de bande dessinée était jusqu'alors considéré comme un employé qui devait donner ses planches de dessin à son éditeur qui avait tous les droits sur celles-ci, en 1973, DC Comics commence à rendre aux auteurs les planches originales des histoires publiés. Puis les responsables décident d'accorder un petit pourcentage des bénéfices en cas de réimpression des comics et d'utilisation dans un autre média. En 1976, Marvel suit l'exemple de DC. En 1978, les lois sur le copyright changent et les éditeurs commencent à proposer de nouveaux contrats pour assurer les droits de propriété sur les créations des artistes. Des oppositions entre les éditeurs et les auteurs vont surgir et c'est seulement en 1987 que le problème semble résolu bien que régulièrement encore des procédures judiciaires soient entamées par exemple le procès de la famille Kirby contre Marvel achevé en (dans l'attente d'un procès en appel).

Trois comics, tous publiés par , sont généralement nommés comme point de départ de l'" âge moderne " de la bande dessinée américaine. Il s'agit de Crisis on Infinite Earths de Marv Wolfman et George Perez, édité en 1985 et qui permet la recréation de l'univers DC. Les origines des super-héros sont réécrites et adaptées au monde contemporain. En 1986, deux autres mini-séries donnent le ton de cet âge moderne : The Dark Knight Returns de Frank Miller et d' Alan Moore et Dave Gibbons. Les thèmes sont plus adultes, puisque sont évoquées la sexualité et la drogue, et la violence est plus visible que dans un comics classique. d'Alan Moore, édité par DC, avait déjà montré la voie et n'était plus soumis au comics code depuis le numéro 29 d'. Par la suite, ce type de récits se développe avec des comics tels que ou de Neil Gaiman. D'ailleurs, à partir de 1987, ces comics portent sur leurs couvertures l'avertissement . Cela aboutit, en 1993, à la création d'une collection au sein de DC Comics nommée Vertigo.

Produire des contenus plus adultes n'est pas sans danger et, en 1986, des associations, des journalistes et des politiciens s'en prennent aux comics. Cela aboutit à la mise en place d'une classification par âge chez DC et par l'assurance, chez Marvel, que les règles du CCA sont bien observées. Cela va aussi conduire à la mise en accusation d'un propriétaire de magasin de comics pour vente de produits pornographiques. Il est innocenté en 1989 mais les menaces contre la liberté d'expression amènent la création, en 1987, du Comic Book Legal Defense Fond, organisme ayant pour but d'aider financièrement les personnes travaillant dans l'industrie du comics qui seraient poursuivies.

1986 est par ailleurs une date importante dans l'histoire des comics car cette année là paraît le premier tome de (intitulé Maus: A Survivor's Tale ) d' Art Spiegelman que celui-ci avait pré-publié dans sa revue RAW . Le second tome Maus: from Mauschwitz to the Catskills vaut à l'auteur un prix Pulitzer spécial en 1992.

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Jusqu'au milieu des années 1980, le lectorat des comics s'érode et les ventes, peu à peu, diminuent mais celles-ci vont de nouveau augmenter grâce à la conjugaison de plusieurs éléments. Tout d'abord une nouvelle génération d'artistes arrive et plus précisément chez Marvel Comics : Todd McFarlane, Jim Lee, Rob Liefeld, Marc Silvestri, Jim Valentino, et quelques autres sont chargés de prendre en main des héros importants tels que les X-Men ou Spider man. Les ventes des séries s'envolent : le premier numéro de par McFarlane se vend à trois millions d'exemplaires, X-Force 1 à cinq millions et X-Men 1 à huit millions. De plus, une bulle spéculative se développe car des acheteurs font le pari d'une revente à un prix élevé de numéros exceptionnels (numéro 1, évènement marquant, etc.). Les éditeurs profitent de cet engouement et l'encouragent en multipliant les séries et les numéros spéciaux. Ils créent aussi des couvertures originales ( embossage, découpes, encre phosphorescente, etc.) qui sont supposées donner de la valeur à n'importe quel comics. De nouvelles maisons d'éditions vont tenter de suivre le mouvement : Valiant Comics devient la troisième maison d'édition derrière Marvel et DC alors que Image Comics, fondée en 1992 par les vedettes de Marvel (Rob Liefeld, Erik Larsen, Jim Valentino, Todd McFarlane, Marc Silvestri et Jim Lee), cherche à imposer de nouvelles séries de super-héros.

En 1993, la bulle spéculative éclate car les acheteurs comprennent que des comics vendus à des millions d'exemplaires ne peuvent acquérir rapidement une valeur importante. Les spéculateurs quittent le marché des comics et cela entraîne une crise importante qui touche tous les types d'entreprises liées au secteur des comics. Le nombre des magasins de comics s'effondre et, en 1996, il passe de 10 000 à 4 000. Les entreprises de distribution disparaissent et en 1994 il n'en reste qu'une : Diamond Comic Distributor. De nombreux éditeurs disparaissent dont Valiant Comics qui est racheté, en 1994. En 1996, Marvel Comics est au bord de la faillite et doit demander sa mise sous protection du chapitre 11 de la loi sur les faillites des États-Unis. Image, de son côté, est menacé d'implosion quand deux de ses fondateurs quittent l'entreprise : Rob Liefeld devient auto-éditeur en 1997 et Jim Lee part avec ses créations pour . Après cette crise générale les ventes reviennent au niveau des années 1980 et, en , Uncanny X-Men ne se vend plus qu'à 154 000 exemplaires.

Pour retrouver un lectorat fidèle, les éditeurs commencent à porter de nouveau une attention plus importante au scénario. Les récits sont complexes et s'attachent davantage aux personnages et pas seulement aux combats. En outre, des scénaristes de cinéma, de télévision ou des romanciers sont appelés pour écrire des scénarios de comics : Kevin Smith scénarise les aventures de pour DC alors que Joss Whedon poursuit le récit des aventures de Buffy contre les vampires, etc. Les scénarios se complexifient, les récits sont plus réalistes et la psychologie des personnages est mieux développée.

Ces évolutions dans le monde imaginaire des comics ont pu être rapprochées des crises subies par l'Amérique après la chute du bloc communiste, principalement celle liée aux attentats du 11 septembre 2001. Le traumatisme subi par les Américains à cause de ces attaques trouve un écho dans la psychologie des super-héros. Contrairement aux personnages publiés durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, ceux que l'on trouve dans les comics des années 2000 ne portent pas un discours simpliste sur la situation internationale, ils ont une parole mesurée sans racisme. Ils apportent aussi un message d'espoir car malgré le choc subi, et comme ce fut déjà le cas lors du traumatisme éprouvé lors de l'évènement qui les fait devenir des héros, ils dépassent cette angoisse et partent combattre le Mal. Néanmoins, la lutte n'est pas aussi claire qu'elle l'était en 1940. Les difficultés de la politique extérieure des États-Unis et l'influence qu'elle a sur la société amènent les super-héros à s'interroger sur le bien-fondé de leurs actes. Les débats sur les limites à la liberté imposées par la lutte contre le terrorisme sont par exemple évoqués dans le crossover publié par Marvel.

La complexité des scénarios aboutit assez souvent à la mise en place d'une intrigue qui se développe dans plusieurs séries. Ainsi est une histoire, publiée par DC Comics, qui compte vingt épisodes répartis sur quatre séries. Ces crossover ont peu à peu tendance à devenir un évènement habituel et sont supposés transformer de façon importante l'univers des super-héros. Ainsi, DC produit régulièrement des : en 2004, en 2005-2006, en 2008. En 2011, le crossover amène la recréation complète de l'univers DC. Toutes les séries recommencent avec un nouveau numéro 1. Cela a pour but d'attirer de nouveaux lecteurs qui hésiteraient à acheter une série si ancienne qu'il est difficile de comprendre tout de suite quelles sont les motivations des personnages.

Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith parlent d'un " âge de la réitération " pour caractériser cette période dans laquelle les héros sont constamment recréés, que ce soit dans l'univers classique ou dans des versions alternatives. Ainsi, Marvel a créé la collection dans laquelle les super-héros classiques ont de nouvelles origines, mais situées dans le monde actuel, une collection MAX avec un contenu plus adulte et une collection pour enfants, avec un graphisme inspiré des dessins animés.

À côté des deux grands éditeurs de comics, Marvel et DC, qui dominent le marché,, des éditeurs, qualifiés d'indépendants, parviennent à exister en proposant le plus souvent des œuvres plus personnelles et dans des genres autres que celui des super-héros. De nombreux artistes suivent les traces de Dave Sim ou de Kevin Eastman et Peter Laird les créateurs des . D'autres diffusent leurs œuvres grâce à un éditeur qui peut être spécialisé dans un genre ou être généraliste. Le premier éditeur à avoir proposé une bande dessinée alternative est Fantagraphics Books qui dès 1982 édite Love and Rockets des Frères Hernandez. D'autres éditeurs suivent le même chemin comme Drawn and Quarterly en 1989 ou Top Shelf en 1997.

Le format comic book n'est plus celui qui est utilisé immédiatement et de nombreuses bandes dessinées sont publiés par ces éditeurs directement en album. C'est ainsi que des artistes comme Daniel Clowes, Howard Cruse ou Chris Ware trouvent un lectorat pour des albums exigeants. La durée de vie de ceux-ci est beaucoup plus longue que celle des comics et leur importance se découvre dans la durée. De plus, ces comics abordent des genres et des thèmes qui sont rares voire inexistants chez les éditeurs dominants le marché : Joe Sacco propose des reportages dessinés, Alex Robinson présente la vie de jeunes trentenaires, Joe Matt publie des récits autobiographiques, etc.

Les comic strips, comme les comic books, perdent des lecteurs. Ils occupent moins de place dans les journaux et de moins en moins de quotidiens en publient. Il existe cependant des strips qui connaissent un très grand succès comme Calvin et Hobbes de Bill Watterson ou de Jim Davis. Ces strips connaissent par la suite une réimpression en albums, comme cela se fait en Europe, et peuvent se vendre à des millions d'exemplaires. Ainsi, le monde des comic strips évolue peu, et ce sont des créations originales et touchant un très grand nombre de personnes qui en font une forme d'expression d'une grande vitalité.

Depuis les années 1980, un nouveau mode de diffusion de bandes dessinées est disponible. Grâce aux réseaux électroniques, des auteurs publient leurs œuvres sous forme de webcomics. Eric Millikin est le premier à proposer ainsi ses créations grâce à un réseau informatique, en l'occurrence CompuServe avec, en 1985, Witches and Stitches . Depuis, de nombreux artistes choisissent de diffuser leurs créations grâce à Internet et par la suite éditent parfois leurs œuvres au format papier. En sens inverse, les éditeurs de comics diffusent maintenant les œuvres papier sur Internet comme Marvel, Top Cow, Boom, etc..

: document utilisé comme source pour la rédaction de cet article.

Annie Baron-Carvais, La Bande dessinée, Paris, PUF, coll. " Que sais-je ? ", , 127 p. (ISBN 2130561071 )

(en) M. Keith Booker ( dir.), Encyclopedia of Comic Books and Graphic Novels, ABC-Clio, , 763 p.

(en) Jon B. Cooke et David Roach, Warren Companion : The Ultimate Reference Guide, TwoMorrows Publishing, , 272 p.

Gérard Courtial, À la rencontre des SUPER-HÉROS, Bédésup, , 152 p.

(en) Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith, The Power of Comics : History, Form & Culture, The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., , 346 p.

Dominique Dupuis, Au début était le jaune..., une histoire subjective de la bande dessinée, Paris, PLG, coll. " Mémoire vive ", , 263 p. (ISBN 2952272905 )

(en) Mark James Estren, A History of Underground Comics, Ronin Publishing, , 3e éd., 319 p.

Henri Filippini, Dictionnaire de la bande dessinée, Paris, Bordas, , 912 p. (ISBN 2047299705 )

(en) Robert C. Harvey, " How Comics came to be ", dans Jeet Heer et Kent Worcester, A Comics Studies Reader, University Press of Mississippi, , 380 p.

(en) Chris Ryall et Scott Tipton, Comic Books 101 : The History, Methods and Madness, Impact, , 288 p.

(en) Joe Sutcliff Sanders et al., The Rise of the American Comics Artist : Creators and Contexts, University Press of Mississippi, , 253 p.

(en) " Seven Years Before the Masthead ", dans Roy Thomas, All Star Companion, TwoMorrows Publishing, (lire en ligne)

(en) Amy Thorne, " Webcomics and Libraries ", dans Robert G. Weiner, Graphic Novels and Comics in Libraries and Archives : Essays on Readers, Research, History and Cataloging, McFarland, (lire en ligne)

(en) Virginia Woods Robert, " Comic strips ", dans Ray Broadus Browne, Pat Browne, The Guide to United States Popular Culture, Popular Press, (lire en ligne)

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Histoire de la bande dessinée américaine

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L' histoire de la bande dessinée américaine commence en 1842 avec la traduction d'une œuvre de Rodolphe Töpffer : The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck . Des artistes locaux s'emparent par la suite de ce nouveau média et créent les premières bandes dessinées américaines.

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Histoire des Marvel, quelques-uns des comics les plus connus!

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Histoire des Marvel, quelques-uns des comics les plus connus!

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Spider-Man, les 4 Fantastiques, les Avengers, les Gardiens de la Galaxie, Docteur Strange, Thor, Captain America et Iron Man ont tous un point commun : ce sont des héros Marvel. Qu'ils s'agissent des comics ou des des films de l'univers cinématographique marvel (MCU), ils ont été des modèles pour de nombreux lecteurs... Mais que savons-nous réellement de Marvel Comics ? Après 80 années d'existence, la maison d'édition a laissé une oeuvre considérable où se rencontrent une multitude de personnages dans une variété de mondes alternatifs et d'univers différents.

Difficile de s'y retrouver dans tout ça alors nous vous avons concocté un article pour vous aider. Retour sur l'histoire de la maison d'édition que le fandom a surnommé la "Maison des Idées" et qui a marqué tant de générations.

Les ancêtres de Marvel Comics : de Timely Comics à Atlas Comics

Timely Comics était bien le nom de l'ancêtre de Marvel, fondé en 1939 par Martin Goodman, éditeur de pulps magazines américains (bande-dessinées et fictions très bon marché aux thèmes très divers : certains sont un concentré d'action et d'histoires fantastiques tandis que d'autres mettent en scène des romances). La première publication de la maison fut Marvel Comics #1 publié en octobre 1939 dans lequel apparaissent des personnages comme La Torche Humaine ou Namor le Prince des mers. En mars 1941 naît le premier super héros Marvel sous la plume de Joe Simon et Jack Kirby : il s'agit ni plus ni moins du célèbre Captain America. Celui qui va devenir une figure incontournable de Marvel, Stan Lee, est embauché pendant la même période en tant qu'assistant. Suite au départ de Kirby et Simon, Lee alors âgé de 19 ans devient rédacteur en chef de Timely Comics.

Malgré la fin de la guerre et le retour de la croissance économique, les ventes de BD chutent brutalement aux Etats-Unis. La concurrence de la télévision marque un coup d'arrêt à Timely Comics et oblige Goodman à renouveler son offre. C'est la raison pour laquelle il crée Atlas Comics au début des années 50 et exploite d'autres thèmes tels que l'horreur, l'amour, les monstres géants, les histoires de crime ou l'espionnage par exemple. Dans le même temps, Marvel tente de relancer les aventures de La Torche Humaine, Namor ou Captain America mais le public n'est pas convaincu et ces tentatives sont des échecs.

Bien que les couvertures des publications Timely portaient parfois la phrase " A Marvel magazine" sur leur couverture à partir de All Surprise Comics #12 (hiver 1946-7), et bien que celles-ci portèrent durant plusieurs mois en 1949-1950 un logo "Marvel Comic", le premier comic book officiellement édité par Marvel Comics est le recueil d'histoires de science-fiction Amazing Adventures #3 publié le 9 mai 1961. Cet album porte d'ailleurs la boîte " MC " sur sa couverture.

En octobre 1961, Lee et Kirby sortent Fantastic Four #1 , un numéro qui marque une référence et une véritable révolution dans le monde des comics en posant les bases d'une nouvelle méthode de création : la méthode Marvel. Stan Lee, en charge des publications de toutes les séries, s'inspire du Fordisme pour augmenter la cadence des publications. Il n'écrit qu'un résumé de l'intrigue que le dessinateur développe et découpe à sa manière. Le rédacteur en chef reprend les planches terminées pour ajouter les dialogues ce qui lui permet d'apposer son sceau sur quasiment toutes les séries de Marvel (ce que lui reprocheront certains dessinateurs comme Jack Kirby ou Steve Ditko).

Suite au succès des Fantastic Four, Stan Lee et Steve Ditko créent Spider-Man (aka Peter Parker). Ce nouveau super héros obtient un succès quasi immédiat auprès du public ! C'est d'ailleurs à cette époque-là que plus d'ampleur est donné au développement psychologique des personnages. Les lecteurs peuvent ainsi s'identifier aux super-héros qui, comme eux, ont leur faiblesse et leurs problèmes. Spider-Man en est l'exemple parfait : ce jeune héros malingre et rongés par les doutes gagne l'admiration des gens qu'il aide après avoir acquis ses pouvoirs. Ce succès ouvre une nouvelle ère pour Marvel Comics.

L'âge d'argent de Marvel Comics

Dans la lignée du succès des DC Comics, Marvel se préoccupe de sujets d'actualité tels que la guerre du Viêt-Nam au travers d'Iron Man par exemple. Fort de ces succès répétés, Marvel enchaîne les coups de maîtres grâce à des artistes comme John Buscema : Hulk, Thor, Ant-Man, Daredevil, la Panthère Noire, Captain Marvel, Docteur Octopus et Galactus dynamisent les ventes sur le long terme même si Spider-Man reste le grand favori des lecteurs. En 1968, Marvel vend plus de 50 millions d'unités dans la même année. L'historien des comics Peter Sanderson écrit dans les années 60 :

"DC était l'équivalent des grands studios hollywoodiens : après avoir réinventé brillamment le super héro dans les années 50 et 60, DC a dû faire face à une période artistiquement infertile à la fin des années 60. Il y a eu une nouvelle audience pour les comics à partir de ce moment et il ne s'agissait pas seulement des enfants, les lecteurs traditionnels. Le Marvel des années 60 était dans une certaine mesure l'équivalent de la Nouvelle Vague en France... Marvel fut pionnier en matière de storytelling et de création de nouveaux super héros, en développant des histoires sur des thèmes plus sérieux tout en gardant dans son giron les ados...."

Les années 70 et 80 : une période pleine de succès commerciaux

Dans les années 70, Marvel continue d'innover et aborde sa relation avec les lecteurs sous un nouveau jour. Stan Lee écrit des lettres mensuelles où sont présentés les scénaristes et dessinateurs et des conventions de fans sont lancées afin de rapprocher le public des équipes créatives. Sur le plan commercial, Lee décide d'exporter les comics en Grande-Bretagne et en 1970 il lance Captain Britain, "a British hero for British people".
Cette période faste est également marquée par des succès critiques : la série Uncanny X-Men de Chris Claremont et John Byrne ou la relecture de Daredevil par Frank Miller en sont des exemples. L'univers de Marvel s'étend avec la mise en place d'arcs narratifs qui relie ses différentes séries ( Secret Wars) et en lançant des comics pour les enfants ou adaptant des franchises cinématographiques comme Star Wars.

En 1981, Marvel rachète DePatie-Freleng Enterprises (studio de d'animation connu pour avoir créé La Panthère Rose et les Looney Tunes), ce qui lui permet de mettre en scène les aventures de ses super héros à la télévision. En 1986, Marvel est vendue à New World Entertainment qui revend la société au magnat de la finance, Ronald Perleman, pour 82,5 millions de dollars. Celui-ci côte Marvel en bourse en 1991 et diversifie les activité de la société en créant une division dédiée à la création et commercialisation d'autres produits que les livres : des cartes de collection, des figurines et des jouets peuvent alors faire la joie des fans et des collectioneurs. Cependant, des signes annonciateurs de la fin de cette époque dorée vont apparaître rapidement.

Des difficultés, avant un retour en grâce sur le grand écran

Le début des années 1990 est une véritable série noire pour Marvel. Le départ de 7 artistes majeurs et de mauvaises affaires ont conduit l'entreprise jusqu'à la liquidation judiciaire. Elle est rachetée en 1998 par Toy Biz qui redresse la barre et engage une vaste politique de transformation de l'entreprise : cap sur le 7ème art. En 1997, Men in Black rapporte presque 600 millions de dollars dans le monde, et connaîtra deux suites. Le premier X-Men au cinéma sort en 2000, suivi de Spider-Man en 2002 dont le succès pousse Marvel à persévérer dans cette voie. En 2009, Disney rachète l'entreprise évaluée à 4 milliards de dollars avec l'objectif de faire caracoler ses productions au sommet du box-office, et écrit ainsi une nouvelle page de la saga Marvel en développant le Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). A travers 22 films étalés sur 3 phases dont Iron Man, Les Gardiens de la Galaxy, ou encore Avengers : Endgman, le Marvel Studio et Disney revisitent les origin stories et aventures des principaux Avengers.

Les albums de référence de Marvel Comics

Ultimate Spider-Man #1-133 (2000 - 2009) - Brian Michael Bendis (scénario), Mark Bargley & Stuart Immonen (dessin)

Comme toutes les séries de l'univers Ultimate Marvel, il s'agir d'une version modernisé du super-héros concerné, ici Spider-Man, visant à toucher un nouveau public plus jeune. L'histoire : Peter Parker a 15 ans et vit avec son oncle Ben et sa tante Mary après le décès de ses parents. Lors d'une visite des entreprises Osborn, il est mordu par une araignée génétiquement modifiée et acquiert des pouvoirs surhumains : une force surhumaine, un sixième sens pour l'avertir des dangers, la faculté de propulser des toiles d'araignée... La suite vous la connaissez.

House of M (2005) - Brian Michael Bendis (scénario), Olivier Coipel (dessin)

Après que Wanda Maximoff, la Sorcière Rouge, a tué presque inconsciemment une partie des Avengers (cf Vengeurs : La séparation), le Professeur Xavier réunit les New Avengers et les X-Men pour mettre la main sur Wanda et la neutraliser face à la menace qu'elle représente. Ils se rendent donc sur Génosha, dernier localisation connue de Wanda mais le lieu est vide. Le Professeur Xavier a disparu et Emma Frost parvient à le localiser dans une église mais quand ils se rendent sur place, seul Spider-Man est présent. Une lumière éblouissante apparaît et les super-héros sont propulsés dans un monde alternatif sans X-Men mais contrôlé par les mutants avec à leur tête Magneto, chef de la "Maison de M". Le groupe tente alors de comprendre ce qu'il s'est passé et de retrouver le Professeur Xavier.

La série débouche sur une autre série importante dans l'univers Marvel à avoir dans votre collection : Civil War.

Civil War (2006 - 2007) - Mark Millar (scénario) et Steve McNiven (dessin)

Série de comics en 7 épisodes auxquels s'ajoutent des ties-in dans les séries régulières sous la forme de crossovers. Référence dans le monde Marvel, cette série est un livre à avoir sa collection. Il a d'ailleurs donné naissance à un film avec le film Captain America : Civil War. La série décrit une scission chez les super-héros après la promulgation d'une loi visant à les inscrire dans un registre officiel, ce qui va notamment mettre à jour leur identité secrète. Certains sont défavorables à cette loi et se range du côté de Captain America tandis que ceux qui y sont favorables se mettent du côté d'Iron Man. Les deux camps vont alors s'affronter dans un combat titanesque...

Wolverine : Old Man Logan (2011) - Mark Millar (scénario) et Steve McNiven (dessin)

Dans un monde alternatif : la Terre 807128, le monde est contrôlé par les vilains Red Skull, Abomination, Magneto, et le Hulk gang. Logan ère dans un monde désolé et a décidé de plus être Wolverine et d'utiliser ses griffes après avoir assassiné les autres X-Men suite à une illusion créée par Mysterio.

Albums publiés par Hachette

La maison d'édition Hachette a publié une série d'albums qui rassemblent en 150 tomes plusieurs séries et histoire autour des super-héros à des prix intéressants.

Amazing Spider-Man - Vocation (2014) : Joe Michaël Straczynski (scénario) et John Romita Jr. (dessin)

Uncanny X-Men - Le Phénix noir (2014) : John Byme (scénario) et John Byme (scénario, dessin)

Les Gardiens de la Galaxie - Cosmic Avengers (2018) : Brian Michael Bendis (scénario) et Steve McNiven (dessin)

Iron Man - Extremis (2014) : Warren Ellis (scénario) et Adi Granov (dessin)

The Ultimates - Super-humains (2014) : Mark Millar (scénario) et Bryan Hitch (dessin)

Amazing Spider-Man - La Naissance de Venom (2014). Scénario : Louise Simonson, David Micheline, Roger Ster, Tom DeFalco. Dessin : Todd McFarlane, Ron Frenz et Greg Laroque

Thor - Renaissance (2014) : Joe Michaël Straczynski (scénario) et Olivier Coipel (dessin)

The Incredible Hulk - Planète Hulk acte 1 (2014) : Greg Pak (scénario), Marshall Rogers, Alex Nino, Michael Avon Oeming et Carlo Pagulayan (dessin)

Wolverine (2014) : Chris Claremont (scénario), Paul Smith et Frank Miller (dessin)

Avengers - La Séparation (2014) : Brian Michael Bendis (scénario). Les dessins sont faits par un collectif de dessinateurs.

Captain America - Le Soldat de l'Hiver (2014) : Ed Brubaker (scénario), Steve Epting et Michael Lark (dessin)

Huk - Terre Brûlée (2017) : Jeff Parker (scénario) et Gabriel Hardman (dessin)

Listes des éditeurs en chef de Marvel

Joe Simon (1939-1941)

Stan Lee (1941-1942)

Vincent Fago (par interim pendant le service militaire de Lee) (1942-1945)

Stan Lee (1945-1972)

Roy Thomas (1972-1974)

Len Wein (1974-1975)

Marv Wolfman

Gerry Conway (1976)

Archie Goodwin (1976-1978)

Jim Shooter (1978-1987)

Tom DeFalco (1987-1994)

Bob Harras (1995-2000)

Joe Quesada (2000-)

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Marvel Comics : petite histoire de la Maison des Idées

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Spider-Man, les 4 Fantastiques, les Avengers, les Gardiens de la Galaxie, Docteur Strange, Thor, Captain America et Iron Man ont tous un point commun : ce sont des héros Marvel. Qu'ils s'agissent des comics ou des des films de l'univers cinématographique marvel (MCU) , ils ont été des modèles pour de nombreux lecteurs...

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Évidemment les comics les plus célèbres sont en grande majorité des histoires de super-héros. Il faut dire que c'est bien eux qui ont popularisés ce format de BD au travers du globe. Toutefois, d'autres oeuvres peuvent être citées, comme Tarzan, Mickey Mouse ou alors Bugs Bunny.

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Certains comics ont cependant réussis à percer avant même que les héros popularisent cet art.
On nommera alors Popeye et de nouveau Mickey Mouse et Tarzan.

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Les premiers héros et la seconde guerre mondiale!

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Les premiers héros et la seconde guerre mondiale!

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Les précurseurs de l'univers Marvel et DC Comics sont sans conteste Superman (1938), Batman (1939) et Capitaine América (1941). Ce dernier apparaissant sur les fronts de la seconde guerre mondiale était très présent pour motiver les plus jeunes hommes américains à s'engager.

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Superman is an ongoing American comic book series featuring the DC Comics superhero Superman as its main protagonist. Superman began as one of several anthology features in the National Periodical Publications comic book Action Comics #1 in June 1938. The strip proved so popular that National launched Superman into his own self-titled comic book, the first for any superhero, premiering with the cover date Summer 1939. Between 1986 and 2006 it was retitled The Adventures of Superman while a new series used the title . In May 2006, it was returned to its original title and numbering. The title was canceled with issue #714 in 2011, and was relaunched with issue #1 the following month which ended its run in 2016. A fourth series was released with issue #1 in June 2016 and ended in April 2018. A fifth series with new issue #1 was launched in July 2018.

Due to the Superman character's popularity after his premiere in Action Comics #1, National Allied Publications decided to launch an entirely new magazine featuring a single character, which at that time was unprecedented. Superman #1 appeared on the shelves in the summer of 1939. Superman now also had the distinction of being the first ever hero-character featured in more than one comic magazine. By issue #7, Superman was being hailed on the covers as the "World's Greatest Adventure Strip Character". Perry White, a supporting character who had originated on the Superman radio program was introduced into the comic book in issue #7 (October 1940). Editor Mort Weisinger began his long association with the title with issue #11 (July-August 1941). Jimmy Olsen first appeared as a named character in the story "Superman versus The Archer" in Superman #13 (Nov.-Dec. 1941). In the early 1940s, Superman was selling over a million copies per month. By 1942, artist Wayne Boring, who had previously been one of Shuster's assistants, had become a major artist on Superman. Superman #23 (July-August 1943) featured the first Superman comic book story written by someone other than Jerry Siegel. The story "America's Secret Weapon!" was written by Don Cameron despite bearing Siegel's signature. Siegel introduced Mister Mxyzptlk in issue #30 (September 1944). A more detailed origin story for Superman was presented in issue #53 (July 1948) to mark the character's tenth anniversary. Another part of the Superman mythos which had originated on the radio program made its way into the comic books when kryptonite was featured in a story by Bill Finger and Al Plastino.

Superman was the first DC title with a letters column as a regular feature beginning with issue #124 (September 1958). In the view of comics historian Les Daniels, artist Curt Swan became the definitive artist of Superman in the early 1960s with a "new look" to the character that replaced Wayne Boring's version. Writer Jim Shooter and Swan crafted the story "Superman's Race With the Flash!" in Superman #199 (Aug. 1967) which featured the first race between the Flash and Superman, two characters known for their super-speed powers.

Julius Schwartz became the title's editor with issue #233 (January 1971) and together with writer Denny O'Neil and artist Curt Swan streamlined the Superman mythos, starting with the elimination of Kryptonite. Elliot S. Maggin began his long association with the title with the story "Must There Be a Superman?" in issue #247 (Jan. 1972). Writer Cary Bates, in collaboration with Swan, introduced such characters as the supervillain Terra-Man in issue #249 (March 1972) and the superhero Vartox in issue #281 (Nov. 1974). Issues #272 (Feb. 1974), #278 (Aug. 1974), and #284 (Feb. 1975) of the series were in the 100 Page Super Spectacular format. Superman #300 (June 1976) featured an out-of- continuity story by Bates and Maggin which imagined the infant Superman landing on Earth in 1976 and becoming a superhero in 2001. The tale was an inspiration for Mark Millar's Superman: Red Son limited series published in 2003. DC's parent company Warner Communications reinstated the byline for Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster which had been dropped decades earlier and the first issue with the restored credit was Superman #301 (August 1976). Martin Pasko and Swan created the Master Jailer character in issue #331 (January 1979). The bottle city of Kandor, which had been introduced in 1958, was restored to normal size in a story by Len Wein and Swan in Superman #338 (August 1979).

The series reached issue #400 in October 1984. That issue featured work by several popular comics artists including the only major DC work by Jim Steranko as well as an introduction by noted science-fiction author Ray Bradbury. Superman ran uninterrupted until the mid-1980s, when DC Comics instituted a line-wide relaunch with the 1985 event maxi-series Crisis on Infinite Earths. Folding their vast multiverse into a single shared universe, Superman and his supporting cast would receive a massive overhaul at the hands of writer/artist John Byrne. One last story, which also marked the end of Schwartz's tenure as editor of the series, was published to give a send-off to the former status quo: Alan Moore's Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? The story's first part saw publication in Superman #423, which would be the last issue before the title was relaunched with its legacy numbering as The Adventures of Superman. Superman was relaunched with a new #1 issue in a second volume in 1986, and was published concurrently with The Adventures of Superman.

The Adventures of Superman

Cover of The Adventures of Superman #649 (April 2006), by Ivan Reis, the "final" issue of the series under that title.

Publication information

Publisher
DC Comics

Schedule

Monthly

Format
Ongoing series

Genre

Publication date

January 1987 - April 2006

No. of issues

228 (#424-649, plus issues numbered #0 and #1,000,000)[35] and 12 Annual s

Main character(s)
Superman

Creative team

Written by

Artist(s)

The Adventures of Superman was numbered from issue #424 (January 1987) to issue #649 (April 2006), for a total of 228 monthly issues including issue #0 (October 1994) published between issues #516 and #517 as a tie-in to the limited series and issue #1,000,000 (November 1998) as a tie-in to the DC One Million limited series and nine Annuals published between 1987 and 1997.

When the series was relaunched in late 1986 under its new title, the creative team initially was writer Marv Wolfman and artist Jerry Ordway. John Byrne replaced Wolfman with issue #436 (January 1988) and Ordway became both writer and artist with issue #445 (October 1988). Writer/artist Dan Jurgens worked on the title from 1989-1991. Hank Henshaw, a character who would later become the Cyborg Superman, first appeared in issue #466 (May 1990). By the late 1980s, the plots of the Superman books were often linked. To coordinate the storyline and sequence of event, from January 1991 to January 2002, "triangle numbers" (or "shield numbers") appeared on the cover of each Superman comic book. During these years, the Superman storylines ran with the story continuing through the titles Superman, Action Comics and later in two further series, Superman: The Man of Steel and Superman: The Man of Tomorrow.

Jerry Ordway returned as writer of the title with issue #480 (July 1991). Tom Grummett drew part of #480 and became the main artist on the series with the following issue. The series participated in the crossover storyline "Panic in the Sky" in 1992. During their run on The Adventures of Superman, Grummett and Ordway (along with editor Mike Carlin and others) were the architects of " The Death of Superman" storyline, in which Superman died and was resurrected. It was during that storyline, that Grummett and writer Karl Kesel, created the new Superboy in The Adventures of Superman #500 (June 1993). Other crossovers the series participated in included Zero Hour: Crisis in Time, The Final Night, and Infinite Crisis.

As of the start of 2002, the integration between the Superman titles became less frequent, and the remaining issues of The Adventures of Superman commonly carried self-contained stories. Issue #600 (March 2002) was a double-sized special featuring Superman combating Lex Luthor. The final issue (#649) was part of a three-part crossover with Superman and Action Comics, an homage to the Earth-2 Superman in the wake of events in the limited series Infinite Crisis.

For its last two years, The Adventures of Superman was written by Greg Rucka. His stories included the villain Ruin, the attempted assassination of Lois Lane and a number of Mister Mxyzptlk appearances.

Adventures of Superman volume 2

Adventures of Superman was relaunched on April 29, 2013. Unlike the previous volume, the new series is not set in the mainstream DC Universe continuity but instead features anthology style stories with rotating creative teams in the same format as the second Legends of the Dark Knight series. It is released as a digital-first comic with print publication to follow. The first story was to have been written by Orson Scott Card and drawn by Chris Sprouse and Karl Story. Card's participation in the project became an issue. DC Comics responded to a petition that he be dropped with a statement that it supported freedom of expression and that the personal views of individuals associated with the company were not the views of the company. Illustrator Chris Sprouse left the project due to the media attention and some comic book stores announced a boycott. Card's Superman story is now "on hold" and will not be included in either the scheduled print or digital issues and was replaced by a story written by Jeff Parker. The relaunched Adventures of Superman series came to an end with issue #17, released in September 2014.

volume 2 reached issue #226 (April 2006) and was then canceled as part of the linewide Infinite Crisis event. The Adventures of Superman was returned to its original title, Superman, with issue #650 (May 2006), as a part of the " One Year Later" banner. Superman had a crossover with Action Comics, titled " Up, Up and Away!" co-written by Geoff Johns and Kurt Busiek with art by Pete Woods. This storyline told of Clark Kent attempting to protect Metropolis without his powers until eventually regaining them. Busiek became the sole writer of the series with issue #654 (September 2006) and Carlos Pacheco became the series' artist. The series participated in the weekly series Countdown to Final Crisis, giving a different perspective on certain events shown in the weekly title, such as the events preceding the death of New God Lightray.

Busiek and Pacheco developed an extended storyine featuring Arion coming into conflict with Superman. The plotline concluded in Superman Annual #13. Alex Ross painted the covers for issues #675 (June 2008) through #685 (April 2009).

James Robinson replaced Busiek with issue #677 (August 2008). Robinson's run on the title began with " The Coming of Atlas" story arc and began a link between Superman, Action Comics, and that started a long-form narrative with the New Krypton event. The majority of Robinson's run featured Mon-El and the Guardian as the featured characters, while Superman himself had gone to live on the planet New Krypton. Robinson's last full issue was #699, tying into Last Stand of New Krypton, and he finished his run in a short story in issue #700 (August 2010) that returned Superman to Earth. Superman #700 also saw writer J. Michael Straczynski, a self-professed Superman fan who feels a personal connection to the character, take over writing duties with a short story in the issue, and his run on the title began with issue #701. Artist Eddy Barrows, a previous Action Comics artist and one of the artists on the War of the Supermen event, was Straczynski's artistic collaborator. Straczynski and Barrows began a year-long story entitled " Grounded" that sees Superman begin a long walk across the United States to regain the connection with his adopted home that he feels he lost while away on New Krypton. The series ended with issue #714 (October 2011), prior to DC Comics' The New 52 company wide reboot and relaunch.

DC Comics launched Superman volume 3 with issue #1 in September 2011 ( cover dated November 2011), as part of The New 52. The first three issues saw George Pérez doing the scripting and breakdowns. DC announced in October 2011 that Dan Jurgens would be co-writing and drawing Superman with Keith Giffen. Their first issue was #7 (May 2012). As of September 2012's #0 Issue, Scott Lobdell and Kenneth Rocafort became the creative team. DC Comics' All Access webcast announced on February 4, 2014 that John Romita Jr. would be drawing the Superman series in collaboration with writer Geoff Johns. Romita Jr.'s Superman pencils were inked by Klaus Janson. Superman's secret identity as Clark Kent was revealed to the world in a storyline by writer Gene Luen Yang in 2015. This series ended its run with the release of issue #52 (July 2016).

As part of the DC Rebirth relaunch, Superman Volume 4 began with issue #1 in June 2016 (cover dated August 2016), including a one-shot DC Rebirth special Superman: Rebirth #1. Peter J. Tomasi and Patrick Gleason are the creative team, with the Superman series shipping twice-monthly. This volume's 34th issue was also the 800th issue of the Superman series as a whole, with a variant cover done by Tony S. Daniel to commemorate the occasion. The series ended its run with issue #45 (April 2018).

A new Superman series under the direction of Brian Michael Bendis began on July 11, 2018.

The Superman series had annuals published since 1960. Eight issues of Superman Annual were published starting in Winter 1960. An additional four issues were published from 1983 to 1986 and the numbering continued from the 1960 series. Superman Annual #11 (1985) featured the story " For the Man Who Has Everything" by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons. When the original Superman series was retitled as The Adventures of Superman, both it and Superman volume 2 received annuals relaunched with #1 issues. The Adventures of Superman Annual ran for nine issues from 1987 to 1997. After The Adventures of Superman was restored to its original title as Superman, its annuals continued the volume 2 annuals.

Superman Archives

Superman: The Golden Age Omnibus

The Superman Chronicles

Superman: The Man of Tomorrow Archives

Showcase Presents: Superman

Adventures of Superman: José Luis García-López collects Superman #294, 301-302, 307-309 and 347; DC Comics Presents #1-4, 17, 20, 24, and 31, and All-New Collectors' Edition #C-54, 360 pages, April 2013, ISBN 978-1401238568.

Adventures of Superman: Gil Kane collects Superman #367, 372, 375; Superman Special #1-2; Action Comics #539-541, 544-546 and 551-554; and DC Comics Presents Annual #3, 392 pages, January 2013, ISBN 978-1401236748.

Superman: Camelot Falls
Vol. 2 collects Superman #662-664, 667 and Superman Annual #13, 128 pages, March 2009, ISBN 978-1401218652

Superman: The Coming of Atlas collects Superman #677-680 and 1st Issue Special #1, 128 pages, April 2010, ISBN 978-1401221324

Superman: New Krypton

Superman: Mon-El
Vol. 2 collects Superman #692-697; Superman Annual #14; and Superman Secret Files and Origins 2009, 224 pages, October 2011, ISBN 978-1401229382

Superman: Last Stand of New Krypton

Superman: Grounded

Superman

Vol. 2: Secrets and Lies collects Superman vol. 3 #7-12 and Superman Annual vol. 3 #1, 176 pages, July 2013, ISBN 978-1401240288

Vol. 4: Psi-War collects Superman vol. 3 #18-24, and Superman Annual vol. 3 #2, 224 pages, August 2014, ISBN 140-1246230

Relaunched Adventures of Superman series (2013-2014)

Superman (vol. 4) has also been released in four deluxe hardcovers:

Superman: Rebirth Deluxe Edition Book 4 collects Superman vol. 4 #37-45, Superman Special #1 and a story from Action Comics #1000, 280 pages, May 2019, ISBN 978-1401289355

1. ^ Wallace, Daniel; Dolan, Hannah, ed. (2010). "1930s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9. Superman's runaway popularity as part of Action Comics earned him his own comic. This was a real breakthrough for the time, as characters introduced in comic books had never before been so successful as to warrant their own titles.

2. ^ Pasko, Martin (2008). The DC Vault: A Museum-in-a-Book with Rare Collectibles from the DC Universe. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Running Press. p. 46. ISBN 0762432578. During [World War Two], overall circulation tripled, as servicemen added comics to their reading habits. At the height of the war, many titles were selling over a million copies a month. Superman topped the list, of course-at first.

3. ^ Daniels, Les (1995). "The Superman Style Refining the Man of Steel". DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes. Bulfinch Press. p. 28. ISBN 0821220764. The image of Superman that eventually became preeminent was Wayne Boring's. By 1942 the former assistant to Joe Shuster was working on his own for DC, turning out pencilled and inked pages for Action Comics and Superman.

4. ^ Irvine, Alex "1950s" in Dolan, p. 91: "This issue of Superman was the first DC comic to include a letters column that would become a regular feature, though readers' letters were published in issue #3 of Real Fact Comics in July 1946."

5. Julius Schwartz's run on Superman at the Grand Comics Database

6. ^ Cronin, Brian (September 29, 2005). "Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #18!". Archived from the original on July 19, 2011.

7. McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 150: "Scripter Cary Bates and artist Curt Swan chose an inopportune time for Superman to meet Terra-Man, a ^ spaghetti Western-garbed menace who rode a winged horse and wielded lethal alien weaponry."

8. ^ Eury, Michael (July 2015). "A Look at DC's Super Specs". . Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (81): 27.

9. ^ Stroud, Bryan D. (December 2013). "Superman #300". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 31-33.

10. ^ Associated Press (June 28, 2006). "Superman co-creator has humble Canadian roots". CTV. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.

11. ^ Addiego, Frankie (December 2013). "Superman #400". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 68-70.

12. Adventures of Superman at the Grand Comics Database

13. Adventures of Superman Annual at the Grand Comics Database

14. ^ Byrne, John (w), Ordway, Jerry (p), Beatty, John (i). "Junk" Adventures of Superman 436 (January 1988)

15. Ordway, Jerry (w), ^ Grummett, Tom; Rodier, Denis; Swan, Curt; Bogdanove, Jon; Mooney, Jim; Thibert, Art; McLeod, Bob; Jurgens, Dan; Breeding, Brett (p), Rodier, Denis; Ordway, Jerry; Janke, Dennis; Thibert, Art; Breeding, Brett (i). "Dying Breed" Adventures of Superman 480 (July 1991)

16. Kesel, Karl; Ordway, Jerry (w), ^ Dodson, Terry (p), Story, Karl (i). "Curtain Call" Adventures of Superman 540 (November 1996)

17. ^ Rucka, Greg; DeFilippis, Nunzio; Weir, Christina (w), Kerschl, Karl (p), Guedes, Renato (i). "Look... Up in the Sky" Adventures of Superman 648 (March 2006)

18. Cowsill "2000s" in Dolan, p. 341: "The 700th issue of Superman was fifty-six pages long...comicdom's talented writers created very special Superman tales...James Robinson brought his epic run to an end...new Superman writer J. Michael Straczynski gave a preview of his much-anticipated run that would begin in the following issue".

19. ^ Segura, Alex (March 8, 2010). "J. Michael Straczynski to write Superman and Wonder Woman Starting in July". DC Comics. Archived from the original on March 13, 2010. Starting in July with Superman #701 and Wonder Woman #601, superstar writer J. Michael Straczynski - a man who's created layered and compelling characters and worlds on the big screen, on television and across the comic book spectrum-dives head-first into the DC Universe by taking the ongoing writing reins for two-thirds of the fabled DCU trinity.

20. ^ Segura, Alex (March 19, 2010). "Unveiling JMS' Superman Artist". DC Comics. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010.

21. ^ Burlingame, Russ (October 16, 2011). "Dan of Steel: Dan Jurgens on Joining Team Superman". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Superman editor Matt Idelson contacted Keith and me and basically said, "Hey! How would you guys like to co-write, conspire and Dan draw Superman?" We started batting around different ideas, thoughts and notes and had a "go" a day or two later.

22. ^ Johnston, Rich (February 4, 2014). "Scoop: The New Look For John Romita Jr's Superman - And Confirmation That Geoff Johns Will Be Writing It". Bleeding Cool. Archived from the original on February 6, 2014.

23. ^ McMillan, Graeme (February 4, 2014). "John Romita Jr. Signs with DC for Superman with Geoff Johns". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 6, 2014.

24. ^ Khouri, Andy (February 4, 2014). "Geoff Johns Returns To Superman In Collaboration With John Romita Jr". ComicsAlliance. Archived from the original on February 6, 2014.

25. ^ Schedeen, Jesse (August 26, 2015). "Superman #43 Reveals Why Lois Lane Leaked Superman's Identity". . Archived from the original on December 26, 2015.

26. ^ Marston, George (March 26, 2016). "DC Comics Rebirth Recap - Creative Teams, Schedule & a Few New Details". Newsarama. Archived from the original on October 11, 2016.

27. ^ Damore, Meagan (April 14, 2016). "Tomasi Paves the Way to 'The Final Days of Superman' & 'Superman: Rebirth'". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on June 9, 2016.

28. ^ Renaud, Jeffrey (May 31, 2016). "Tomasi, Gleason Talk the Death of Superman, 'Truth, Justice & Family' in Rebirth". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on June 16, 2016. Over the past decade, writer Peter J. Tomasi and artist Patrick Gleason have enjoyed great success together on Green Lantern Corps and Batman and Robin. This June they'll reunite for Superman, now shipping twice monthly as part of DC Comics' line-wide Rebirth relaunch.

29. ^ BRIAN MICHAEL BENDIS WILL RELAUNCH SUPERMAN, GET HIS OWN COMIC LINE -Nerdist

30. ^ Exclusive: Bendis To Write Superman, Revive Jinxworld, And Oversee New Custom Imprint At DC Comics -Forbes

← The character Ultra-Humanite was debuted by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. See Ultra-Humanite for more info and the previous timeline.

The characters Jonathan and Martha Kent were debuted by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. See Jonathan and Martha Kent for more info and next timeline. →

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Superman is an ongoing American comic book series featuring the DC Comics superhero Superman as its main protagonist. Superman began as one of several anthology features in the National Periodical Publications comic book Action Comics #1 in June 1938.

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Batman is an ongoing American comic book series featuring the DC Comics superhero Batman as its main protagonist. The character first appeared in Detective Comics #27 ( cover dated May 1939). Batman proved to be so popular that a self-titled ongoing comic book series began publication with a cover date of spring 1940. It was first advertised in early April 1940, one month after the first appearance of his new sidekick, Robin the Boy Wonder. Batman comics have proven to be popular since the 1940s.

Though the Batman comic book was initially launched as a quarterly publication, it later became a bimonthly series through the late 1950s, after which it became a monthly publication and has remained so ever since.

In September 2011, rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, the original Batman series ended and was relaunched with a new first issue.

In 2016, DC Comics began a second relaunch of its entire line of titles called . Batman (vol. 3) #1 (August 2016) was the debut twice-monthly relaunch of the comic book series.

The character of Batman made his first appearance in the pages of Detective Comics #27 in May 1939. In the spring of 1940, Batman #1 was published and introduced new characters into Batman's pantheon, most notably those of Catwoman and Batman's eventual nemesis, the Joker. Alfred Pennyworth, the Wayne family butler, was introduced in issue #16 (April-May 1943).

Editor Whitney Ellsworth assigned a Batman story to artist Dick Sprang in 1941. Anticipating that Bob Kane would be drafted to serve in World War II, DC inventoried Sprang's work to safeguard against delays. Sprang's first published Batman work was the Batman and Robin figures on the cover of Batman #18 (Aug.-Sept. 1943), reproduced from the art for page 13 of the later-published Detective Comics #84 (Feb. 1944). Sprang's first original published Batman work, and first interior-story work, appeared in Batman #19 (Oct.-Nov. 1943), for which he drew the cover and the first three Batman stories, and penciled the fourth Batman story, inked by Norm Fallon. Like all Batman artists of the time, Sprang went uncredited as a ghost artist for Kane.

Villains which debuted during this early era included the Mad Hatter in issue #49 (October 1948) and Killer Moth in issue #63 (February 1951). In 1953, Sheldon Moldoff became another one of the primary Batman ghost artists who, along with Win Mortimer and Dick Sprang, drew stories credited to Bob Kane, following Kane's style and under Kane's supervision. Bill Finger and Moldoff introduced Ace the Bat-Hound in #92 (June 1955).

The early part of the era known to comics fans and historians as the Silver Age of Comic Books saw the Batman title dabble in science fiction. New characters introduced included Mr. Freeze and Betty Kane, the original Bat-Girl.

In 1964, Julius Schwartz was made responsible for reviving the faded Batman titles. He jettisoned the sillier aspects that had crept into the series such as Ace the Bat-Hound and Bat-Mite and gave the character a "New Look" that premiered in Detective Comics #327 (May 1964). Schwartz's first issue of the Batman title was #164 (June 1964) which was written by France Edward Herron and drawn by Sheldon Moldoff. The Riddler returned after an 18-year absence in #171 (May 1965). Among the new villains introduced during this period was Poison Ivy in #181 (June 1966). In the 1960s, Batman comics were affected by the popular television series, with campy stories based on the tongue-in-cheek premise of the series. After the Batman television program's influence had died down, writer Frank Robbins and artist Irv Novick sent Dick Grayson off to attend college and moved Batman out of Wayne Manor in issue #217 (December 1969).

In 1971, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams came aboard the title and re-infused it with the darker tones of the 1940s. O'Neil and Adams introduced a new villain named Ra's al Ghul, and would also revitalize the Joker by bringing him back to his roots as a homicidal maniac who murders people on a whim. Batman #237 (December 1971) featured a metafictional story by O'Neil and Adams which featured several comics creators appearing in the story and interacting with Batman and Robin at the Rutland Halloween Parade in Rutland, Vermont. O'Neil said his work on the Batman series was "simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after." Comics historian Les Daniels observed that O'Neil's interpretation of Batman as a vengeful obsessive-compulsive, which he modestly describes as a return to the roots, was actually an act of creative imagination that has influenced every subsequent version of the Dark Knight." Issues #254-261 (Jan.-Feb. 1974-March-April 1975) of the series were in the 100 Page Super Spectacular format. The series reached its 300th issue with a June 1978 cover date and featured a story by writer David Vern Reed and artists Walt Simonson and Dick Giordano. Len Wein became the writer of the series with issue #307 (January 1979) and in his first issue, created Wayne Foundation executive Lucius Fox, later portrayed by Morgan Freeman in the movies Batman Begins, The Dark Knight, and The Dark Knight Rises. Julius Schwartz ended his tenure as editor of the series with issue #309 (March 1979).

Marv Wolfman briefly wrote Batman and co-created the Electrocutioner in issue #331 (Jan. 1981). Roy Thomas had a brief stint on the series as well. Writer Gerry Conway and artist Don Newton introduced Jason Todd in Batman #357 (March 1983). Todd would assume the costumed identity of Robin in issue #368 (February 1984). Writer Doug Moench began his run on the title with issue #360 and he and artist Tom Mandrake created the Black Mask character in Batman #386 (August 1985). Moench's longtime collaborator, artist Paul Gulacy made his DC Comics debut with a two-part story in issues #393-394. The title reached its 400th issue in October 1986 and featured work by several popular comics artists and included an introduction by novelist Stephen King.

Due to the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths, the continuity of DC Comics was altered. Established characters were given the opportunity to be reintroduced in new ways. While the Batman series was not rebooted, writer Frank Miller, who had previously worked on the limited series The Dark Knight Returns, and artist David Mazzucchelli retold the character's origin story for the new continuity in the monthly pages of Batman issues 404-407 (February-May 1987). The story, Batman: Year One, garnered high critical acclaim for its realistic interpretation of Batman's genesis, and its accessibility to new readers who had never followed Batman before. IGN Comics ranked Batman: Year One at the top of a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels, saying that "no other book before or since has quite captured the realism, the grit and the humanity of Gordon and Batman so perfectly." Notable comic book creators Greg Rucka, Jeph Loeb, and Judd Winick have cited Year One as their favorite Batman story. Following "Year One", writer Max Allan Collins and artist Chris Warner crafted a new origin for Jason Todd. Jim Starlin became the writer of Batman and one of his first storylines for the title was "Ten Nights of The Beast" in issues #417-420 (March-June 1988) which introduced the KGBeast. During Starlin's tenure on the title, DC Comics was becoming aware of the fanbase's growing disdain for the character of Jason Todd, Following a cliffhanger in which the character's life hangs in the balance, DC set up a 900 number hotline which gave callers the ability to vote for or against Jason Todd's death. The kill option won by a narrow majority, and the following month the character was shown dying from wounds inflicted in the previous issue's cliffhanger. The story, entitled " A Death in the Family", received high media exposure due to the shocking nature in which a familiar character's life had ended. Writer Marv Wolfman and artist Pat Broderick created Tim Drake in issue #436 in the "Batman: Year Three" story and the character became the third version of Robin in the "A Lonely Place of Dying" storyline culminating in issue #442.

Partially impacted by the tone of Tim Burton's 1989 film , the comics of the 1990s took a darker tone. The Tim Drake version of Robin was given a new costume designed by Neal Adams in issue #457 (December 1990) in a story by Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle. The main writers of the Batman franchise in the 1990s were Grant, Doug Moench, and Chuck Dixon. Moench and Dixon masterminded the Knightfall crossover arc, which saw Batman's back being broken by the super strong villain Bane. A new character, Jean-Paul Valley, takes up the Batman mantle in Bruce Wayne's absence. Valley is driven mad with power, and Wayne forcefully reclaims it after his recovery. Moench and artist Kelley Jones co-created the Ogre in Batman #535 (Oct. 1996).

The Batman titles in 1999 were dominated by the large crossover " No Man's Land", which sees Gotham City ravaged by a large earthquake, leading to the U.S. government's order to evacuate the city and abandoning and isolating those who choose to remain behind. Writer Greg Rucka adapted the story into a prose novel published in 2000.

After the conclusion to "No Man's Land" and Greg Rucka's move to Detective, the Batman title was handled for seven issues by writer Larry Hama and artist Scott McDaniel. At issue #582, Ed Brubaker became the writer of the series and kept a trend of gritty crime drama that included more grounded villains such as the Penguin, Brubaker's new villain Zeiss, and Deadshot. Brubaker's run received a short interruption with an arc title "Officer Down", which depicted Commissioner Gordon being shot in the line of duty and ultimately retiring from the Gotham police force. From there, writer Brian K. Vaughan did a three-issue arc that focused on Batman's created crime persona Matches Malone before Brubaker returned. The next crossover, masterminded by Brubaker and Rucka and titled " Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" saw Bruce Wayne framed for the murder of his girlfriend and nearly abandoning his civilian identity altogether.

For issue #600, the series moved into the next phase of Wayne's frame-up and featured three backup stories, which were presented as lost issues never before published from iconic eras in Batman's history. "Mystery of the Black Bat" is presented in the style of Dick Sprang and "Joker Tips His Hat!" is an homage to the 1960s stories by artists such as Gil Kane and Carmine Infantino. "The Dark, Groovy, Solid, Far-out, Right-on, and Completely With-it Knight Returns" is a humorous spin on Batman's character trying to update himself into the 1980s, and featured stand-up comedian Patton Oswalt's comic writing debut. After the frame-up story concluded, Brubaker closed his run with two issues co-written with Geoff Johns.

Writer Jeph Loeb and artist Jim Lee crafted a year-long story which began with issue #608. The " Hush" storyline was a murder mystery that delved through numerous periods in Batman's history. This storyline introduced a new character that was the story's namesake, as well as redefining the Riddler, healing Harvey Dent and calling into question the events surrounding Jason Todd's death. Following the conclusion of Hush, the creative team of the Vertigo series 100 Bullets came aboard for a six-issue arc titled " Broken City". Writer Judd Winick became the ongoing writer for the series and in a story titled " Under the Hood", explained that Jason Todd had actually returned from the dead long ago, and became an anti-hero in Gotham under the guise of the Red Hood.

After the Infinite Crisis series, all the regular monthly titles of the DC Universe jumped forward in time by one year, depicting the characters in radically different situations and environments than they were in the preceding issues. " Face the Face", was written by James Robinson and saw Batman returning from a year-long overseas journey that retraced the steps he took after initially leaving Gotham City in his youth and featured the return of James Gordon to the role of Gotham City Police Commissioner.

Grant Morrison began his long-form Batman narrative in issue #655. The first story, " Batman and Son", reveals that Wayne is the father of a child named Damian, and attempts to steer the child away from the machinations of his mother, Talia al Ghul. From there, Morrison began an arc that saw an evil influential organization known as the Black Glove attempt to destroy everything Batman is and what he stands for. This culminated in the storyline , where the Black Glove initially succeeds in doing so, but is thwarted by Bruce Wayne's ability to preserve his sane mind while an erratic, alternate personality takes over. After stopping the Black Glove, Morrison moved Batman into his event series Final Crisis, where Batman appears to be killed by Darkseid. In actuality, he was transported to the distant past and stranded there. Neil Gaiman wrote issue #686, which was the first part of a two-part story titled Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? It served as a quasi-send off to a generation of Batman stories, much the same way as Alan Moore's Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? did for Superman, and continued into an issue of Detective Comics.

After this, the main Batman series went on hiatus while the Battle for the Cowl miniseries would have Dick Grayson assume the role of Batman in the wake of Bruce Wayne's disappearance from the present day DC Universe. Grant Morrison stayed involved in writing Batman, but moved to a new series titled Batman and Robin, which followed the exploits of Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as the new Robin. Writer Judd Winick temporarily returned to the title for Grayson's first solo arc as Batman, before handing the writing and art duties off to Tony Daniel.

Daniel remained the main writer on the series until issue #699. The title reached a milestone with the publication of Batman #700 (August 2010), which saw the return of Grant Morrison to the title and a collaboration with an art team that consisted of Daniel, Frank Quitely, Andy Kubert, and David Finch. The separate stories tied together to illustrate that the legacy of Batman is unending, and will survive into the furthest reaches of time. Morrison stayed on as writer on the series through issue #702, while simultaneously writing the Batman and Robin series and The Return of Bruce Wayne miniseries. Tony Daniel resumed writing and art duties with issue #704. Even after Bruce Wayne's return, Dick Grayson remained the star of this title through its final year, as well as being the main character in Batman and Robin and Detective Comics. Bruce Wayne starred in two new titles, Batman Incorporated and Batman: The Dark Knight.

On June 1, 2011, it was announced that all series taking place within the shared DC Universe would be either canceled or relaunched with new #1 issues, after a new continuity was created in the wake of the Flashpoint event. Batman was no exception, and the first issue of the new series was released on September 21, 2011.

DC Comics relaunched Batman with issue #1 in September 2011, written by Scott Snyder and drawn by Greg Capullo, as part of DC's company-wide title relaunch, The New 52. As with all of the books associated with the DC relaunch, Bruce Wayne appears to be about five years younger than the previous incarnation of the character. Superheroes at large have appeared only in the past five years, and are viewed with, at best, suspicion, and, at worst, outright hostility. All of the characters that have served as Robin, except Stephanie Brown, have been accounted for as still having served at Batman's side in the new continuity. The stories build on recent developments, with most of the character's previous history remaining intact, and Bruce Wayne is again the only Batman, with Dick Grayson having returned to his role as Nightwing.

The first story arc of the title, "The Court of Owls", focuses on Batman's discovery of a secret society in Gotham City that he had never known about before, dating back to the time of Gotham's founding and his ancestor Alan Wayne, and his battles against the Talons, the agents of the Court of Owls. This led to the first major New 52 crossover, " Night of the Owls". The finale of the story sees Thomas Wayne Jr. as the head Talon of the Court of Owls in Gotham.

The second arc was named " Death of the Family", a name-play on the " Batman: A Death in the Family". It picked up on the cliffhanger involving the Joker from Tony Daniel's run on Detective Comics.

Talon, a spin-off of the "Court of Owls" storyline, launched in September 2012 and focused on a rogue Talon from the Court.

After a storyline involving Clayface and a one-shot dealing with the aftermath of "Death of the Family", Snyder's next arc was " Batman: Zero Year". This followed up on Batman #0 and retold how Bruce Wayne became Batman, not done since Frank Miller's " Batman: Year One". The " Endgame" storyline ran from October 2014 to April 2015, and concluded with the apparent deaths of both Batman and the Joker. James Gordon, having taken on the Batman mantle, became the main character of the series in June 2015.

In the "Superheavy" storyline, James Gordon encounters a new supervillain, Mr. Bloom, who is distributing various seed-like devices that grant its user extraordinary superpowers at the cost of their lives to select few individuals. It is also revealed the Bruce Wayne is alive, with no memories of his previous life, and has started dating Julie Madison. With Gordon unable to subdue Bloom, Bruce begins to regain his memories and realizes that he is Batman. Using a machine that Batman planned to use to implant his memories into clones to continue his lineage, he regains his memories and becomes Batman again. With Jim's help, he takes down Bloom. Jim Gordon is made the Commissioner of the GCPD once again following issue #50.

As part of DC Rebirth, Batman was relaunched with a Batman: Rebirth one-shot and began shipping twice-monthly, starting with Batman (vol. 3) #1 in June 2016 (cover dated Aug. 2016). The series is written by Tom King and drawn by David Finch and Mikel Janín. The series saw the introduction of two vigilantes, Gotham and Gotham Girl, and reintroduced the romance between Batman and Catwoman. During King's run, the series explored Batman's psychological aspects, made Bane its main antagonist, and celebrated Batman and Catwoman's relationship in a long-running story arc that involved many mini-arcs. These mini-arcs included "I Am Gotham", "Night of the Monster Men", "I Am Suicide", "I Am Bane", "The War of Jokes and Riddles", "The Rules of Engagement", "The Wedding", "Cold Days", "Knightmares", "The Fall and the Fallen", and "The City of Bane". The series will return to being shipped monthly in January 2020, with Tom King leaving the book with issue #85 for a 12-issue maxiseries titled "Batman/Catwoman", in order to conclude his Batman story. Starting with Batman #86, James Tynion IV became the main writer of the title.

The Batman series has had Annuals published beginning in 1961. Seven issues of Batman Annual were published from 1961 - summer 1964. An additional 17 issues were published from 1982 to 2000 and the numbering continued from the 1961 series. Writer Mike W. Barr and artist Trevor Von Eeden crafted Batman Annual #8 (1982) and Von Eeden has noted that it is "the book I'm most proud of, in my 25 year career at DC Comics. I was able to ink it myself, and also got my girlfriend at the time, Lynn Varley, to colour it - her first job in comics."

Four more Annuals were published from 2006 to 2011, again with the numbering continued from the previous series. In 2012, a new Annual series was begun with a #1 issue.

The first stories appearing in the Batman comic book were written by Bill Finger and illustrated by Bob Kane, though Finger went uncredited for years thereafter. These early stories depicted a vengeful Batman, not hesitant to kill when he saw it as a necessary sacrifice. In one of the early stories, he is depicted using a gun and metal bat to stop a group of giant assailants and again with a group of average criminals. The Joker, a psychopath who is notorious for using a special toxin called Joker venom that kills and mutilates his victims, remains one of the most prolific and notorious Batman villains created in this time period. Later, during the Silver Age, this type of supervillain changed from disturbing psychological assaults to the use of amusing gimmicks.

Typically, the primary challenges that the Batman faced in this era were derived from villains who were purely evil; however, by the 1970s, the motivations of these characters, including obsessive-compulsion, child abuse, and environmental fanaticism, were being explored more thoroughly. Batman himself also underwent a transformation and became a much less one-dimensional character, struggling with deeply rooted internal conflicts. Although not canonical, Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns introduced a significant evolution of the Batman's character in his eponymous series; he became uncompromising and relentless in his struggle to revitalize Gotham. The Batman often exhibited behavior that Gotham's elite labeled as excessively violent, as well as antisocial tendencies. This aspect of the Batman's personality was also toned down considerably in the wake of the DC-wide crossover Infinite Crisis, wherein Batman experienced a nervous breakdown and reconsidered his philosophy and approaches to his relationships. Currently, the Batman's attributes and personality are said to have been greatly influenced by the traditional characterization by Dennis O'Neil and Neal Adams' portrayals during the 1970s, although hints of the Miller interpretation appear in certain aspects of his character.

Batman Vol. 2: The City of Owls collects Batman vol. 2 #8-12 and Batman Annual #1; 208 pages; March 2013; ISBN 978-1401237776

Batman Vol. 6: The Graveyard Shift collects Batman vol. 2 #0, 18-20, 28, 34, and Batman Annual #2; 224 pages; April 2015; ISBN 978-1401252304

Batman Vol. 10: Epilogue collects Batman vol. 2 #51-52, Batman Annual #4, Batman: Futures End #1 and Batman: Rebirth #1 ; December 2016; ISBN 978-1401267735

DC Rebirth (2016-present)

Batman Vol. 1: I Am Gotham collects Batman: Rebirth #1 and Batman vol. 3 #1-6; 192 pages; January 2017;

Batman Vol. 2: I Am Suicide collects Batman vol. 3 #9-15; 168 pages; April 2017;

Batman Vol. 3: I Am Bane collects Batman vol. 3 #16-20, #23-24 and Annual #1; 176 pages; August 2017;

Batman Vol. 4: The War of Jokes and Riddles collects Batman vol. 3 #25-32; 208 pages; December 2017;

Batman Vol. 5: The Rules of Engagement collects Batman vol. 3 #33-37 and Annual #2; 160 pages; April 2018;

Batman Vol. 6: Bride or Burglar collects Batman vol. 3 #38-44; 161 pages; July 2018

Batman Vol. 7: The Wedding collects Batman vol. 3 #45-50 and DC Nation #0; 176 pages; October 2018

Batman Vol. 8: Cold Days collects Batman vol. 3 #51-57; 176 pages; December 2018

Batman Vol. 9: The Tyrant Wing collects Batman vol. 3 #58-60, Annual #3, and Batman: Secret Files #1; 152 pages; March 2019

Batman Vol. 10: Knightmares collects Batman vol. 3 #61-63 and #66-69; 176 pages; September 2019

Batman Vol. 11: The Fall and the Fallen collects Batman vol. 3 #70-74 and Batman: Secret Files #2; 144 pages; January 2020

Batman (collected with Detective Comics)

The Batman Chronicles

Batman: The Dynamic Duo Archives

Showcase Presents: Batman

Tales of the Batman: Don Newton, collects Batman #305-306, 328; Detective Comics #480, 483-497; and The Brave and the Bold #153, 156, and 165, 360 pages, December 2011, ISBN 978-1401232948

Tales of the Batman: Gene Colan Volume One, collects Batman #340, 343-345, 348-351 and Detective Comics #510, 512, 517, 523, 528-529, 288 pages, August 2011, ISBN 978-1401231019

These are crossovers that include most - if not all - of the Batman related titles published at the time.

Batman: Knightfall

Part One: Broken Bat collects Batman #491-497 and Detective Comics #659-663, 272 pages, September 1993, ISBN 1-56389-142-5

Part Two: Who Rules the Night collects Batman #498-500, Detective Comics #664-666, Batman: Shadow of the Bat #16-18, and stories from Showcase '93 #7-8; 288 pages, September 1993, ISBN 1-56389-148-4

Part Three: KnightsEnd collects Batman #509-510, Batman: Shadow of the Bat #29-30, Detective Comics #676-677, Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight #62-63, and Catwoman vol. 2 #12; 304 pages, June 1995, ISBN 1-56389-191-3)

Batman: No Man's Land

Batman: Bruce Wayne, Fugitive

Batman: War Games

Batman: Face the Face includes Batman #651 - 654 and Detective Comics #817-820, 192 pages, September 2006, ISBN 978-1401209100

Batman: The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul includes Batman Annual #26, Batman #670-671, #168-169, Robin Annual #7, #138-139, and Detective Comics #838-839), 256 pages, May 2009, ISBN 978-1401220327

Batman: Whatever Happened to the Caped Crusader? includes Batman #686; Detective Comics #853; Secret Origins #36; Secret Origins Special #1; and Batman Black and White #2, 128 pages, July 2009, ISBN 978-1401223038

A Lonely Place of Dying: collects Batman #440 - 442 and The New Titans #60 - 61, 116 pages, February 1990, ISBN 978-0930289638

1. ^ The Catalog of Copyright Entries 1940 Periodicals Jan-Dec New Series Vol 35 Pt 2. Washington, D.C.: United States Copyright Office. 1940. p. 142.

2. ^ Wallace, Daniel; Dolan, Hannah, ed. (2010). "1940s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9. The first issue of Batman's self-titled comic written by Bill Finger and drawn by Bob Kane, represented a milestone in more ways than one. With Robin now a partner to the Caped Crusader, villains needed to rise to the challenge, and this issue introduced two future legends: the Joker and Catwoman.

3. Desris, Joe (1994). Batman Archives, Vol. 3. New York, New York: DC Comics. p. 223. ISBN 1-56389-099-2.

4. Verified by Sprang at ^ Batman #18 (Aug.-Sept. 1943) and Detective Comics #84 (Feb. 1944) at the Grand Comics Database

5. Wallace "1940s" in Dolan, p. 59: "Inspired by Lewis Carroll's ^ Alice in Wonderland, the Mad Hatter joined the other costumed freaks of Gotham City on his debut in October's Batman #49"

6. ^ Morris, Brian K. (June 2006). "Maybe I Was Just Loyal Longtime Batman artist Sheldon Moldoff talks about Bob Kane and other phenomena". . Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing. 3 (59): 14-23.

7. Irvine "1950s" in Dolan, p. 92: "The Dynamic Duo battled the frosty foe Mr. Zero in a story written by Dave Wood and with art by Sheldon Moldoff in ^ Batman #121...The 1960s Batman TV series, starring Adam West, included the character of Mr. Zero but renamed him Mr. Freeze. Later comic book incarnations of the ice-cold villain would adopt the new name."

8. ^ Ro, Ronin (2004). Tales To Astonish: Jack Kirby, Stan Lee, And The American Comic Book Revolution. London, United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 89-90. ISBN 1582343454. There was a point when DC actually gave thought to canceling Batman...in his spacious office, facing [Julius] Schwartz and [Carmine] Infantino, [Irwin] Donenfeld told them, 'Gentlemen, you two guys are going to take over Batman. The book is dying. I'll give you six months. If you don't bring it back, we'll kill it off.

9. "Julius Schwartz' run on Batman". Grand Comics Database.

10. ^ Forbeck, Matt; Dougall, Alastair, ed. (2014). "1960s". Batman: A Visual History. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 84. ISBN 978-1465424563. Writer Ed Herron joined artist Sheldon Moldoff for this first issue of Batman featuring the 'New Look'.

11. ^ Greenberger, Robert; Manning, Matthew K. (2009). The Batman Vault: A Museum-in-a-Book with Rare Collectibles from the Batcave. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Running Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-7624-3663-8. Editor Julius Schwartz had decided to darken the character's world to further distance him from the camp environment created by the 1966 ABC show. Bringing in the talented O'Neil as well as the innovative Frank Robbins and showcasing the art of rising star Neal Adams...Schwartz pointed Batman in a new and darker direction, a path the character still continues on to this day.

12. ^ Larnick, Eric (October 30, 2010). "The Rutland Halloween Parade: Where Marvel and DC First Collided". ComicsAlliance. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012. Dick Grayson attends the parade with his friends - comic book creators Alan Weiss, Bernie Wrightson and Gerry Conway. Batman's fight spills into Tom Fagan's mansion, where Denny O'Neil, Len Wein and Mark Hanerfeld are in attendance.

13. ^ Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William (1991). "Notes from the Batcave: An Interview with Dennis O'Neil". The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 0415903475.

14. ^ Daniels, Les (1995). "Revamping the Classics The Old Guard Gets a New Look". DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes. New York, New York: Bulfinch Press. p. 157. ISBN 0821220764.

15. ^ Eury, Michael (July 2015). "A Look at DC's Super Specs". . Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (81): 22-23.

16. Trumbull, John (December 2013). "A New Beginning...And a Probable End Batman #300 and #400". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 49-53.

17. McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 180 "^ Batman #307 (January 1979) Writer Len Wein and artist John Calnan introduced Bruce Wayne's new executive, Lucius Fox, in this issue of Batman."

18. "Doug Moench's run on Batman". Grand Comics Database.

19. ^ Wallace, Dan (2008). "Black Mask". In Dougall, Alastair (ed.). The DC Comics Encyclopedia. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 52. ISBN 0-7566-4119-5.

20. ^ Goldstein, Hilary (October 25, 2011). "The 25 Greatest Batman Graphic Novels". IGN. Archived from the original on May 25, 2012.

21. ^ Rogers, Vaneta (June 10, 2010). "Batman #700 Bat-Creators Share Some Favorite Bat-Things". Newsarama. Archived from the original on May 18, 2012.

22. Manning "1990s" in Dolan, p. 259: 'Knightfall' was a nineteen-part crossover event that passed through the pages of ^ Batman, by writer Doug Moench...[and] Detective Comics written by Chuck Dixon."

23. Morrison, Grant (w), Mahnke, Doug (p), ^ Nguyen, Tom; Geraci, Drew; Alamy, Christian; Rapmund, Norm; Ramos, Rodney; Mahnke, Doug; Wond, Walden (i). "New Heaven, New Earth" Final Crisis 7 (March 2009)

24. ^ Daniel, Tony (w), Daniel, Tony (p), Florea, Sandu (i). "Last Man Standing" Batman: Battle for the Cowl 3 (July 2009)

25. ^ Doran, Michael (August 30, 2010). "Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson Are Batman This Fall". Newsarama. Archived from the original on May 3, 2012.

26. ^ Khouri, Andy (June 6, 2011). "Batman Relaunch: New #1s for Batgirl, Batman, Detective, Catwoman, Birds of Prey". ComicsAlliance. Archived from the original on March 19, 2012.

27. ^ Walecka, Travis (September 20, 2011). "Batman and Swamp Thing: Scott Snyder's dark plans for DC". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on March 16, 2012.

28. ^ Rogers, Vaneta (January 11, 2012). "Snyder Spills Even More on Night of Owls, Batman's Future". Newsarama. Archived from the original on June 15, 2012.

29. ^ Nagorski, Alex (July 2, 2012). "The Return of the Joker". DC Comics. Archived from the original on July 4, 2012.

30. ^ Rogers, Vaneta (June 8, 2012). "DC Adds Four to New 52, Including DiDio's Phantom Stranger". Newsarama. Archived from the original on June 11, 2012. This new comic...introduces a new "anti-hero on the run" to the DCU. Calvin Rose, the only Talon to escape from the control of the Court of Owls, will be traveling all around the DCU as he is hunted by his former masters. While the story spins out of the Court of Owls storyline that is running through the first year of Snyder's Batman, the title character is a brand new one.

31. ^ Schedeen, Jesse (June 17, 2016). "Tom King and David Finch on Relaunching Batman for DC Rebirth". IGN. Archived from the original on June 26, 2016.

32. ^ Renaud, Jeffrey (June 16, 2016). "Tom King Says 'Batman' is 'Psychotic, Inspiring' and Doesn't Need a Rebirth". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. As part of DC's Rebirth relaunch, King is joined by superstar artist David Finch on the now bi-weekly Batman.

33. ^ Pereira, Sergio (June 1, 2019). "Tom King's Batman Should Be Revered, Not Reviled". CBR.

34. ^ "BATMAN/CATWOMAN #1 CONTINUES ONGOING BAT/CAT ROMANCE". DC Comics. May 24, 2019.

35. ^ "THE DARK KNIGHT GETS A NEW CREATIVE TEAM IN 2020". DC Comics. September 21, 2019.

36. ^ Williams, Luke G. (August 24, 2014). "Boxiana Vol. 1 extras: Five rounds with Trevor Von Eeden". Boxiana. Archived from the original on September 28, 2015.

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Batman is an ongoing American comic book series featuring the DC Comics superhero Batman as its main protagonist. The character first appeared in Detective Comics #27 ( cover dated May 1939). Batman proved to be so popular that a self-titled ongoing comic book series began publication with a cover date of spring 1940.

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Steve Rogers
Captain America

Publisher
Marvel Comics

First appearance

Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941)

Created by

Alter ego

Steven Grant Rogers

Team affiliations

Partnerships

Notable aliases

Nomad
The Captain

Abilities

Enhanced strength, speed, stamina, durability, agility, reflexes, senses, and mental processing via the super soldier serum

Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant

Accelerated healing

Slowed aging

Master tactician, strategist, and field commander

Using Vibranium-steel alloy shield

Captain America is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by cartoonists Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Captain America Comics #1 ( cover dated March 1941) from Timely Comics, a predecessor of Marvel Comics. Captain America was designed as a patriotic supersoldier who often fought the Axis powers of World War II and was Timely Comics' most popular character during the wartime period. The popularity of superheroes waned following the war, and the Captain America comic book was discontinued in 1950, with a short-lived revival in 1953. Since Marvel Comics revived the character in 1964, Captain America has remained in publication.

The character wears a costume bearing an American flag motif, and he utilizes a nearly-indestructible shield that he throws as a projectile. Captain America is the alter ego of Steve Rogers, a frail young artist enhanced to the peak of human perfection by an experimental " super-soldier serum" after joining the military to aid the United States government's efforts in World War II. Near the end of the war, he was trapped in ice and survived in suspended animation until he was revived in modern times. Although Captain America often struggles to maintain his ideals as a man out of his time, he remains a highly respected figure both with the American public and in the superhero community, which includes becoming the long-time leader of the Avengers.

Captain America was the first Marvel Comics character to appear in media outside comics with the release of the 1944 movie serial, Captain America. Since then, the character has been featured in other films and television series. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), the character is portrayed by Chris Evans. Captain America was ranked sixth on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time" in 2011, second in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers" in 2012, and second in their "Top 25 best Marvel superheroes" list in 2014.

Publication history

In 1940, writer Joe Simon conceived the idea for Captain America and made a sketch of the character in costume. "I wrote the name 'Super American' at the bottom of the page," Simon said in his autobiography, and then decided:

No, it didn't work. There were too many "Supers" around. "Captain America" had a good sound to it. There weren't a lot of captains in comics. It was as easy as that. The boy companion was simply named Bucky, after my friend Bucky Pierson, a star on our high school basketball team.

Simon recalled in his autobiography that Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman gave him the go-ahead and directed that a Captain America solo comic book series be published as soon as possible. Needing to fill a full comic with primarily one character's stories, Simon did not believe that his regular creative partner, artist Jack Kirby, could handle the workload alone:

I didn't have a lot of objections to putting a crew on the first issue ... There were two young artists from Connecticut that had made a strong impression on me. Al Avison and Al Gabriele often worked together and were quite successful in adapting their individual styles to each other. Actually, their work was not too far from [that of] Kirby's. If they worked on it, and if one inker tied the three styles together, I believed the final product would emerge as quite uniform. The two Als were eager to join in on the new Captain America book, but Jack Kirby was visibly upset. "You're still number one, Jack," I assured him. "It's just a matter of a quick deadline for the first issue." "I'll make the deadline," Jack promised. "I'll pencil it [all] myself and make the deadline." I hadn't expected this kind of reaction ... but I acceded to Kirby's wishes and, it turned out, was lucky that I did. There might have been two Als, but there was only one Jack Kirby ... I wrote the first Captain America book with penciled lettering right on the drawing boards, with very rough sketches for figures and backgrounds. Kirby did his thing, building the muscular anatomy, adding ideas and popping up the action as only he could. Then he tightened up the penciled drawings, adding detailed backgrounds, faces and figures."

Al Lieberman would ink that first issue, which was lettered by Simon and Kirby's regular letterer, Howard Ferguson.

Simon said Captain America was a consciously political creation; he and Kirby were morally repulsed by the actions of Nazi Germany in the years leading up to the United States' involvement in World War II and felt war was inevitable: "The opponents to the war were all quite well organized. We wanted to have our say too."

Captain America Comics #1 - cover-dated March 1941 and on sale December 20, 1940, a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor, but a full year into World War II - showed the protagonist punching Nazi leader Adolf Hitler; it sold nearly one million copies. While most readers responded favorably to the comic, some took objection. Simon noted, "When the first issue came out we got a lot of ... threatening letters and hate mail. Some people really opposed what Cap stood for." The threats, which included menacing groups of people loitering out on the street outside of the offices, proved so serious that police protection was posted with New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia personally contacting Simon and Kirby to give his support.

Though preceded as a "patriotically themed superhero" by MLJ's The Shield, Captain America immediately became the most prominent and enduring of that wave of superheroes introduced in American comic books prior to and during World War II, as evidenced by the unusual move at the time of premiering the character in his own title instead of an anthology title first. This popularity drew the attention and a complaint from MLJ that the character's triangular shield too closely resembled the chest symbol of their Shield character. In response, Goodman had Simon and Kirby create a distinctive round shield for issue 2, which went on to become an iconic element of the character. With his sidekick Bucky, Captain America faced Nazis, Japanese, and other threats to wartime America and the Allies. Stanley Lieber, now better known as Stan Lee, in his first professional fiction writing task, contributed to the character in issue #3 in the filler text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor's Revenge", which introduced the character's use of his shield as a returning throwing weapon. Captain America soon became Timely's most popular character and even had a fan-club called the "Sentinels of Liberty".

Circulation figures remained close to a million copies per month after the debut issue, which outstripped even the circulation of news magazines such as during the period. The character was widely imitated by other comics publishers, with around 40 red-white-and-blue patriotic heroes debuting in 1941 alone. After the Simon and Kirby team moved to DC Comics in late 1941, having produced Captain America Comics through issue #10 (January 1942), Al Avison and Syd Shores became regular pencillers of the celebrated title, with one generally inking over the other. The character was featured in All Winners Comics #1-19 (Summer 1941 - Fall 1946), Marvel Mystery Comics #80-84 and #86-92, #6-17 (Dec. 1942 - Fall 1945), and All Select Comics #1-10 (Fall 1943 - Summer 1946).

In the post-war era, with the popularity of superheroes fading, Captain America led Timely's first superhero team, the All-Winners Squad, in its two published adventures, in All Winners Comics #19 and #21 (Fall-Winter 1946; there was no issue #20). After Bucky was shot and wounded in a 1948 Captain America story, he was succeeded by Captain America's girlfriend, Betsy Ross, who became the superheroine Golden Girl. Captain America Comics ran until issue #73 (July 1949), at which time the series was retitled Captain America's Weird Tales for two issues, with the finale being a horror/suspense anthology issue with no superheroes.

Atlas Comics attempted to revive its superhero titles when it reintroduced Captain America, along with the original Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner, in Young Men #24 (Dec. 1953). Billed as "Captain America, Commie Smasher!" Captain America appeared during the next year in Young Men #24-28 and Men's Adventures #27-28, as well as in issues #76-78 of an eponymous title. Atlas' attempted superhero revival was a commercial failure, and the character's title was canceled with Captain America #78 (Sept. 1954).

Silver and Bronze Age

In the Human Torch story titled "Captain America" in Marvel Comics' Strange Tales #114 (Nov. 1963), writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Jack Kirby depicted the brash young Fantastic Four member Johnny Storm, the Human Torch, in an exhibition performance with Captain America, described as a legendary World War II and 1950s superhero who has returned after many years of apparent retirement. The 18-page story ends with this Captain America revealed as an impostor: it was actually the villain the Acrobat, a former circus performer the Torch had defeated in Strange Tales #106, who broke two thieves out of jail, hoping to draw the police away while trying to rob the local bank. Afterward, Storm digs out an old comic book in which Captain America is shown to be Steve Rogers. A caption in the final panel says this story was a test to see if readers would like Captain America to return. According to Lee, fan response to the tryout was very enthusiastic.

Captain America was then formally reintroduced in The Avengers #4 (March 1964), which explained that in the final days of World War II, he had fallen from an experimental drone plane into the North Atlantic Ocean and spent decades frozen in a block of ice in a state of suspended animation. The hero found a new generation of readers as leader of that superhero team. Following the success of other Marvel characters introduced during the 1960s, Captain America was recast as a hero "haunted by past memories, and trying to adapt to 1960s society".

After then guest-starring in the feature " Iron Man" in Tales of Suspense #58 (Oct. 1964), Captain America gained his own solo feature in that "split book", beginning the following issue. Issue #63 (March 1965), which retold Captain America's origin, through issue #71 (Nov. 1965) was a period feature set during World War II and co-starred Captain America's Golden Age sidekick, Bucky. Kirby drew all but two of the stories in Tales of Suspense, which became Captain America with #100 (April 1968); Gil Kane and John Romita Sr., each filled in once. Several stories were finished by penciller-inker George Tuska over Kirby layouts, with one finished by Romita Sr. and another by penciller Dick Ayers and inker John Tartaglione. Kirby's regular inkers on the series were Frank Giacoia (as "Frank Ray") and Joe Sinnott, though Don Heck and Golden Age Captain America artist Syd Shores inked one story each. A story in issue #155-157 revealed the 1950s "Commie Smasher" Captain America and Bucky to be imposters.

This series - considered Captain America volume one by comics researchers and historians, following the 1940s Captain America Comics and its 1950s numbering continuation of Tales of Suspense - ended with #454 (Aug. 1996).

This series was almost immediately followed by the 13-issue Captain America vol. 2 (Nov. 1996 - Nov. 1997, part of the " Heroes Reborn" crossover), the 50-issue Captain America vol. 3 (Jan. 1998 - Feb. 2002), the 32-issue Captain America vol. 4 (June 2002 - Dec. 2004), and Captain America vol. 5 (Jan. 2005 - Aug. 2011). Beginning with the 600th overall issue (Aug. 2009), Captain America resumed its original numbering, as if the series numbering had continued uninterrupted after #454.

As part of the aftermath of Marvel Comics' company-crossover storyline " Civil War", Steve Rogers was ostensibly killed in Captain America vol. 5, #25 (March 2007). The storyline of Rogers' return began in issue #600. Rogers, who was not dead but caroming through time, returned to the present day in the six-issue miniseries Captain America: Reborn (Sept. 2009 - March 2010).

After Rogers' return, Barnes, at Rogers' insistence, continued as Captain America, beginning in the one-shot comic Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield? (Feb. 2010). While Bucky Barnes continued adventuring in the pages of Captain America, Steve Rogers received his own miniseries ( Steve Rogers: Super-Soldier) as well as taking on the leadership position in a new Secret Avengers ongoing series. Spinoff series included Captain America Sentinel of Liberty (Sept. 1998 - Aug. 1999) and Captain America and the Falcon (May 2004 - June 2005). The 1940s Captain America appeared alongside the 1940s Human Torch and Sub-Mariner in the 12-issue miniseries Avengers/Invaders. The 2007 mini-series Captain America: The Chosen, written by David Morrell and penciled by Mitchell Breitweiser, depicts a dying Steve Rogers' final minutes, at S.H.I.E.L.D. headquarters, as his spirit guides James Newman, a young American Marine fighting in Afghanistan. The Chosen is not part of the main Marvel Universe continuity.

During the "Two Americas" storyline that ran in issues #602-605, the series drew controversy for the similarity between protesters depicted in the comic and the Tea Party movement. Particularly drawing scorn was a panel of a protester holding sign that read "Tea Bag the Libs Before They Tea Bag You!" Also drawing controversy were remarks made by the Falcon implying that the crowd is racist. In his column on Comic Book Resources, Marvel Comics Editor-in-Chief Joe Quesada apologized for the sign, claiming that it was a mistake, added by the letterer at the last minute.

The character, first as agent Steve Rogers and later after resuming his identity as Captain America, appeared as a regular character throughout the 2010-2013 Avengers series, from issue #1 (July 2010) through its final issue #34 (January 2013). The character appeared as agent Steve Rogers as a regular character in the 2010-2013 Secret Avengers series, from issue #1 (July 2010) through issue #21 (March 2012); the character made guest appearances as Captain America in issues #21.1, #22-23, #35, and the final issue of the series #37 (March 2013). Marvel stated in May 2011 that Rogers, following the public death of Bucky Barnes in the Fear Itself miniseries, would resume his Captain America identity in a sixth volume of Captain America, by writer Ed Brubaker and artist Steve McNiven.

The Captain America title continued from issue #620 featuring team up stories with Bucky (#620-#628), Hawkeye (#629-#632), Iron Man (#633-635), Namor (#635.1), and Black Widow (#636-#640), and the title ended its print run with issue #640. Captain America is a regular character in Uncanny Avengers (2012), beginning with issue #1 as part of Marvel NOW!. Captain America vol. 7 was launched in November 2012 with a January 2013 cover date by writer Rick Remender and artist John Romita Jr..

On July 16, 2014, Marvel Comics announced that the mantle of Captain America would be passed on by Rogers (who in the most recent storyline has been turned into a 90-year-old man) to his long-time ally The Falcon, with the series being relaunched as All-New Captain America. Marvel announced that Rogers will become Captain America once again in the comic series Captain America: Steve Rogers. This new series follows the events of " Avengers: Standoff!," in which Captain America is restored to his youthful state following an encounter with the sentient Cosmic Cube, Kobik, and his past is drastically rewritten under the instructions of the Red Skull.

Afterwards, Captain America plots to set himself and Hydra in a position where they can conquer America in Marvel's event " Secret Empire". This is an alternate timeline Captain America who is fond of Nazis, joining Hydra before World War II, and was later defeated by numerous superheroes during Hydra's takeover of the United States. Following this, the original Rogers returns as Captain America and Wilson returns as the Falcon. As part of Marvel's Fresh Start rebrand, a new Captain America series starring Rogers and written by Ta-Nehisi Coates and art by Leinil Francis Yu. The series ran from July 2018 to June 2021, the 80th anniversary of the character.

Legal status

In 1966, Joe Simon sued the owners of Marvel Comics, asserting that he-not Marvel-was legally entitled to renew the copyright upon the expiration of the original 28-year term. The two parties settled out of court, with Simon agreeing to a statement that the character had been created under terms of employment by the publisher, and therefore it was work for hire owned by them.

In 1999, Simon filed to claim the copyright to Captain America under a provision of the Copyright Act of 1976, which allowed the original creators of works that had been sold to corporations to reclaim them after the original 56-year copyright term (but not the longer term enacted by the new legislation) had expired. Marvel Entertainment challenged the claim, arguing that the settlement of Simon's 1966 suit made the character ineligible for termination of the copyright transfer. Simon and Marvel settled out of court in 2003, in a deal that paid Simon royalties for merchandising and licensing use of the character.

Fictional character biography

20th century

Steven Rogers was born in the Lower East Side of Manhattan, New York City, in 1920 to poor Irish immigrants, Sarah and Joseph Rogers. Joseph died when Steve was a child, and Sarah died of pneumonia while Steve was a teen. By early 1940, before America's entry into World War II, Rogers is a tall, scrawny fine arts student specializing in illustration and a comic book writer and artist.

Disturbed by the devastation of Europe by the Nazis, Rogers attempts to enlist but is rejected due to his frail body. His resolution attracts the notice of U.S. Army General Chester Phillips and "Project: Rebirth". Rogers is used as a test subject for the Super-Soldier project, receiving a special serum made by "Dr. Josef Reinstein", later retroactively changed to a code name for the scientist Abraham Erskine.

The serum is a success and transforms Steve Rogers into a nearly perfect human being with peak strength, agility, stamina, and intelligence. The success of the program leaves Erskine wondering about replicating the experiment on other human beings. The process itself has been inconsistently detailed: While in the original material Rogers is shown receiving injections of the Super-Serum, when the origin was retold in the 1960s, the Comic Code Authority had already put a veto over graphic description of drug intake and abuse, and thus the Super-Serum was retconned into an oral formula.

Erskine refused to write down every crucial element of the treatment, leaving behind a flawed, imperfect knowledge of the steps. Thus, when the Nazi spy Heinz Kruger killed him, Erskine's method of creating new Super-Soldiers died. Captain America, in his first act after his transformation, avenges Erskine. In the 1941 origin story and in Tales of Suspense #63, Kruger dies when running into machinery but is not killed by Rogers; in the Captain America #109 and #255 revisions, Rogers causes the spy's death by punching him into machinery.

Unable to create new Super-Soldiers and willing to hide the Project Rebirth fiasco, the American government casts Rogers as a patriotic superhero, able to counter the menace of the Red Skull as a counter-intelligence agent. He is supplied with a patriotic uniform of his own design, a bulletproof shield, a personal side arm, and the codename Captain America, while posing as a clumsy infantry private at Camp Lehigh in Virginia. He forms a friendship with the camp's teenage mascot, James Buchanan "Bucky" Barnes.

Barnes learns of Rogers' dual identity and offers to keep the secret if he can become Captain America's sidekick. During their adventures, Franklin D. Roosevelt presents Captain America with a new shield, forged from an alloy of steel and vibranium, fused by an unknown catalyst, so effective that it replaces his own firearm. Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fight the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team the Invaders as seen in the 1970s comic of the same name. Captain America fights in numerous battles in World War II, primarily as a member of 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment "Blue Spaders". Captain America battles a number of criminal menaces on American soil, including a wide variety of costumed villains: the Wax Man, the Hangman, the Fang, the Black Talon, and the White Death, among others.

In addition to Bucky, Captain America was occasionally assisted by the Sentinels of Liberty. Sentinels of Liberty was the title given to members of the Captain America Comics fan club who Captain America sometimes addressed as an aside, or as characters in the Captain America Comics stories.

In late April 1945, during the closing days of World War II, Captain America and Bucky try to stop the villainous Baron Zemo from destroying an experimental drone plane. Zemo launches the plane with an armed explosive on it with Rogers and Barnes in hot pursuit. The pair reaches the plane just before takeoff. When Bucky tries to defuse the bomb, it explodes in mid-air. Rogers is hurled into the freezing waters of the North Atlantic. Both are presumed dead, though it is later revealed that neither had died.

Late 1940s to 1950s

Captain America appeared in comics for the next few years, changing from World War II-era hero fighting the Nazis to confronting the United States' newest enemy, Communism. The revival of the character in the mid-1950s was short-lived, and events during that time period are later retconned to show that multiple people operated using the code name to explain the changes in the character. These post World War II successors are listed as William Naslund and Jeffrey Mace. They are assisted by Fred Davis continuing the role of Bucky.

The last of these other official Captains, William Burnside, was a history graduate enamored with the Captain America mythos, having his appearance surgically altered to resemble Rogers and legally changing his name to "Steve Rogers", becoming the new "1950s Captain America". He administered to himself and his pupil James "Jack" Monroe a flawed, incomplete copy of the Super-Serum, which made no mention about the necessary Vita-Ray portion of the treatment. As a result, while Burnside and Monroe became the new Captain America and Bucky, they became violently paranoid, often raving about innocent people being communist sympathizers during the height of the Red Scare of the 1950s. Their insanity forced the U.S. government to place them in indefinite cryogenic storage until they could be cured of their mental illness. Monroe would later be cured and assume the Nomad identity.

1960s to 1970s

Years later, the superhero team the Avengers discovers Steve Rogers' body in the North Atlantic. After he revives, they piece together that Rogers has been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, surviving because of his enhancements from Project: Rebirth. The block began to melt after the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Inuit tribe is worshipping the frozen figure, throws it into the ocean. Rogers accepts membership in the Avengers, and his experience in individual combat service and his time with the Invaders makes him a valuable asset. He quickly assumes leadership and has typically returned to that position throughout the team's history.

Captain America is plagued by guilt for having been unable to prevent Bucky's death. Although he takes the young Rick Jones (who closely resembles Bucky) under his tutelage, he refuses for some time to allow Jones to take up the Bucky identity, not wishing to be responsible for another youth's death. Insisting that his hero move on from that loss, Jones convinces Rogers to let him don the Bucky costume, but this partnership lasts only a short time; a disguised Red Skull, impersonating Rogers with the help of the Cosmic Cube, drives Jones away.

Rogers reunites with his old war comrade Nick Fury, who is similarly well-preserved due to the "Infinity Formula". As a result, Rogers regularly undertakes missions for the security agency S.H.I.E.L.D., for which Fury is public director. Through Fury, Rogers befriends Sharon Carter, a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, with whom he eventually begins a romantic relationship.

Rogers later meets and trains Sam Wilson, who becomes the superhero the Falcon, the first African-American superhero in mainstream comic books. The characters established an enduring friendship and adventuring partnership, sharing the series title for some time as Captain America and the Falcon. The two later encounter the revived but still insane 1950s Captain America. Although Rogers and the Falcon defeat the faux Rogers and Jack Monroe, Rogers becomes deeply disturbed that he could have suffered his counterpart's fate. During this period, Rogers temporarily gains super strength.

The series dealt with the Marvel Universe's version of the Watergate scandal, making Rogers so uncertain about his role that he abandons his Captain America identity in favor of one called Nomad, emphasizing the word's meaning as "man without a country". During this time, several men unsuccessfully assume the Captain America identity. Rogers eventually re-assumes it after coming to consider that the identity could be a symbol of American ideals and not its government; it's a personal conviction epitomized when he later confronted a corrupt Army officer attempting to manipulate him by appealing to his loyalty, "I'm loyal to nothing, General ... except the [American] Dream." Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, later takes up the Nomad alias. Sharon Carter is believed to have been killed while under the mind control of Dr. Faustus.

1980s to 1990s

The 1980s included a run by writer Roger Stern and artist John Byrne. Stern had Rogers consider a run for President of the United States in Captain America #250 (June 1980), an idea originally developed by Roger McKenzie and Don Perlin. Stern, in his capacity as editor of the title, originally rejected the idea but later changed his mind about the concept. McKenzie and Perlin received credit for the idea on the letters page at Stern's insistence. Stern additionally introduced a new love interest, law student Bernie Rosenthal, in Captain America #248 (Aug. 1980).

Writer J. M. DeMatteis revealed the true face and full origin of the Red Skull in Captain America #298-300, and had Captain America take on Jack Monroe, Nomad, as a partner for a time. The heroes gathered by the Beyonder elect Rogers as leader during their stay on Battleworld. Homophobia is dealt with as Rogers runs into a childhood friend named Arnold Roth who is gay.

Mark Gruenwald became the writer of the series with issue #307 (July 1985) and wrote 137 issues for 10 consecutive years from until #443 (Sept. 1995), the most issues by any single author in the character's history. Gruenwald created several new foes, including Crossbones and the Serpent Society. Other Gruenwald characters included Diamondback, Super Patriot, and Demolition Man. Gruenwald explored numerous political and social themes as well, such as extreme idealism when Captain America fights the anti-nationalist terrorist Flag-Smasher; and vigilantism when he hunts the murderous Scourge of the Underworld.

Rogers receives a large back-pay reimbursement dating back to his disappearance at the end of World War II, and a government commission orders him to work directly for the U.S. government. Already troubled by the corruption he had encountered with the Nuke incident in New York City, where the gangster supervillain, The Kingpin, used his corrupted contacts in the US military to have the psychopathic test subject of a secret failed attempt to recreate Project Rebirth's body enhancements, Nuke, attack Hell's Kitchen in a murderous rampage to draw Daredevil out of hiding Rogers chooses instead to resign his identity, and then takes the alias of "the Captain". A replacement Captain America, John Walker, struggles to emulate Rogers' ideals until pressure from hidden enemies helps to drive Walker insane. Rogers returns to the Captain America identity while a recovered Walker becomes the U.S. Agent.

Sometime afterward, Rogers avoids the explosion of a methamphetamine lab, but the drug triggers a chemical reaction in the Super Soldier Serum in his system. To combat the reaction, Rogers has the serum removed from his body and trains constantly to maintain his physical condition. A retcon later establishes that the serum was not a drug per se, which would have metabolized out of his system, but in fact a virus-like organism that effected a biochemical and genetic change. This additionally explained how nemesis the Red Skull, who at the time inhabited a body cloned from Rogers' cells, has the formula in his body.

Because of his altered biochemistry, Rogers' body begins to deteriorate, and for a time he must wear a powered exoskeleton and is eventually placed again in suspended animation. During this time, he is given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cures his condition and stabilizes the Super-Soldier virus in his system. Captain America returns to crime fighting and the Avengers.

Following Gruenwald's departure from the series, Mark Waid took over and resurrected Sharon Carter as Cap's love interest. The title was then relaunched under Rob Liefeld as Cap became part of the Heroes Reborn universe for 13 issues before another relaunch restored Waid to the title in an arc that saw Cap lose his shield for a time using an energy based shield as a temporary replacement. Following Waid's run, Dan Jurgens took over and introduced new foe Protocide, a failed recipient of the Super Soldier Serum prior to the experiment that successfully created Rogers. Some time after this, Rogers' original shield was retrieved, but subtle damage sustained during the battle with the Beyonder resulted in it being shattered and a 'vibranium cancer' being triggered that would destroy all vibranium in the world, with Rogers nearly being forced to destroy the shield before a confrontation with the villain Klaw saw Klaw's attacks unwittingly repair the shield's fractured molecular bonds and negate cancer.

21st century

In the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks, Rogers reveals his identity to the world and establishes a residence in the Red Hook neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, as seen in Captain America vol. 4, #1-7 (June 2002 - Feb. 2003). Following the disbandment of the Avengers in the " Avengers Disassembled" story arc, Rogers, now employed by S.H.I.E.L.D., discovers Bucky is alive, having been saved and deployed by the Soviets as the Winter Soldier. Rogers resumes his on-again, off-again relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter. After a mass supervillain break-out of the Raft, Rogers and Tony Stark assemble a new team of Avengers to hunt the escapees.

In the 2006-2007 company-wide story arc " Civil War", Rogers opposes the new mandatory federal registration of super-powered beings, and leads the underground anti-registration movement. After significant rancor and danger to the public as the two sides clash, Captain America voluntarily surrenders and orders the Anti-Registration forces to stand down, feeling that the fight has reached a point where the principle originally cited by the anti-registration forces has been lost.

In the story arc " The Death of Captain America", Rogers is fatally shot by Sharon Carter, whose actions are manipulated by the villain Dr. Faustus. The miniseries Fallen Son: The Death of Captain America #1-5 (June-Aug. 2007) examines the reaction of the stunned superhero community to Rogers' assassination, with each of the five issues focusing a different character's reaction. Bucky takes on the mantle of Captain America, per Rogers' antemortem request.

Captain America: Reborn #1 (Aug. 2009) reveals that Rogers did not die, as the gun Sharon Carter had been hypnotized into firing at Rogers caused his consciousness to phase in and out of space and time, appearing at various points in his lifetime. Although Rogers manages to relay a message to the future by giving a time-delayed command to the Vision during the Kree-Skrull War, the Skull returns Rogers to the present, where he takes control of Rogers' mind and body. Rogers eventually regains control, and, with help from his allies, defeats the Skull. In the subsequent one-shot comic Captain America: Who Will Wield the Shield?, Rogers formally grants Bucky his Captain America shield and asks him to continue as Captain America. The President of the United States grants Rogers a full pardon for his anti-registration actions.

The President of the United States appoints Rogers, in his civilian identity, as " America's top cop" and head of the nation's security, replacing Norman Osborn as the tenth Executive Director of S.H.I.E.L.D.. The Superhuman Registration Act is repealed and Rogers re-establishes the superhero team the Avengers, spearheaded by Iron Man, Thor, and Bucky as Captain America. In the miniseries Steve Rogers: Super Soldier, he encounters Jacob Erskine, the grandson of Professor Abraham Erskine and the son of Tyler Paxton, one of Rogers' fellow volunteers in the Super-Soldier program. Shortly afterward, Rogers becomes leader of the Secret Avengers, a black-ops superhero team.

During the Fear Itself storyline, Steve Rogers is present when the threat of the Serpent is known. Following the apparent death of Bucky at the hands of Sin (in the form of Skadi), Steve Rogers ends up changing into his Captain America uniform. When the Avengers and the New Avengers are fighting Skadi, the Serpent ends up joining the battle and breaks Captain America's shield with his bare hands. Captain America and the Avengers teams end up forming a militia for a last stand against the forces of the Serpent. When it comes to the final battle, Captain America uses Thor's hammer to fight Skadi until Thor manages to kill the Serpent. In the aftermath of the battle, Iron Man presents him with his reforged shield, now stronger for its uru-infused enhancements despite the scar it bears. It is then revealed that Captain America, Nick Fury, and Black Widow are the only ones who know that Bucky actually survived the fight with Skadi as Bucky resumes his identity as Winter Soldier.

During the " Spider-Island" storyline, Captain America had been captured turned into the Spider King by Spider Queen and Jackal. He was restored to normal following his fight with Venom.

In the Avengers vs. X-Men story arc, Captain America attempts to apprehend Hope Summers of the X-Men. She is the targeted vessel for the Phoenix Force, a destructive cosmic entity. Captain America believes that this Phoenix Force is too dangerous to entrust in one person and seeks to prevent Hope from having it. Cyclops and the X-Men believe that the Phoenix Force will save their race, and oppose Captain America's wishes. The result is a series of battles that eventually take both teams to the blue area of the moon. The Phoenix Force eventually possesses the five X-Men present, leaving the Avengers at an extreme disadvantage. The Phoenix Five, who become corrupted by the power of the Phoenix, are eventually defeated and scattered, with Cyclops imprisoned for turning the world into a police state and murdering Charles Xavier after being pushed too far, only for him to note that, in the end, he was proven right about the Phoenix's intentions. From there, Captain America proceeds to assemble the Avengers Unity Squad, a new team of Avengers composed of both classic Avengers and X-Men.

After Cyclops was incarcerated, and Steve accepted the Avengers should have done more to help mutants, and allowed the world to hate them, he started planning a new sub-team of Avengers in the hopes of unifying mutant and humankind alike. He chose Havok to lead his team and become the new face to represent mutants as Professor X and Cyclops once were.

Their first threat was the return of the Red Skull- more specifically, a clone of the Skull created in 1942 and kept in stasis in the event of the original's death- who usurped Professor X's body to provide himself with telepathic powers, which he would use to provoke citizens of New York into a mass assault against mutants, or anyone who could be one, and force the Scarlet Witch and Rogue to allow themselves to be attacked. With the help of the S-Man Honest John, he managed to even manipulate Thor.

The Red Skull's skills were still erratic, and could not completely control Captain America, an attack against him was enough of a distraction to lose control of Rogue and the Scarlet Witch. After being overpowered by the rest of the Uncanny Avengers, the Red Skull escapes, but promises to return. In the aftermath, both Rogue and the Scarlet Witch joined the team.

During a battle with an enemy called the Iron Nail, the Super Soldier Serum within Rogers's body was neutralized, causing him to age rapidly to match his chronological age of over 90 years. No longer able to take part in field missions but retaining his sharp mind, Rogers decided to take on a role as mission coordinator, organizing the Avengers' plans of attack from the mansion, while appointing Sam Wilson as his official "replacement" as Captain America.

When various Avengers and X-Men were inverted into villains and several villains inverted into heroism due to a miscast spell by the Scarlet Witch and Doctor Doom, Rogers not only coordinated the efforts of Spider-Man and the inverted villains, now called the "Astonishing Avengers", but also donned his old armor to battle the inverted Falcon, until the heroes and villains could be returned to normal with the aid of the White Skull (the inverted Red Skull).

During the " Time Runs Out" storyline, Steve Rogers wears armor when he confronts Iron Man. The ensuing fight between the two old friends led Steve Rogers to force Iron Man to admit that he had lied to him and all of their allies, when he had known about the incursions between alternate Earths all along, but Iron Man also confessed that he wouldn't change a thing. The final incursion started and Earth-1610 started approaching Earth-616 while Iron Man and Steve Rogers kept fighting. Earth-1610's S.H.I.E.L.D. launched a full invasion to destroy Earth-616, where Tony Stark and Steve Rogers were crushed by a Helicarrier.

As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Steve Rogers became the new Chief of Civilian Oversight for S.H.I.E.L.D. He returned to the Uncanny Avengers where the team is now using the Schaefer Theater as their headquarters.

Steve Rogers later has an encounter with an alternate Logan from Earth-807128. After defeating Logan and bringing him to Alberta, Canada, Rogers tried to "reassure" Logan that this was not "his" past by showing him the adamantium-frozen body of Earth-616's Logan. This sight reminds Logan of the need to enjoy being alive rather than brooding over the ghosts of his past. Although he told Steve Rogers what he had experienced in his timeline, Logan declined Steve's offer of help.

Alternate timeline Hydra duplicate

During the 2016 " Avengers: Standoff!" storyline, Steve Rogers learns from Rick Jones that S.H.I.E.L.D. has established Pleasant Hill, a gated community where they use Kobik to transform villains into ordinary citizens. When Rogers is brought to Pleasant Hill, he confronts Maria Hill about the Kobik project. Their argument is interrupted when Baron Helmut Zemo and Fixer restore the inmates to normal. After Hill is injured, Rogers convinces Zemo to let Hill get medical attention. Rogers is then escorted to Dr. Erik Selvig's clinic by Father Patrick. Selvig tells Rogers that Kobik is at the Pleasant Hill Bowling Alley. During an attempt to reason with Kobik, Rogers is attacked by Crossbones. Before Rogers can be killed, Kobik uses her abilities to restore him back to his prime. Declaring that "It's good to be back," Steve defeats Crossbones as Captain America and the Winter Soldier catch up with him. They resume their search for Kobik, and discover that Baron Zemo had Fixer invent a device that would make Kobik subservient to them. Rogers rallies the heroes so that they can take the fight to Zemo. In the aftermath of the incident, Steve and Sam plan to keep what happened at Pleasant Hill under wraps for the time being.

In Captain America: Steve Rogers #1 (July 2016), the final panel apparently revealed that Rogers has been a Hydra double-agent since his early youth. This is subsequently revealed to be the result of Kobik's restoration of Rogers' youth, as she had been taught by the Red Skull that Hydra was good for the world, and having the mind of a four-year-old child, Kobik changed reality so that Rogers would be the greatest man he could be: believing Hydra to be good, Kobik permanently altered his memories so that Rogers believed that he had always been a member of Hydra. Some of Rogers' original heroic attributes remain intact, such as covering the death of another Hydra member within S.H.I.E.L.D., Erik Selvig, as well as knowing of Jack Flag's tragic life and his immortality, which is why Steve pushes him from Zemo's airplane (resulting in coma, not death). Additionally, it is revealed that Rogers' abusive father, Joseph, was actually killed by Hydra, and that Hydra deceived him into thinking Joseph died of a heart attack. It is also revealed that Rogers witnessed his mother, Sarah, being killed by Sinclair's Hydra goons and kidnapped him, which is the reason why Steve held a grudge towards Hydra's evilness and plans to kill the Red Skull's clone and restore Hydra's lost honor. As part of his long-term plans, Steve further compromised Sam Wilson's current image as 'the' Captain America by using his greater familiarity with the shield to deliberately put Wilson in a position where he would be unable to use the shield to save a senator from Flag-Smasher, with the final goal of demoralizing Sam to the point where he will return the shield to Rogers of his own free will, not wanting to kill Wilson and risk creating a martyr.

During the 2016 " Civil War II" storyline, with the discovery of new Inhuman Ulysses - who has the ability to "predict" the future by calculating complex patterns - Rogers has set out to prevent Ulysses from learning of his true plans and allegiance. Rogers does this by "forcing" certain predictions on him, such as anonymously providing Bruce Banner with new gamma research to provoke a vision that would drive the Avengers to kill Banner, although this plan has apparently backfired with a recent vision showing the new Spider-Man standing over the dead Steve Rogers. Despite this revelation, Rogers presents himself as the voice of reason by allowing Spider-Man to flee with Thor. This inspires doubt in Tony Stark for his current stance by suggesting that he is just acting against Danvers because he does not like being top dog. He then goes to Washington, D.C., the location seen in Ulysses' vision, to talk to Spider-Man, who was trying to understand the vision like he was. When Captain Marvel attempts to arrest Spider-Man, Tony, wearing the War Machine armor, confronts her and the two begin to fight.

Later, Rogers goes to Sokovia and joins forces with Black Widow to liberate freedom fighters from a prison so they can reclaim their country. After that, he goes to his base where Doctor Selvig expresses concern of his plan to kill the Red Skull. He then reveals that he has Baron Zemo in a cell, planning to recruit him. He eventually kills the Skull after the villain is captured by the Unity Squad and the Xavier brain fragment extracted by the Beast, Rogers throwing the Skull out of a window over a cliff after Sin and Crossbones affirm their new allegiance to Rogers, Hydra Supreme.

In the 2017 " Secret Empire" storyline, Rogers, as the head of S.H.I.E.L.D, uses a subsequent alien invasion and a mass supervillain assault in order to seize control of the United States. He neutralizes the superheroes that might oppose him, and seeks the Cosmic Cube to bring about a reality in which Hydra won World War II. When Rick smuggles information about the Cube's rewriting of Rogers' reality to the remaining free Avengers, a disheveled, bearded man in a torn World War II army uniform appears who introduces himself as Steve Rogers. As the Avengers and Hydra search for fragments of the shattered Cube, it is revealed that this amnesic Steve Rogers is actually a manifestation of Rogers existing within the Cube itself, created by Kobik's memories of Rogers before he was converted to Hydra, as she comes to recognize that her decision to 'rewrite' Rogers as an agent of Hydra was wrong. Although Hydra Supreme Rogers is able to mostly reassemble the Cosmic Cube, Sam Wilson and Bucky are able to use a fragment of the cube to restore the 'memory' of pre-Hydra Rogers in the Cube to corporeal existence, allowing him to defeat his Hydra self, subsequently using the Cube to undo most of the damage caused by Hydra manipulating reality even if the physical damage remains. 'Hydra Cap' continues to exist as a separate entity and is kept trapped in a prison where he is the only inmate, mocking the restored Rogers about the challenge he will face rebuilding his reputation. For himself, Rogers muses that this troubling affair has a silver lining, that this experience will teach everyone not to place such blind trust in another. Not long after, he received a pardon due to a disinformation campaign to paint the non-Hydra Steve Rogers as the Supreme Leader, but as he was leaving his prison he was ambushed and killed by Selene.

Powers and abilities

Tactician and field commander

Rogers' battle experience and military training make him an expert tactician and field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle. The Avengers, X-Men, Fantastic Four, and other heroes choose Rogers as their leader during the Secret Wars; Thor says that Rogers is one of the very few mortals he will take orders from, and follow "through the gates of Hades".

Rogers has blended aikido, boxing, judo, karate, jujutsu, kickboxing, and gymnastics into his own unique fighting style and is a master of multiple martial arts. Years of practice with his near-indestructible shield make him able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy. His skill with his shield is such that he can attack multiple targets in succession with a single throw or even cause a boomerang-like return from a throw to attack an enemy from behind. In canon, he is regarded by other skilled fighters as one of the best hand-to-hand combatants in the Marvel Universe, limited only by his human physique. Although the Super Soldier Serum is an important part of his strength, Rogers has shown himself still sufficiently capable against stronger opponents, even when the serum has been deactivated reverting him to his pre-Captain America physique.

Stan Lee claimed that he'd "always been fascinated by the fact that, although Captain America has the least spectacular super-power of all, the mantle of leadership falls naturally upon him, as though he was born to command... Cap is one of the hardest hero characters to write, because the writer cannot use some exotic super-power to make his episodes seem colorful... All he has to serve him are his extraordinary combat skills, his shield, and his unquenchable love for freedom and justice."

Rogers has vast U.S. military knowledge and is often shown to be familiar with ongoing, classified Defense Department operations. He is an expert in combat strategy, survival, acrobatics, parkour, military strategy, piloting, and demolitions. Despite his high profile as one of the world's most popular and recognizable superheroes, Rogers has a broad understanding of the espionage community, largely through his ongoing relationship with S.H.I.E.L.D.

Super Soldier Serum

Steve Rogers is often considered to be the pinnacle of human potential and constantly operates at peak (and often beyond peak) physical performance due to his enhancement via the Super Soldier Serum. The Super Soldier Serum enhances all of his metabolic functions and prevents the build-up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being. This accounts for many of his extraordinary feats, including bench pressing 1,100 pounds (500 kg) as a warm-up, vision and reflexes fast enough to dodge bullets, and running a mile (1.6 km) in less than a minute (60 mph/97 km/h, nearly twice the maximum speed achieved by the best human sprinters). Furthermore, his enhancements are the reason why he was able to survive being frozen in suspended animation for decades. He is highly resistant to hypnosis or gases that could limit his focus. The secrets of creating a super-soldier were lost with the death of its creator, Dr. Abraham Erskine. All attempts to recreate Erskine's treatment have failed, often creating psychopathic supervillains of which Captain America's 1950s imitator and Nuke are examples.

Rogers is a skilled freelance commercial artist. He has drawn the Captain America comic book published by Marvel Comics within the Marvel Universe, sometimes grumbling that the writer does not understand the hero's motivation.

Weapons and equipment

Captain America has used multiple shields throughout his history, the most prevalent of which is a nigh-indestructible disc-shaped shield made from a unique combination of Vibranium, Steel alloy, and an unknown third component that has never been duplicated called Proto-Adamantium. The shield was cast by American metallurgist Dr. Myron MacLain, who was contracted by the U.S. government, from orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, to create an impenetrable substance to use for tanks during World War II. This alloy was created by accident and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse-engineer it resulted in the discovery of adamantium.

Captain America often uses his shield as an offensive throwing weapon. The first instance of Captain America's trademark ricocheting shield-toss occurs in Stan Lee's first comics writing, the two-page text story "Captain America Foils the Traitor's Revenge" in Captain America Comics #3 (May 1941). The legacy of the shield among other comics characters includes the time-traveling mutant superhero Cable telling Captain America that his shield still exists in one of the possible futures; Cable carries it into battle and brandishes it as a symbol.

When without his trademark shield, Captain America sometimes uses other shields made from less durable metals such as steel, or even a photonic energy shield designed to mimic a vibranium matrix. Rogers, having relinquished his regular shield to Barnes, carried a variant of the energy shield which can be used with either arm, and used to either block attacks or as an improvised offensive weapon able to cut through metal with relative ease. Much like his Vibranium shield, the energy shield can be thrown, including ricocheting off multiple surfaces and returning to his hand.

Captain America's uniform is made of a fire-retardant material, and he wears a lightweight, bulletproof duralumin scale armor beneath his uniform for added protection. Originally, Rogers' mask was a separate piece of material, but an early engagement had it dislodged, thus almost exposing his identity. To prevent a recurrence of the situation, Rogers modified the mask with connecting material to his uniform, an added benefit of which was extending his armor to cover his previously exposed neck. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has an Avengers priority card, which serves as a communications device.

Motorcycle

Captain America has used a custom specialized motorcycle, modified by the S.H.I.E.L.D. weapons laboratory, as well as a custom-built battle van, constructed by the Wakanda Design Group with the ability to change its color for disguise purposes (red, white and blue), and fitted to store and conceal the custom motorcycle in its rear section with a frame that allows Rogers to launch from the vehicle riding it.

Antagonists

Captain America has faced numerous foes in over 70 years of published adventures. Many of his recurring foes embody ideologies contrary to the American values that Captain America is shown to strive for and believes in. Some examples of these opposing values are Nazism ( Red Skull, Baron Zemo), neo-Nazism ( Crossbones, Doctor Faustus), technocratic fascism ( AIM, Arnim Zola), Communism ( Aleksander Lukin), amoral capitalism ( Roxxon Energy Corporation), anti-patriotism ( Flag Smasher) and international and domestic terrorism ( Hydra).

Other versions

"Captain America" is the name of several fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first and primary character is Steve Rogers, who was created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. Other characters have adopted the alias over the years, most notably Bucky Barnes and Sam Wilson.

Steven Rogers (Revolutionary War Era)

Captain Steven Rogers, the 18th century Earth-616 ancestor of the World War 2 Super-Soldier serum recipient, wore a colorful costume and carried a round cast iron shield.

Bob Russo, "Scar" Turpin, and Roscoe Simmons

In a time when Rogers had abandoned the Captain America identity, Bob Russo and "Scar" Turpin appear using the alias for an issue each, but both of them quickly abandon the identity after being injured. Roscoe Simmons wears the star-spangled costume during Rogers' time as the Nomad I, and is given the shield by Rogers. He briefly serves as the Falcon's junior partner, but is killed by the Red Skull a mere two issues after adopting the identity.

Dave Rickford

Dave Rickford is a former special forces soldier who attained an augmentation, giving him superpowers, from Dr. Malus and the Power Broker. He becomes the new Captain America when Bucky is entangled in legal difficulties and Steve Rogers is the head of S.H.I.E.L.D.. He is kidnapped by A.I.M. and rescued by Rogers, who convinces him to drop the identity.

The Marvel 1602 limited series presents an alternative history, Earth-311, in which a Captain America from the late 21st century is transported to the year 1602 after the Purple Man takes over the world - his enemy wanting to dispose of Rogers in such a way that there is nothing left of him in the present to inspire others - where he assumes the identity of Rojhaz a white Native American who is presumed by the Europeans to be of Welsh ancestry. His arrival causes numerous alterations in reality, causing analogues of various Marvel Universe characters to appear in the 17th century instead, speculated by Uatu to be the result of the universe attempting to generate a means of repairing the damage caused to reality. Rogers refuses to return to the future because he wants to nurture a new United States free of prejudice from its very beginnings, but the 1602 version of Nick Fury forces him to return, accompanying him on the journey. Rogers noted that in his version of the late 21st century, he was the last true superhero and was left alone fighting his own country - the United States - which had fallen under the rule of a tyrannical life-term President.

1872 is a Marvel miniseries during the Secret Wars comics featuring characters in a Western-style adventure in the small boom town of Timely. A dam constructed for mining projects is diverting water away from nearby native territories, so Red Wolf attempts to blow it up. Sheriff Steve Rogers prevents the corrupt Mayor Fisk ( Kingpin) from having him killed, in order to give him a fair trial. However, as Rogers goes to help his friend Tony Stark ( Iron Man) from being attacked, Red Wolf is taken and Rogers kills more of Fisk's men, further angering the mayor. Red Wolf is denied a trial, and Fisk's team of assassins, including Elektra ( Elektra), Grizzly ( Grizzly), Bullseye ( Bullseye) and Otto Octavius ( Doctor Octopus), are sent to kill them both. Sheriff Rogers, having Bullseye at gunpoint, attempts to rally the people of Timely into taking back their government, but is distracted and then shot by Bullseye, thrown into a pig pen by Fisk to die.

Red Wolf, taking up the role of Sheriff, Widow Barnes ( Black Widow), Doctor Banner ( Hulk), Carol Danvers ( Captain Marvel) and Tony Stark join together to get rid of the dam, as well as avenge Steve Rogers, and they succeed in both with Banner sacrificing himself to blow up the dam, and Widow Barnes killing Fisk. The remaining characters become Sheriff Roger's Avengers, protecting the town of Timely.

Age of Ultron

In the Age of Ultron story wherein Ultron takes over the world, Captain America is one of the few surviving heroes. He is a shattered hero whose spirit is gone and shield is broken. He and the remaining heroes are tasked with coming up with a plan to stop Ultron, which takes them to the Savage Land. Captain America travels to the future with Iron Man, Nick Fury, Red Hulk, Storm and Quicksilver in an attempt to stop Ultron with the use of Doctor Doom's time platform, but are ambushed by Ultron drones and Captain America is decapitated.

In the reality, Rogers was the leader of the Avengers, here a strike team intended to hunt down mutants. Although he initially believed in his mission to contain the danger that mutants could pose to the world, an encounter with a mutant 'nursery' protecting young children forced Rogers to recognize that he was on the wrong side, he and his team subsequently sacrificing themselves to stop the psychotic Hulk from launching a bioweapon at the mutant stronghold. Rogers' memories were 'stored' by Legacy, a mutant who was able to convey his plan of using various mutants to generate force fields around the facility to cut it off from the outside world.

Amalgam Comics

In the Amalgam Comics universe, Captain America is combined with DC's Superman to create Super-Soldier. In this reality, Clark Kent is given a Super-Soldier serum created from DNA harvested from the body of a dead baby Kal-El. The serum gives him the powers of the main universe Superman. Frozen in ice after a battle with Ultra-Metallo at the end of World War II, Super-Soldier is revived decades later and continues his fight for justice.

Avataars: Covenant of the Shield

In Avataars: Covenant of the Shield, Earth's version of Captain America is Captain Avalon. He is the leader of the Champions of the Realm and the King of Avalon.

Bishop's Future

In Bishop's future the Witness, a future version of Gambit, possesses Captain America's shattered shield.

Bullet Points

The five-issue limited series Bullet Points, written by J. Michael Straczynski and illustrated by Tommy Lee Edwards, tells of an alternative reality in which Doctor Erskine is killed the day before implementing the Captain America program. Steve Rogers, still frail, volunteers for the 'Iron Man' program, which bonds him to a robotic weapons-suit. He uses this to achieve victories against the Axis. Years after the end of the war, Rogers is killed in a battle with Peter Parker, who is the Hulk of that reality.

Captain America: Guardian of Freedom

A story told from the first-hand account of Rick Jones when sent back in time to the Second World War. Captured by Nazi troops, he is rescued by Captain America and Bucky. While initially believed to be shell-shocked, he convinces them that he is from the future when he reveals he knows their secret identities of Private Roger Stephenson (a brunette) and Bucky Barnes. When Barnes is murdered by the Red Skull, Jones takes his place as the new Bucky for a mission to stop Zemo's missile. At the end, with another time jump, Jones encounters a President Stephenson who needs his help.

Captain Colonies

A member of the Captain Britain Corps, Captain Colonies (Stephen Rogers) appears in Excalibur #44. His name, combined with his membership in the Captain Britain Corps imply that in his universe, the Thirteen Colonies did not declare independence to form the United States as they did in our own universe (and most of the other Marvel universes) but instead remain part of Britain.

The Battleworld domain of the Warzone seen in Secret Wars contains a world in which never ended where it did in the original comics and continued for six more years. Captain America now runs the west side of the United States called "the Blue" as General America operating on his own set of politics compared to Iron Man on his side, "The Iron."

Civil Warrior

The 2014 mobile game Marvel: Contest of Champions includes an exclusive version of Captain America named Civil Warrior. This version of Steve Rogers, set in Earth-TRN634, killed Tony Stark during the Civil War. Rogers then incorporated Stark's armor into his uniform, and uses a modified shield containing a version of the ARC reactor.

Danielle Cage

The daughter of Luke Cage and Jessica Jones, Dani Cage operates as Captain America in an alternate future where New York City has been flooded. She uses the magnetic components Steve once used on the shield in order to better control it, and has the abilities of both her parents. She first appears in Ultron Forever, and returns to the present as a member of the U.S.Avengers.

DC vs. Marvel

Captain America appears in the Marvel/DC crossover DC vs. Marvel. He first appears fighting with HYDRA before being summoned to the DC Earth. He is later shown in a brawl with Bane, winning when he throws his shield so that it strikes Bane in the back of the head before Bane can break his back. He is then seen fighting with Batman in the sewers of Manhattan. After a pitched hand-to-hand standoff, they realize that neither one of them can gain an advantage over the other. Afterward, they team up with each other to stop the entities, the fundamental similarities between the two unique men who trained themselves to the peak of human development-and their lack of interest in 'proving' their superiority over their counterpart forcing the Brothers to halt their conflict.

Deadpool: Merc with a Mouth

In the 7th issue in the series, Deadpool visits a world where Captain America is known as General America, and is after a female version of Deadpool called Lady Deadpool. Deadpool intervenes and sends Headpool (the zombie version) after him, and Headpool bites him on the arm. To prevent the zombie plague from affecting that Earth, Deadpool cuts off Cap's arm and leaves with it. In promos for Deadpool Corps, General America is shown to have a robotic arm.

In the 1999 series, in a post-apocalyptic alternative present, Captain America is a war-worn hero, with a bald head, a ragged United States flag for a top and an A-shaped scar on his face, but still holding on to his shield and well-built. In the Universe X: Cap one-shot comic, he sacrificed himself to save the reborn Captain Mar-Vell. He later transformed into an angel of sorts, with blue skin, a white star on his chest, an "A" shape on his face, a U.S. flag draped around him, and a blade of light from his right arm. It is during this series that Doctor Erskine is revealed to be a Nazi, using his work with the Americans as a cover to help the Nazis create an army of "super soldiers." The bullet that killed Dr. Erskine was meant for Steve Rogers.

Elseworlds

Captain America and his sidekick Bucky appear in Batman and Captain America, a 1996 title that is part of the DC Comics Elseworlds series. The story is set in an alternative World War II, with Captain America and Bucky meeting Batman and Robin in the course of a mission and working together as a result. The two heroes' principal archvillains, the Red Skull and the Joker, also work together to steal the American "Fat Boy" atomic bomb. When the Joker realizes that the Skull is actually a Nazi (saying "I may be a criminal lunatic but I'm an American criminal lunatic!"), he double-crosses him and causes the atomic bomb to be detonated prematurely, apparently killing the two villains. In an epilogue set approximately 20 years later, Dick Grayson, who is now the new Batman, with retired Bruce Wayne's son Bruce Wayne Jr. as Robin, discovers Captain America frozen in an iceberg. When thawed out by Batman and Robin, Captain America, though aggrieved by the death of Bucky in their final adventure (the same as in the main Marvel storyline), decides to again fight in the name of justice.

In the arc "A World Apart", the Earth was conquered by the Skrulls in the nineteenth century. Captain America has become a gladiator known as the Captain, fighting for the Skrulls against other superhumans in contents. He is defeated by Mimic, who, disgusted at Captain America having become nothing but a puppet to the Skrulls rather than the symbol he should be to others, uses Cyclops's optic blasts.

In "Forever Avengers", the Exiles visit a timeline where Captain America was turned into a vampire by Baron Blood. He later turns the Avengers into vampires and becomes the new Vampire King. The now Cursed Avengers (composed of Hawkeye, Wasp, Giant-Man, Falcon and Polaris) plan to turn New York's population into zombies, but their plans are thwarted by the Exiles with the help of that Earth's Union Jack Kenneth Crichton. One of the Exiles, Sunfire, is bitten by a vampire. Before she can completely turn, Baron Crichton destroys Captain America and reveals himself to be the grandnephew of the original Baron Blood and a vampire as well, and becomes the newest King of the Vampire by blood right.

In the altered world of the , Steve Rogers was not frozen in suspended animation and lived through World War II and the years afterward. Rogers became an astronaut and was the first man to walk on the moon in 1956. By the present time, Rogers is said as being nearly 100 years old. His Earth-616 memories are not reactivated, to spare him from a severe mental shock. According to a Marvel editorial, the House of M is not an alternative reality, but a period of time in which everything in the 616 reality was profoundly altered by the Scarlet Witch.

JLA/Avengers

Captain America is the leader of the Avengers in the JLA/Avengers limited series, in which the two super teams travel to each other's universe. His mind affected by subtle incompatibilities between the two universes, he sees the Justice League as overlords who demand praise and worship in return for heroic actions. He especially gets angry at Superman, who (likewise affected) sees the Avengers as heroes who do not do enough and have let their world down. After Cap and Batman battle to a standstill, the two team up to solve the mystery of the game. Using an inter-dimensional vehicle that allows them to reach the Grandmaster's headquarters, they discover that the Avengers are fighting for Krona. Their intervention in the last battle, where Cap makes sure that Batman can get the cube so the JLA wins the game, causes the villain Krona to go mad and attack the Grandmaster. The Grandmaster causes the two universes to merge, imprisoning Krona between them. Cap, still subconsciously aware of the reality changes, attacks Superman, who is also subconsciously aware of the changes. This shatters the fixed reality, freeing Krona. Cap and Superman again argue, but are stopped by Wonder Woman. The two teams find the Grandmaster, who reveals their true realities. Despite seeing shocking revelations, the two teams decide to face Krona. Cap leads the teams as a battle tactician at Superman's suggestion, communicating orders through the Martian Manhunter's telepathy, and gives Superman his shield. After the two teams defeat Krona and restore their universes, Cap and Superman salute each other as they are transported back to their own dimensions, saying that they fight on.

Kiyoshi Morales

A future incarnation of Captain America, known as Commander A, is a major character in the Captain America Corps limited series, and is stated to be of mixed Japanese, African-American, Latino, and Native American descent. He is also implied to be a descendant of Luke Cage. He wields two energy force-field shields, similar to the one that Steve Rogers used once when he temporarily lost his vibranium shield.

Last Avengers Story

The two-issue limited series The Last Avengers Story (November-December 1995) tells of a possible alternative future for Captain America and the Avengers. Appalled with the American government after the "Villain Massacre", Captain America leaves his life as a superhero and runs for president. His presidency is a large success, but he is shot and seemingly killed in his third term, causing the other heroes to lose faith. However, Cap is not dead, but placed in suspended animation in a secret location until the technology to heal him can be developed. Using a sophisticated series of computer monitors, Captain America watches his friends win their final battle and records it for historical purposes.

Larval Earth

In the comic books, the talking animal version of Captain America is Captain Americat (Steve Mouser) an anthropomorphic cat who works for the Daily Beagle.

Little Marvel

Two younger versions of Captain America were created by writer/artist Skottie Young. The first appears in the 2015 Secret Wars tie-in, Giant Size Little Marvel, written and illustrated by Young. In the Battleworld town of Marville, the mainstream superheroes are all elementary school age children, using their superpowers to engage in very destructive roughhousing. This Captain America is still the leader of the Avengers, though their headquarters are in a tree house instead of Avengers Mansion. As in the mainstream " Avengers vs. X-Men" storyline, Captain America faces off against Cyclops and the X-Men, only this time in an attempt to get two new kids on the block to join their respective group.

An even younger version of Captain America appears in A-Babies vs X-Babies, a 2012 Skottie Young scripted story, illustrated by Gurihiru. In this story, Captain America and his fellow superheroes are all babies, but still superpowered. When baby Captain America's favorite stuffed bear Bucky goes missing, he assembles his baby Avengers and battles the baby X-Men for its return. This issue and the four Giant Size Little Marvel issues were collected into the Giant Size Little Marvel 2016 trade edition ( ISBN 978-0785198703).

Marvel 2099

In Marvel 2099 a man masquerading as the original Captain America became ruler of the U.S. after a successful coup deposed Doom 2099. The man was killed when Doom 2099 dropped nano-machines on the Red House. The real Captain America appears in 2099: Manifest Destiny and takes up the role of Thor before giving Mjolnir to Spider-Man 2099.

In Secret Wars, a new version of Captain America was created by Alchemax and resides in the Battleworld domain of 2099. Roberta Mendez was forcefully subjected to take the Super-Soldier Serum by her husband, Harry and became the leader of Alchemax's Avengers. Roberta and Captain America are two different personas of the same woman, with Roberta unknowing of her counterpart. She physically and mentally becomes Captain America if her trigger words, "Avengers Assemble", are said, and she reverts to Roberta if someone says "Dismissed". In the Secret Wars title, Captain America goes against Miguel Stone's orders to treat the Defenders as criminals and worked with the Defenders and Avengers to stop Baron Mordo and the Dweller-In-Darkness.

Following Secret Wars, Roberta is transported to the prime Marvel Universe with hallucinations of her past life. She was a supporting character in the All-New, All-Different Marvel Spider-Man 2099 comic, where she was an employee at Parker Industries with Miguel O'Hara as her boss. After Roberta's powers resurface again, she becomes a recurring ally for Spider-Man 2099. During the Civil War II storyline, Roberta goes back to 2099 to find her family, despite Miguel's warnings. The Public Eye attempt to arrest her, until she is rescued by Ravage 2099. In the present, Miguel receives a call from Peter Parker, who tells him of a vision the Inhuman Ulysses had of the future: the death of Roberta Mendez. He goes back to 2099. Roberta learns from Ravage about the Anti-Powers Act, a law outlawing superpowers. Roberta and Ravage are taken to the downtown area by Hawkeye 2099, where they meet the remaining heroes. Spider-Man convinces Doctor Strange 2099 to help him out in exchange for his help in eliminating the A.P.A. Meanwhile, the CEO of Alchemax calls on Power Pack to defeat the heroes. Upon finding Roberta, Strange takes Spider-Man downtown, while Roberta leaves to find her husband upon learning his location. Roberta finds her husband Harry, who claims that she died and that they do not have kids, and gets captured by Power Pack. After Strange reveals that the CEO of Alchemax is J. Jonah Jameson, Spider-Man rallies the heroes to launch an assault on S.H.I.E.L.D. HQ and rescue Roberta. In the process, they discover that "Jameson" and "Power Pack" are actually Skrull impostors. Spider-Man and Roberta then go back to 2016 to restore the timeline. In the book's ending, Roberta and Miguel's son save Miguel from death and return to 2099 on New Year's Eve. Thanks to Miguel's sacrifice, Roberta's family history is restored.

Marvel Apes

In the Marvel Apes Universe, Captain America leads the Ape-vengers (which contain a lot of reformed supervillains). Secretly, he is a vampire along with his version of the Invaders, and plots to enter the 616 universe for sustenance. To accomplish this, he has already killed his world's version of Mr. Fantastic. However, it is revealed that the vampire Captain America was really Baron Blood, who took on Cap's form and increased his strength through the Super-Soldier Serum inside him. The real America was still frozen in ice up to the modern era, and helped the Gibbon, Wolverine, and Speedball fight off the vampire Namor. Afterwards, they stop Baron Blood. This version of Captain America turns out to be nearly as brutal as his impersonator; for example he is willing to kill Spider-Monkey for the 'crime' of helping innocent dimensional travelers.

Marvel Mangaverse

In the Marvel Mangaverse reality, the original Captain America is decapitated and killed by Doctor Doom, but Carol Danvers assumes the identity. This is done mostly out of a desire of self-defense, but she is encouraged to keep it for the foreseeable future by Sharon Carter. The original Mangaverse Captain America is both the leader of the Avengers and the President of the United States. His costume gives him the power to generate and manipulate energy shields.

Marvel Zombies

In the 2005-2006 miniseries Marvel Zombies, and the follow-up 2007 Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness, Captain America is known as Colonel America and once served as the President of the United States. He is among the superheroes infected, along with his other fellow Avengers, by the zombified Sentry. Colonel America is responsible for infecting Spider-Man in Marvel Zombies vs. The Army Of Darkness by biting him on the shoulder. He is apparently killed by a zombie Red Skull, who rips off his left arm and scoops his exposed brains out before he himself is decapitated by a zombified Spider-Man. Zombie Ant-Man then steps on the Red Skull. As his intellect was partly retained in the remaining portion of his brain, he was transplanted into Black Panther's son T'Channa's dead body, and given a mechanical left arm. The transplant is successful, but the resulting brain damage turns Colonel America into a battle-crazed zombie leader, manageable but unable to focus on anything that is not related to war, confrontation, and battle. Colonel America (Steve Rogers/T'Channa) also has a role in Marvel Zombies Return, where he was transported to Earth-Z.

Marvel Zombies 3 features a zombie version called "Captain Mexica", who comes from an alternate universe in which the Aztec Empire in Mexico never fell. He is killed after Machine Man cuts him in half.

In the alternative reality MC2 universe, Captain America leads the original Avengers on a mission to an alternative reality, which claims the majority of the team. He stays behind to aid the rebels in that reality, thus adding to the list of the dead / missing in action. The next iteration of MC2 Avengers aids him in #10-11, at the end of which he gives American Dream the shield that had belonged to that universe's Captain America. Captain America and Thunderstrike return to their home universe to aid in the fight against Seth in Spider-Girl #59.

In the 2005 limited series Last Hero Standing, the MC2 Captain America is fatally injured leading a group of young heroes in battle against the Norse god Loki. Thor uses his power to transform Captain America into a new star. In the sequel, Last Planet Standing, Galactus states that this new star is the key to his escaping his world-devouring hunger.

In the universe, a mutant succeeds Rogers as Captain America, joining Havok's team of superheroes, "The Six", in order to protect mutants from a deranged Nick Fury and S.H.I.E.L.D. He has powerful energy manipulating abilities which manifest when America is threatened. Using that power he manages to kill a platoon of Super Soldiers and the Avengers, which consist of Black Widow, Deathlok, Typhoid Mary, Hawkeye and Iron Giant Man ( Tony Stark). He is defeated by Havok and is then drawn below the earth by The Beyonder who kills him after he finds out what he needs to know.

Nextwave: Agents of H.A.T.E.

Captain America is mentioned several times in Nextwave, usually by Monica Rambeau (who constantly talks about her time as an Avenger). At one point, Monica theorizes that Captain America is secretly gay, as he was the only Avenger who never hit on her (Tabitha Smith agrees that it would be cool if that were true and that it would explain why "people always dress like him at gay pride marches")

He appears in a flashback Monica has, when the Avengers are attacked by naked enemies. He tells her to "cover your eyes, go back to the mansion, and make my dinner".

Old Man Logan

Peggy Carter

In an alternate universe where World War II is still raging, Steve Rogers and Professor Erskine are both assassinated before the Super-Soldier Serum is administered, so Peggy Carter steps up to participate in Project: Rebirth. Although British, she takes up the shield and American flag to fight as Captain America. In this universe, Becky Barnes serves alongside Captain Peggy.

The concept of Peggy Carter serving as Captain America was created for the game Marvel Puzzle Quest for Captain America's 75th anniversary. She was adapted into the third series of the comic .

Peggy Carter also appears as a version of Captain America (named Captain Britain) in the first episode of the Marvel Studios animated series In this version, Peggy takes the Super-Soldier Serum, while Steve Rogers later joins the fight with an armored suit built by Howard Stark and becomes Iron Man.

Warren Ellis's limited series explored a version of the Marvel Universe where "everything went wrong". In this continuity, Captain America himself makes no physical appearance in the series aside from the cover for issue #1 and in a dream sequence in issue #2. He was a member of the Avengers, a revolutionary cell formed by Tony Stark bent on liberating California from the corrupt rule of President Charles Xavier, but along with many other members of the team, he is killed aboard the Avengers Quinjet. His shield is recovered by soldiers who celebrate the deaths of the Avengers. A part of the Captain's war history is touched upon by the now-psychotic Nick Fury, who was ordered to destroy the Quinjet by the President: "...I'll give you an anecdote. Back in the war, it was America introduced me to eating human meat."

Spider-Gwen

Captain America is a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent on Earth-65, who apprehends Spider-Gwen during her battle with the Lizard (this reality's Peter Parker). This Captain America is an African American woman named Samantha Wilson a genderbent version of Sam Wilson/Falcon. During the 1940s, Samantha volunteered for Project: Rebirth after other test subjects were shot and killed or badly injured by Nazis. She became trapped in an alternate dimension after seemingly sacrificing herself to stop Arnim Zola, but later managed to return home to find that 75 years had passed. Steve Rogers would go on to become a famous comic creator, who writes stories of Samantha's dimensional journeys that he saw in his dreams, which Sam confirmed as being accurate.

Spider-Island

In this retelling of Spider-Island as part of the " Secret Wars" storyline, Captain America and the other heroes are mutated into monster spiders and he is still the Spider Queen's "Spider King" in the Battleworld domain of Spider-Island. However, Agent Venom gives Captain America the Godstone and turns him into a Man-Wolf (as an homage to the time when Captain America was a werewolf called Capwolf), releasing Steve from the Spider Queen's control. He uses his new form to fight for the resistance.

Spider-Man: Life Story

Spider-Man: Life Story takes place in an alternate continuity where characters naturally age after Peter Parker debuts as Spider-Man in 1962. In 1966, Captain America is pressured by the public to join the efforts in Vietnam and decides to go to see the conflict for himself. A year later, American soldiers label Steve as a traitor when he decides to protect a Vietnamese village. Captain America also gets himself involved in the Superhuman Civil War in the 2000s. In the 2010s, it is unknown if he is dead or in hiding after Doctor Doom took over the planet.

Truth: Red, White & Black

In the 2003 limited series Truth: Red, White & Black, black soldiers act as test subjects for the WWII Super-Soldier program of 1942. Most of the subjects die, or become deformed with the exception of one, Isaiah Bradley. Isaiah substitutes for Captain America on an assignment, discovering Jewish concentration camp detainees subjected to experiments.

In Captain America (vol. 4) #28 (August 2004), an Isaiah Bradley from an alternative Earth became Captain America and never married. Later, he is elected president and serves two terms. He travels back in time, accidentally crossing to Earth-616, and brings the mainstream Captain America and Rebecca Quan forward into his own time to prevent his daughter, Rebecca "Becky" Barnes, from traveling to Earth-616.

Ultimate Marvel

Scott Summers

Weapon X: Days of Future Now

Steve Rogers is selected for the Weapon X program. He is given a procedure similar to Wolverine's that bonds vibranium to his skeleton. He is given the code name Vibram.

Alternative versions of Steve Rogers are seen within several issues of the What If? series.

In "What If Captain America and Bucky Had Both Survived World War Two?", Steve is able to hold onto the drone plane and deactivate the bomb, allowing both men to survive. Baron Zemo is shot by the Red Skull for failing to kill Captain America and Bucky, but it is later revealed that the Skull shot him with a weapon which put him to sleep for 20 years. Bucky and Cap continue to fight in the 1950s and 1960s against Communists, though tragically Nick Fury is killed in the Korean War. In the mid-1960s, Bucky goes his own way. Contacted by President Lyndon Johnson, the aged Steve is offered the job as the head of the newly created S.H.I.E.L.D., but Steve declines and suggests Barnes instead. S.H.I.E.L.D. and Barnes battle HYDRA, but fail to capture the Supreme Hydra. Joining Steve on one of his missions, the pair run into the Hulk and Rick Jones. Steve is knocked out, forcing Bucky to use Cap's shield and rescue Rick from the Hulk's rampage. Bucky decides to take on the role of Captain America, to which Steve agrees. Overhearing the conversation, Rick light-heartedly blackmails the two for the chance to be the new Bucky. Steve becomes the new leader of S.H.I.E.L.D.. Tracking the final group of HYDRA to an uncharted island, Steve and S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sharon Carter team up with the new Cap and Bucky. The group infiltrate the island's volcano, which turns out to be fake and created as a hideaway for HYDRA forces. The four are captured, and the Supreme Hydra is revealed to be Baron Zemo, who has not aged for 20 years due to the Red Skull's weapon. Believing that Captain America is still Rogers, he prepares to kill Bucky, but Steve escapes his cuffs and frees the others. A fierce battle ensues, resulting in Zemo's death, but not before a shot from Zemo's gun hits and kills Bucky. The story ends with a distraught Steve mourning the loss of his friend, and the possibility of Rick Jones becoming the new Captain America.

"What If...Captain America Fought in the Civil War?" features a continuum where Captain America lived during the American Civil War. In this universe, Steve Rogers is a corporal attached to a Northern regiment called the Redlegs, led by Colonel Buck "Bucky" Barnes. Rogers's first mission turns out to be an attack on a group of civilians, and he refuses to follow Barnes' orders. Barnes shoots Rogers, but only wounds him after Barnes is attacked by an eagle. Rogers passes out while trying to escape, and has visions of We-pi-ahk the Eagle-Chief. Waking, he is greeted by a black man, Private Wilson, who brought him back to an Indian reserve. Wilson believes Steve's vision of We-pi-ahk means he is destined to be the one that will bring union to all people. Wilson begins a mystical ceremony that he says will make Rogers "as you are on the inside, so shall you become on the outside." Barnes breaks into the hut as the ceremony is underway. Rogers is mystically given superhuman strength and a magical shield that can transform into an eagle, while Barnes' head is turned into a fleshless skull. Barnes orders his men to open fire and kill everyone in the camp, and Wilson is fatally shot. Before the troops can escape, Rogers appears as Captain America, and captures Barnes and his men. Thanks to Captain America's involvement, the Civil War ends earlier than in our history, and Abraham Lincoln is never assassinated. Rogers helps the South rebuild after the war, and suppresses the rise of the K.K.K. As a representative of the Indian people, he is able to prevent the Indian wars of 1870. Unfortunately Barnes, now known as the White Skull, forms a group even more dangerous than the K.K.K. The descendants of both men continue fighting each other up to the present in this alternative universe.

In the 2006 What If Age of Apocalypse one shot, Captain America is the leader of the Defenders (this reality's version of the Avengers), alongside Logan (not bonded with any adamantium), Captain Britain (who uses Iron Man's armor), Brother Voodoo (this reality's Sorcerer Supreme, after Dr. Strange's death), Colossus, the Thing (who has a prosthetic arm), the Molecule Man, Sauron, and Nate Summers. Captain America no longer wears a mask, and wields Thor's hammer, Mjolnir, along with his shield.

References

External links

Gladstone, Brooke (March 9, 2007). "Death to America". On the Media. Transcript and streaming audio; Ed Brubaker and Joe Simon interviewed.

Powell, Matt (March 7, 2007). "Captain America Remembered". . Archived from the original on March 9, 2007.

Captain America Library (fan site). Archived from the original on July 8, 2011.

Captain America (Steve Rogers) at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original)

Captain America cover gallery

Captain America at Marvel Wiki

Markstein, Don (2010). "Captain America". Don Markstein's Toonopedia.

Captain America (disambiguation) at the Marvel Universe

Captain America at the Marvel Database Project

Captain America at the Marvel Universe wiki

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Steve Rogers Captain America Publisher Marvel Comics First appearance Captain America Comics #1 (March 1941) Created by Alter ego Steven Grant Rogers Team affiliations Partnerships Notable aliases Nomad The Captain Abilities Enhanced strength, speed, stamina, durability, agility, reflexes, senses, and mental processing via the super soldier serum Master martial artist and hand-to-hand combatant Accelerated healing Slowed aging Master tactician, strategist, and field commander Using Vibranium-steel alloy shield Captain America is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.

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Un trou se creuse après la guerre, car les héros américains n'ont plus d'ennemi. Les nazis, vaincus, ne pouvaient plus être utiliser dans les comics. Les héros, alors moins populaire, les comics se tournent dans des styles plus policiers, horrifique ou romantique, cependant les super-héros ne disparaissent pas pour autant! En 1956, c'est le grand retour des super-héros, ce qui est appelé « l'âge d'argent des comics ». En 1961, relançant ce nouvel ère, Flash revient après une longue pause (étant apparût pour la première fois en 1940). Suivi de près par les quatre fantastiques (1961), Hulk (1962), Thor (1962), Spider-Man (1962), Iron Man (1963) et les X-men (1963).

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The Flash (or simply Flash) is the name of several superheroes appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Harry Lampert, the original Flash first appeared in Flash Comics #1 (cover date January 1940/release month November 1939). Nicknamed the "Scarlet Speedster", all incarnations of the Flash possess "super speed", which includes the ability to run, move, and think extremely fast, use superhuman reflexes, and seemingly violate certain laws of physics.

Thus far, at least four different characters-each of whom somehow gained the power of "the speed force"-have assumed the mantle of the Flash in DC's history: college athlete Jay Garrick (1940-1951, 1961-2011, 2017-present), forensic scientist Barry Allen (1956-1985, 2008-present), Barry's nephew Wally West (1986-2011, 2016-present), and Barry's grandson Bart Allen (2006-2007). Each incarnation of the Flash has been a key member of at least one of DC's premier teams: the Justice Society of America, the Justice League, and the Teen Titans.

The Flash is one of DC Comics' most popular characters and has been integral to the publisher's many reality-changing "crisis" storylines over the years. The original meeting of the Golden Age Flash Jay Garrick and Silver Age Flash Barry Allen in " Flash of Two Worlds" (1961) introduced the Multiverse storytelling concept to DC readers, which would become the basis for many DC stories in the years to come.

Like his Justice League colleagues Wonder Woman, Superman and Batman, the Flash has a distinctive cast of adversaries, including the various Rogues (unique among DC supervillains for their code of honor) and the various psychopathic "speedsters" who go by the names Reverse-Flash or Zoom. Other supporting characters in Flash stories include Barry's wife Iris West, Wally's wife Linda Park, Bart's girlfriend Valerie Perez, friendly fellow speedster Max Mercury, and Central City police department members David Singh and Patty Spivot.

A staple of the comic book DC Universe, the Flash has been adapted to numerous DC films, video games, animated series, and live-action television shows. In live-action, Barry Allen has been portrayed by Rod Haase for the 1979 television special Legends of the Superheroes, John Wesley Shipp in the 1990 The Flash series and Grant Gustin in the 2014 The Flash series, and by Ezra Miller in the DC Extended Universe series of films, beginning with Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016). Shipp also portrays a version of Jay Garrick in the 2014 The Flash series. The various incarnations of the Flash also feature in animated series such as Superman: The Animated Series, Justice League, Batman: The Brave and the Bold and Young Justice, as well as the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series.

Publication history

The Flash first appeared in the Golden Age Flash Comics #1 (January 1940), from All-American Publications, one of three companies that would eventually merge to form DC Comics. Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Harry Lampert, this Flash was Jay Garrick, a college student who gained his speed through the inhalation of hard water vapors. When re-introduced in the 1960s Garrick's origin was modified slightly, gaining his powers through exposure to heavy water.

Jay Garrick was a popular character in the 1940s, supporting both Flash Comics and All-Flash Quarterly (later published bi-monthly as simply All-Flash); co-starring in Comic Cavalcade; and being a charter member of the Justice Society of America, the first superhero team, whose adventures ran in All Star Comics. With superheroes' post-war decline in popularity, Flash Comics was canceled with issue #104 (1949) which featured an evil version of the Flash called the Rival. The Justice Society's final Golden Age story ran in All Star Comics #57 (1951; the title itself continued as All Star Western).

In 1956, DC Comics successfully revived superheroes, ushering in what became known as the Silver Age of comic books. Rather than bringing back the same Golden Age heroes, DC rethought them as new characters for the modern age. The Flash was the first revival, in the tryout comic book #4 (Oct. 1956).

This new Flash was (Barry Allen), a police scientist who gained super-speed when bathed by chemicals after a shelf of them was struck by lightning. He adopted the name The Scarlet Speedster after reading a comic book featuring the Golden Age Flash. After several more appearances in Showcase, Allen's character was given his own title, The Flash, the first issue of which was #105 (resuming where Flash Comics had left off). Barry Allen and the new Flash were created by writers Robert Kanigher and John Broome and cartoonist Carmine Infantino.

The Silver Age Flash proved popular enough that several other Golden Age heroes were revived in new incarnations (see: Green Lantern). A new superhero team, the Justice League of America, was also created, with the Flash as a main, charter member.

Barry Allen's title also introduced a much-imitated plot device into superhero comics when it was revealed that Garrick and Allen existed on fictional parallel worlds. Their powers allowed them to cross the dimensional boundary between worlds, and the men became good friends. Flash of Two Worlds ( The Flash (vol. 1) #123) was the first crossover in which a Golden Age character met a Silver Age character. Soon, there were crossovers between the entire Justice League and the Justice Society; their respective teams began an annual get-together which endured from the early 1960s until the mid-1980s.

Allen's adventures continued in his own title until the event of Crisis on Infinite Earths. The Flash ended as a series with issue #350. Allen's life had become considerably confused in the early 1980s, and DC elected to end his adventures and pass the mantle on to another character. Allen died heroically in Crisis on Infinite Earths #8 (1985). Thanks to his ability to travel through time, he would continue to appear occasionally in the years to come.

The third Flash was Wally West, introduced in The Flash (vol. 1) #110 (Dec. 1959) as Kid Flash. West, Allen's nephew by marriage, gained the Flash's powers through an accident identical to Allen's. Adopting the identity of Kid Flash, he maintained membership in the Teen Titans for years. Following Allen's death, West adopted the Flash identity in Crisis on Infinite Earths #12 and was given his own series, beginning with The Flash (vol. 2) #1 in 1987. Many issues began with the catchphrase: "My name is Wally West. I'm the fastest man alive."

Due to the Infinite Crisis miniseries and the " One Year Later" jump in time in the DC Universe, DC canceled The Flash (vol. 2) in January 2006 at #230. A new series, The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive, began on June 21, 2006. The initial story arc of this series, written by Danny Bilson and Paul De Meo with art by Ken Lashley, focused on Bart Allen's acceptance of the role of the Flash.

Flash: Fastest Man Alive was canceled with issue #13. In its place The Flash (vol. 2) was revived with issue #231, with Mark Waid as the initial writer. Waid also wrote All-Flash #1, which acted as the bridge between the two series. DC had solicited Flash: Fastest Man Alive through issue #15. All Flash #1 replaced issue #14 and The Flash (vol. 2) #231 replaced issue #15 in title and interior creative team only. The covers and cover artists were as solicited by DC, and the information text released was devoid of any plot information.

In 2009, Barry Allen made a full-fledged return to the DCU-proper in The Flash: Rebirth, a six-issue miniseries by Geoff Johns and Ethan Van Sciver.

Fictional character biographies

While several other individuals have used the name Flash, these have lived either on other parallel worlds, or in the future. Jay Garrick, Barry Allen, and Wally West are the best-known exemplars of the identity. The signature wingdings are never absent.

Jay Garrick

Jay Garrick was a college student in 1938 who accidentally inhaled heavy water vapors after taking a smoke break inside his laboratory where he had been working. As a result, he found that he could run at superhuman speed and had similarly fast reflexes. After a brief career as a college football star, he donned a red shirt with a lightning bolt and a stylized metal helmet with wings (based on images of the Greek deity Hermes), and began to fight crime as the Flash. His first case involved battling the "Faultless Four", a group of blackmailers. Garrick kept his identity secret for years without a mask by continually vibrating his body while in public so that any photograph of his face would be blurred. Although originally from Earth-Two, he was incorporated into the history of New Earth following the Crisis on Infinite Earths and is still active as the Flash operating out of Keystone City. He is a member of the Justice Society.

Barry Allen

Barry Allen is an assistant scientist from the Criminal and Forensic Science Division of Central City Police Department. Barry had a reputation for being very slow, deliberate, and frequently late, which frustrated his fiancée, Iris West. One night, as he was preparing to leave work, a freak lightning bolt struck a nearby shelf in his lab and doused him with a cocktail of unnamed chemicals. As a result, Barry found that he could run extremely fast and had matching reflexes. He donned a set of red tights sporting a lightning bolt (reminiscent of the original Fawcett Comics Captain Marvel), dubbed himself the Flash (after his childhood hero, Jay Garrick), and became a crimefighter active in Central City. In his civilian identity, he stores the costume compressed in a special ring via the use of a special gas that could compress cloth fibers to a very small fraction of their normal size.

Barry sacrificed his life for the universe in the 1985 maxi-series Crisis on Infinite Earths, and remained dead for over twenty years after that story's publication. With the 2008 series Final Crisis, Barry returned to the DC Universe and returned to full prominence as the Flash in the 2009 series The Flash: Rebirth, which was soon after followed by a new volume of ongoing series, where Barry's adventures as the Scarlet Speedster are currently published.

Wallace Rudolph "Wally" West is the nephew of both Iris West and Barry Allen, by marriage, and was introduced in The Flash (vol. 1) #110 (1959). When West was about ten years old, he was visiting his uncle's police laboratory, and the freak accident that gave Allen his powers repeated itself, bathing West in electrically-charged chemicals. Now possessing the same powers as his uncle, West donned a copy of his uncle's outfit and became the young, crime fighter, Kid Flash. After the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths where Barry Allen was killed, Wally took over as the fastest man alive. Following the events of Infinite Crisis, Wally, his wife Linda, and their twins left Earth for an unknown dimension.

Wally, his wife and twins were pulled back from the Speed Force by the Legion of Super-Heroes at the conclusion of The Lightning Saga. This set the stage for Wally West's return as the Flash after the events of The Flash: Fastest Man Alive #13 (see Bart Allen), in All Flash #1, and with The Flash (vol. 2) series, which resumed with issue #231 in August 2007. It subsequently ends with issue #247, and West, along with all the other Flash characters, play a large role in 2009's The Flash: Rebirth. He briefly appears in the Blackest Night story arc but shortly after the New 52 was launched and the character was nowhere to be seen. He is back as the Flash in DC Rebirth and joined the Titans.

Bartholomew Henry "Bart" Allen II is the grandson of Barry Allen and his wife Iris. Bart suffered from accelerated aging and, as a result, was raised in a virtual reality machine until Iris took him back in time to get help from the then-current Flash, Wally West. With Wally's help, Bart's aging slowed, and he took the name Impulse. After he was shot in the knee by Deathstroke, Bart changed both his attitude and his costume, taking the mantle of Kid Flash. During the events of Infinite Crisis, the Speed Force vanished, taking with it all the speedsters save Jay Garrick. Bart returned, four years older, and for a year claimed that he was depowered from the event. However, the Speed Force had not disappeared completely, but had been absorbed into Bart's body; essentially, he now contained all of the Speed Force.

Bart's costume as the Flash was a clone of his grandfather's, similarly stylized to Wally West's. Not long after taking the mantle of the Flash, Bart was killed by the Rogues in the thirteenth (and final) issue of The Flash: The Fastest Man Alive. However, he was later resurrected in the 31st century in Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #3 by Brainiac 5 to combat Superboy-Prime and the Legion of Super-Villains. Bart returned to the past and played a large role in The Flash: Rebirth.

Others to carry the mantle of the Flash

Jesse Chambers

Daughter of the speedster Johnny Quick, Jesse Chambers becomes a speeding superhero like her father. She later meets Wally West, the Flash, who asks her to be his replacement if something were to happen to him (as part of an elaborate plan on his part, trying to force Bart Allen to take his role in the legacy of the Flash more seriously). She briefly assumes the mantle of the Flash, after Wally enters the Speed Force.

John Fox was a historian for the National Academy of Science in Central City in the 27th Century. He was sent back in time to get the help of one or more of the three Flashes (Garrick, Allen, West), in order to defeat the radioactive villain Mota back in Fox's own time period. (Each Flash had individually fought Mota over the course of several years in the 20th century.) Fox's mission was a failure, but during his return trip, the tachyon radiation that sent him through the time stream gave him superspeed. He defeated Mota as a new iteration of the Flash and operated as his century's Flash for a time. Shortly after, he moved to the 853rd century and joined "Justice Legion A" (also known as Justice Legion Alpha) as seen in the DC One Million series of books. The name "John Fox" is combined from the names of seminal comic book writers John Broome, who co-created the Barry Allen and Wally West Flashes, and Gardner Fox, who co-created the Jay Garrick Flash.

Unnamed Allen of the 23rd century

The father of Sela Allen, his wife and daughter were captured by Cobalt Blue. He is forced to watch his wife die and his daughter become crippled. As he and Max Mercury kill Cobalt Blue, a child takes Cobalt Blue's power gem and kills Allen. This Flash is one of the two destined Flashes to be killed by Cobalt Blue.

Sela Allen is an ordinary human in the 23rd century until Cobalt Blue steals electrical impulses away from her, causing her to become as slow to the world as the world is to the Flash. Hoping to restore her, her father takes her into the Speed Force. When her father is killed, she appears as a living manifestation of the Speed Force, able to lend speed to various people and objects, but unable to physically interact with the world.

Blaine Allen

Blaine Allen and his son live on the colony world of Petrus in the 28th century. In an attempt to end the Allen blood line, Cobalt Blue injects Allen's son Jace with a virus. Lacking super speed, Jace was unable to shake off the virus. In despair, Blaine takes his son to the Speed Force in the hopes that it would accept him. It takes Blaine instead and grants super speed to Jace so that he can shake off the sickness.

Jace Allen gains super speed when his father brings him into the Speed Force to attempt to cure him of a virus injected into his body by Cobalt Blue in an attempt to end the Allen bloodline. In memory of his father, Jace assumes the mantle of the Flash and continues the feud against Cobalt Blue.

After an alien creature invades Earth, a history buff named Kriyad travels back in time from the 98th century to acquire a Green Lantern power ring. He fails, so he tries to capture the Flash's speed instead. After being beaten by Barry Allen ( The Flash (vol. 1) #309, May 1982), he travels back further in time and uses the chemicals from the clothes Barry Allen was wearing when he gained his powers to give himself super speed. Kryiad later sacrifices his life to defeat the alien creature.

Bizarro Flash

Bizarro-Flash was created when Bizarro cloned Flash. He had a costume the reverse colors of Flash's, however he had a mallet symbol because Flash was holding one when he was cloned. The modern version of Bizarro Flash has the symbol of a thunderbolt-shaped mustard stain. He has the powers of the Flash but he is completely intangible.

Powers and abilities

All incarnations of the Flash can move, think, and react at light speeds as well as having superhuman endurance that allows them to run incredible distances. Some, notably later versions, can vibrate so fast that they can pass through walls in a process called quantum tunneling, travel through time and can also lend and borrow speed. Speedsters can also heal more rapidly than an average human. In addition, most incarnations have an invisible aura around their respective bodies that protects them from air friction and the kinetic effects of their powers.

On several occasions, the Flash has raced against Superman, either to determine who is faster or as part of a mutual effort to thwart some type of threat; these races, however, often resulted in ties because of outside circumstances. Writer Jim Shooter and artist Curt Swan crafted the story "Superman's Race With the Flash!" in #199 (Aug. 1967) which featured the first race between the Flash and Superman. Writer E. Nelson Bridwell and artist Ross Andru produced "The Race to the End of the Universe", a follow-up story four months later in The Flash #175 (Dec. 1967). However, after the DC Universe revision after Crisis on Infinite Earths, the Flash does successfully beat Superman in a race in Adventures of Superman #463 with the explanation that Superman is not accustomed to running at high speed for extended periods of time since flying is more versatile and less strenuous, which means the far more practiced Flash has the advantage. After Final Crisis in Flash: Rebirth #3 the Flash is shown as being significantly faster than Superman, able to outrun him as Superman struggles to keep up with him. He reveals that all the close races between them before had been "for charity". In the Smallville episode "Run", Flash is not only able to run faster than a pre-Superman Clark Kent but can match Clark's top speed while running backwards.

While various incarnations of the Flash have proven their ability to run at light speed, the ability to steal speed from other objects allows respective Flashes to even significantly surpass this velocity. In Flash: The Human Race Wally is shown absorbing kinetic energy to an extent enabling him to move faster than teleportation and run from the end of the universe back to earth in less than a Planck instant ( Planck time).

Speedsters may at times use the ability to speed-read at incredible rates and in doing so, process vast amounts of information. Whatever knowledge they acquire in this manner is usually temporary. Their ability to think fast also allows them some immunity to telepathy, as their thoughts operate at a rate too rapid for telepaths such as Martian Manhunter or Gorilla Grodd to read or influence their minds.

Flashes and other super-speedsters also have the ability to speak to one another at a highly accelerated rate. This is often done to have private conversations in front of non-fast people (as when Flash speaks to Superman about his ability to serve both the Titans and the JLA in The Titans #2). Speed-talking is also sometimes used for comedic effect where Flash becomes so excited that he begins talking faster and faster until his words become a jumble of noise. He also has the ability to change the vibration of his vocal cords making it so he can change how his voice sounds to others.

While not having the physical strength of many of his comrades and enemies, Flash has shown to be able to use his speed to exert incredible momentum into physical attacks. In Injustice: Gods Among Us, Flash uses these kinds of attacks as many of his special moves.

The Flash has also claimed that he can process thoughts in less than an attosecond. At times he is able to throw lightning created by his super speed and make speed vortexes.

Some flashes also have the ability to create speed avatars (i.e. duplicates) and these avatars have sometimes been sent to different timelines to complete a particular mission. (Barry Allen exhibits this ability in the live action series "The Flash").

He can also be seen negating the effects of the anti-life equation, when he freed Iris-West from its control (probably due to his connection with the speed force).

It is said that Wally West has reached the velocity of 23,759,449,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (about 24 tredecillion) × c (the speed of light) and he could only do this with the help of every human being on earth moving so the speed force was joined through everyone.[citation needed ] With that speed he was able to not only run from planet to planet but different galaxies and universes at what would be considered a blink of an eye.

Different Flashes

In the final issue of , a new Multiverse is revealed, originally consisting of 52 identical realities. Among the parallel realities shown is one designated "Earth-2". As a result of Mister Mind "eating" aspects of this reality, it takes on visual aspects similar to the pre-Crisis Earth-2, including the Flash among other Justice Society of America characters. The names of the characters and the team are not mentioned in the panel in which they appear, but the Flash is visually similar to the Jay Garrick Flash. Based on comments by Grant Morrison, this alternate universe is not the pre-Crisis Earth-2.

A variant of the Flash-a superfast college student named Mary Maxwell-was seen in the Elseworld book Just Imagine Stan Lee Creating The Flash.

The Flash of Earth-D, Rei was a Japanese man who idolized Barry Allen, whose stories only existed in comic books on this world. Rei was inspired by Allen to become the Flash, much like Allen was inspired to become the Flash by his idol, Jay Garrick. Allen and Rei met during the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" when Barry was coming back from the 30th century and arrived in the wrong universe. As Earth-D was under attack by the shadow demons, Barry called on the Justice League and Tanaka called on the Justice Alliance, his world's version of the Justice League. They built a cosmic treadmill and were able to evacuate much of Earth-D's population. The Justice League left, but 39 seconds later, Earth-D perished.

Rei made his only appearance in Legends of the DC Universe: Crisis on Infinite Earths (February 1999). The story was written by Marv Wolfman, with art by Paul Ryan (pencils) and Bob McLeod (ink).

The young, female Flash of the Tangent Universe is not a speedster, but instead "the first child born in space" and a being made up of and able to control light. As a side effect, she can move at the speed of light, which actually makes her faster than most of the other Post-Crisis Flashes, as only Wally West has ever survived a light-speed run without becoming trapped in the Speed Force. She recently reappeared in Justice League of America #16, somehow summoned out of the paper 'green lantern' of her universe-an artifact that survived the Crisis that erased the Tangent Universe from existence. Lia Nelson also appeared in Countdown: Arena battling two versions of the Flash from other Earths within the Multiverse. In the 52-Earth Multiverse, the Tangent Universe is designated Earth-9.

Superman & Batman: Generations 2

In Superman & Batman: Generations 2, three different Flashes appear: Wally West as Kid Flash in 1964, Wally's cousin Carrie as Kid Flash in 1986, and Jay West, the son of Wally and his wife Magda as the fifth Flash in 2008. Barry Allen makes a cameo appearance out of costume in 1964.

Green Lightning

Ali Rayner-West, aka Green Lightning, is a descendant of both Kyle Rayner and Wally West. She has both a power ring and superspeed, as seen in Green Lantern: Circle of Fire. She was a living construct created by Kyle Rayner's subconscious, who later re-fused into his mind.

A teenage version of Jesse Chambers appears as the Flash of the Ame-Comi universe. As with most of the other characters of that Earth, she sports an Anime-inspired costume.

The 1980s series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew! presented the parallel Earth of "Earth-C-Minus", a world populated by funny animal superheroes that paralleled the mainstream DC Universe. Earth-C-Minus was the home of the Crash, a turtle with super-speed powers similar to those of Barry Allen's, and a member of his world's superhero team, the Just'a Lotta Animals. The Crash as a youth had read comics about Earth-C's Terrific Whatzit, similar to how Barry Allen enjoyed comics about Earth-Two's Jay Garrick.

Danica Williams

An African-American teenager named Danica Williams appears as the Flash in the Justice League Beyond series, acting as Wally West's successor during the 2040s (following the events of Batman Beyond). She is employed at the Flash Museum in Central City, and like Barry Allen, is chronically late. She later enters into a relationship with Billy Batson, who is the secret identity of the superhero, Captain Marvel.

The following writers have been involved in the ongoing The Flash and Flash Comics series:

Gerry Conway

#289-299, 301-304 ( Firestorm backup stories)

1980-1981

Martin Pasko

#306-313 ( Doctor Fate backup stories)

Steve Gerber

#310-313 (Doctor Fate backup stories)

Vol. 2 #0, 62-129, 142-159, 231-236, 1000000, 80-Page Giant #1, Annual Vol. 2 #4-6, 8, Special #1, Flash Plus Nightwing #1, The Flash Secret Files and Origins #1-2, The Flash TV Special #1, The Flash/Green Lantern: Faster Friends #1, The Flash & Green Lantern: The Brave and the Bold #1-6

1992-1997, 1998-2000, 2007-2008

Geoff Johns

Vol. 2 #1/2, 164-225, The Flash Secret Files and Origins #3 Iron Heights, The Flash: Our Worlds at War #1, Vol. 3 #1-12, The Flash Secret Files and Origins 2010, The Flash Rebirth #1-6

2000-2005, 2009-2011

Francis Manapul

Vol. 4 #1-25, 0, 23.2: Reverse-Flash #1, Annual Vol. 4 #1

2011-2013

Brian Buccellato

Vol. 4 #1-25, 27-29, 0, 23.1: Grodd #1, 23.2: Reverse-Flash #1, 23.3: The Rogues #1, Annual Vol. 4 #1-2

2011-2014

Van Jensen

Vol. 4 #30-52, Futures End #1, Annual Vol. 4 #3-4

Josh Williamson

Vol. 5 Rebirth #1, #1-

2016-

The comics and characters have been nominated for and won several awards over the years, including:

1961 Alley Award for Best Cover (The Flash (vol. 1) #123)

1961 Alley Award for Best Single Comic (The Flash (vol. 1) #123 by Gardner Fox and Carmine Infantino)

1963 Alley Award for Cross-Over of DC Heroes for The Brave and the Bold (with Hawkman)

1964 Alley Award for Best Short Story ("Doorway to the Unknown" in The Flash (vol. 1) #148 by John Broome and Carmine Infantino)

2001 Eisner Award for Best Cover Artist (The Flash), by Brian Bolland

2008 Salou Award for Best Super Hero (Flash - Danny Holmes by BUAFC)

In other media

Throughout his 70-year history, the Flash has appeared in numerous media. The Flash has been included in multiple animated features, such as Superfriends and Justice League, as well as his own live action television series and some guest star appearances on Smallville (as the Bart Allen/ Impulse version.) There are numerous videos that feature the character.

In the Challenge of the Superfriends series which ran from 1978-1979, he appears in every episode and has spoken lines in only twelve out of the sixteen episodes of the series. He also had two arch enemies from the Legion of Doom, Captain Cold and Gorilla Grodd.

appeared for one season (1990-1991) on the CBS Network, starring double-Emmy Award winner John Wesley Shipp as Barry Allen. Produced by Danny Bilson and Paul DeMeo, the series was a mild amalgamation of the Barry Allen and Wally West versions of the comics in that the female lead was Tina McGee (portrayed by Amanda Pays) and Wally's need for large amounts of food after expending so much energy running all over Central City was transferred to Barry. After his lightning-induced chemical accident, Barry got into crime fighting after the death of his police officer brother, Jay; it is presumed that Jay was named for the original comic book Flash, Jay Garrick. A handful of the Scarlet Speedster's rogues gallery made guest appearances throughout the series: Captain Cold (Michael Champion) ("Captain Cold"), Mirror Master (David Cassidy) ("Done With Mirrors"), and the Trickster (Mark Hamill) ("The Trickster" and "Trial of the Trickster"). The Flash also fought a clone of himself who wore a blue costume.

A few episodes were written by comics legend Howard Chaykin and the TV costume was designed by Dave Stevens (The Rocketeer). While a critical success and vigorously backed by the network, the series had the dubious distinction of being aired against ratings powerhouses The Cosby Show on NBC and Fox's The Simpsons. The Flash was preempted by Christmas specials and the Desert Storm war in Iraq, and was cancelled after its first season. Warner Brothers released the series in a 6-disc DVD box set on January 10, 2006.

The series' main musical theme was composed by Danny Elfman, with the remainder of the episodes' music being composed by Shirley Walker (this collaboration would also occur on Batman: The Animated Series). When the Flash made a guest appearance in the Superman: The Animated Series episode 'Speed Demons', Walker incorporated some of the themes from the live-action series into the episode.

Wally West is the Flash who appears in the DCAU voiced by Michael Rosenbaum. He has Wally's personality like telling bad jokes and being attracted to most women. He does have some Barry Allen traits as well like being in Central City and working as a forensic scientist. He is the only Flash to appear in the DCAU however Jay Garrick's helmet is seen on display in the Flash museum in the Justice League Unlimited episode Flash and Substance.

Kid Flash (Wally West) appears in the Teen Titans episode Lightspeed and protects Jump City while the Titans are away. He refers to a previous partnership with The Flash (presumably Barry Allen). He soon reforms Jinx and enters a romantic relationship with her.

The Flash is a playable character in the Mortal Kombat and DC Comics crossover game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe. The first official render for The Flash was released to the public on Monday July 7, 2008. His bio reveals that this version is Barry Allen. He is also a playable character in Injustice: Gods Among Us and its sequel, developed by NetherRealm Studios.

Two versions of the Flash make appearances in DC Universe Online. Barry Allen fights alongside the heroes against Gorilla Grodd's army, and is a bounty for the villains. Jay Garrick appears in the Watchtower, selling powerful armor to Level 30 Heroes with the Metapower origin.

Impulse is shown in Young Justice: Invasion as the grandson of Barry Allen and Iris West. He comes from the future to save his grandfather from Neutron (A.K.A. Nathaniel Tryon). Once he travels back he does succeed in saving Barry Allen, and stopping Neutron, this was supposed to save the future, but it is shown that the future remains the same. When he tries to travel back to his time (2056), his time machine doesn't work, it is shown in a backstory that he knew he was going to be stuck in the past, because the wires would be fried, though he doesn't reveal this to anyone on The Team, at that moment, he is considered an official member.

In the episode titled "The Scientist", Central City CSI Investigator Barry Allen partners with Felicity Smoak to find the thief that broke into one of the Queen Consolidated Applied Sciences building. Barry claims that he was sent from Central City to Starling City to investigate since there were connections to a case in Central City. Oliver Queen soon finds out that Barry was actually an assistant who came to Starling to investigate this strange occurrence in the hope that he would find an answer to who murdered his mother when he was a child. His appearance set up the character for his own series in 2014. This Flash makes guest appearances in episodes of Legends of Tomorrow and .

The Flash made his first theatrical film appearance in The Lego Movie. He was part of Metalbeard's pirate crew. He later made a brief appearance in The Lego Batman Movie.

Ezra Miller portrays Barry Allen as the Flash in the DC Extended Universe. He had cameos in the 2016 films Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and Suicide Squad, and a larger role in Justice League (2017). A film centered on him has been delayed but may release in 2021.

The Barry Allen version of the Flash appears in Justice League Action.

In popular culture

Numerous references to the Flash are presented on the television show The Big Bang Theory. A particular reference is main character Sheldon Cooper's Flash t-shirt, which has become a staple of merchandise clothing. In the season 1 episode The Middle-Earth Paradigm, the four main male characters on the show all independently dress up for a Halloween party as the Flash before deciding that they can't all be the Flash so no one gets to. In the season 10 episode The Birthday Synchronicity, Sheldon bought a Flash onesie for Howard & Bernadette's newborn.

In season 3 of , in the episode " Catch-22", Charlie and Hurley debate over who would win a footrace between The Flash and Superman.

The false name Barry Allen is used by character of con artist Frank Abagnale, Jr.(posing as a Secret Service Agent), in the movie Catch Me If You Can. When a coffee shop waiter notices the notes of FBI agent Carl Hanratty, he reveals that Barry Allen is the Flash, giving Carl a vital clue to his unknown subject's identity.

In 2006, a near-pristine copy of Flash Comics #1 was sold in a Heritage Auction for $ 273,125. The same book was then sold privately for $450,000 in 2010.

Renan Kanbay wears a Flash costume while playing Carrie, the manager of a comic book store, in Joe Lipari's (2011).

The band Jim's Big Ego wrote the song "The Ballad of Barry Allen" detailing the hardship having to watch time moving so slowly from the perspective of Allen. The frontman of the band, Jim Infantino is the nephew of Flash artist Carmine Infantino.

In the film Daddy Day Care, one of the day care kids named Tony wore a Flash costume for the majority of the film.

In the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode "Power Ponies", Pinkie Pie becomes a superhero based on the Flash called Fili-Second.

In an episode of The Simpsons, Comic Book Guy dresses as The Flash while running in a marathon. He says "No one can outrun the Flash" but ends up falling in a pothole and gets stuck.

Like Batman, Superman, and Green Lantern, the Flash has a reputation for having fought a distinctive and memorable rogues gallery of supervillains. In the Flash's case, some of these villains have adopted the term "Flash's Rogues Gallery" as an official title, and insist on being called "Rogues" rather than "supervillains" or similar names. At times, various combinations of the Rogues have banded together to commit crimes or take revenge on the Flash, usually under the leadership of Captain Cold.

The Rogues are known for their communal style relationship, socializing together and operating under a strict moral code, sometimes brutally enforced by Captain Cold. Such "rules" include "no drugs" and, except in very dire situations or on unique occasions, "no killing".

References

External links

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The Flash (or simply Flash) is the name of several superheroes appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Harry Lampert, the original Flash first appeared in Flash Comics #1 (cover date January 1940/release month November 1939).

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The Fantastic Four are a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The group debuted in Fantastic Four #1 ( cover dated Nov. 1961), which helped to usher in a new level of realism in the medium. The Fantastic Four was the first superhero team created by artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby and editor/co-plotter Stan Lee, who developed a collaborative approach to creating comics with this title that they would use from then on.

The four individuals traditionally associated with the Fantastic Four, who gained superpowers after exposure to cosmic rays during a scientific mission to outer space, are Mister Fantastic (Reed Richards), a scientific genius and the leader of the group, who can stretch his body into incredible lengths and shapes; the Invisible Woman (Susan "Sue" Storm), who eventually married Reed, who can render herself invisible and later project powerful invisible force fields; the Human Torch (Johnny Storm), Sue's younger brother, who can generate flames, surround himself with them and fly; and the monstrous Thing (Ben Grimm), their grumpy but benevolent friend, a former college football star and Reed's college roommate as well as a good pilot, who possesses tremendous superhuman strength, durability, and endurance due to the nature of his stone-like flesh.

Since their original 1961 introduction, the Fantastic Four have been portrayed as a somewhat dysfunctional, yet loving, family. Breaking convention with other comic book archetypes of the time, they would squabble and hold grudges both deep and petty and eschewed anonymity or secret identities in favor of celebrity status. The team is also well known for its recurring encounters with characters such as the villainous monarch Doctor Doom, the planet-devouring Galactus, the Kree Empire's ruthless and tyrannical enforcer Ronan the Accuser, Annihilus, ruler of the Negative Zone, the sea-dwelling prince Namor, the spacefaring Silver Surfer, and the Skrull warrior Kl'rt.

The Fantastic Four have been adapted into other media, including four animated series and four live-action films.

Apocryphal legend has it that in 1961, longtime magazine and comic book publisher Martin Goodman was playing golf with either Jack Liebowitz or Irwin Donenfeld of rival company DC Comics, then known as National Periodical Publications, and that the top executive bragged about DC's success with the new superhero team the Justice League of America. While film producer and comics historian Michael Uslan has debunked the particulars of that story, Goodman, a publishing trend-follower, aware of the JLA's strong sales, did direct his comics editor, Stan Lee, to create a comic-book series about a team of superheroes. According to Lee, writing in 1974, "Martin mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most. It was a book called The [] Justice League of America and it was composed of a team of superheroes. ... 'If the Justice League is selling', spoke he, 'why don't we put out a comic book that features a team of superheroes?'"

Lee, who had served as editor-in-chief and art director of Marvel Comics and its predecessor companies, Timely Comics and Atlas Comics, for two decades, found that the medium had become creatively restrictive. Determined "to carve a real career for myself in the nowhere world of comic books", Lee concluded that, "For just this once, I would do the type of story I myself would enjoy reading.... And the characters would be the kind of characters I could personally relate to: they'd be flesh and blood, they'd have their faults and foibles, they'd be fallible and feisty, and - most important of all - inside their colorful, costumed booties they'd still have feet of clay."

Lee said he created a synopsis for the first Fantastic Four story that he gave to penciller Jack Kirby, who then drew the entire story. Kirby turned in his penciled art pages to Lee, who added dialogue and captions. This approach to creating comics, which became known as the " Marvel Method", worked so well for Lee and Kirby that they used it from then on; the Marvel Method became standard for the company within a year.

Kirby recalled events somewhat differently. Challenged with Lee's version of events in a 1990 interview, Kirby responded: "I would say that's an outright lie", although the interviewer, Gary Groth, notes that this statement needs to be viewed with caution. Kirby claims he came up with the idea for the Fantastic Four in Marvel's offices, and that Lee had merely added the dialogue after the story had been pencilled. Kirby also sought to establish, more credibly and on numerous occasions, that the visual elements of the strip were his conceptions. He regularly pointed to a team he had created for rival publisher DC Comics in the 1950s, the Challengers of the Unknown. "[I]f you notice the uniforms, they're the same... I always give them a skintight uniform with a belt... the Challengers and the FF have a minimum of decoration. And of course, the Thing's skin is a kind of decoration, breaking up the monotony of the blue uniform." The chest insignia of a "4" within a circle, however, was designed by Lee. The characters wear no uniforms in the first two issues.

Given the conflicting statements, outside commentators have found it hard to identify with precise detail who created the Fantastic Four. Although Stan Lee's typed synopsis for the Fantastic Four exists, Earl Wells, writing in The Comics Journal, points out that its existence does not assert its place in the creation: "[W]e have no way of knowing of whether Lee wrote the synopsis after a discussion with Kirby in which Kirby supplied most of the ideas". Comics historian R. C. Harvey believes that the Fantastic Four was a furtherance of the work Kirby had been doing previously, and so "more likely Kirby's creations than Lee's". But Harvey notes that the Marvel Method of collaboration allowed each man to claim credit, and that Lee's dialogue added to the direction the team took. Wells argues that it was Lee's contributions which set the framework within which Kirby worked, and this made Lee "more responsible". Comics historian Mark Evanier, a studio assistant to Jack Kirby in the 1970s, says that the considered opinion of Lee and Kirby's contemporaries was "that Fantastic Four was created by Stan and Jack. No further division of credit seemed appropriate".

1961-1970s

The release of The Fantastic Four #1 (Nov. 1961) was an unexpected success. Lee had felt ready to leave the comics field at the time, but the positive response to Fantastic Four persuaded him to stay on. The title began to receive fan mail and Lee started printing the letters in a letter column with issue #3. Also with the third issue, Lee created the hyperbolic slogan "The Greatest Comic Magazine in the World!!" With the following issue, the slogan was changed to "The World's Greatest Comic Magazine!" and became a fixture on the issue covers into the 1990s, and on numerous covers in the 2000s.

Issue #4 (May 1962) reintroduced Namor the Sub-Mariner, an aquatic antihero who was a star character of Marvel's earliest iteration, Timely Comics, during the late 1930s and 1940s period that historians and fans call the Golden Age of Comics. Issue #5 (July 1962) introduced the team's most frequent nemesis, Doctor Doom. These earliest issues were published bimonthly. With issue #16 (July 1963), the cover title dropped its The and became simply Fantastic Four.

While the early stories were complete narratives, the frequent appearances of these two antagonists, Doom and Namor, in subsequent issues indicated the creation of a long narrative by Lee and Kirby that extended over months. According to comics historian Les Daniels, "only narratives that ran to several issues would be able to contain their increasingly complex ideas". During its creators' lengthy run, the series produced many acclaimed storylines and characters that have become central to Marvel, including the hidden race of alien-human genetic experiments, the Inhumans; the Black Panther, an African king who would be mainstream comics' first black superhero; the rival alien races the Kree and the shapeshifting Skrulls; Him, who would become Adam Warlock; the Negative Zone and unstable molecules. The story frequently cited as Lee and Kirby's finest achievement is the three-part " Galactus Trilogy" that began in Fantastic Four #48 (March 1966), chronicling the arrival of Galactus, a cosmic giant who wanted to devour the planet, and his herald, the Silver Surfer. Fantastic Four #48 was chosen as #24 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that, "As the fourth year of the Fantastic Four came to a close, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby seemed to be only warming up. In retrospect, it was perhaps the most fertile period of any monthly title during the Marvel Age." Daniels noted that "[t]he mystical and metaphysical elements that took over the saga were perfectly suited to the tastes of young readers in the 1960s", and Lee soon discovered that the story was a favorite on college campuses. The Fantastic Four Annual was used to spotlight several key events. The Sub-Mariner was crowned king of Atlantis in the first annual (1963). The following year's annual revealed the origin story of Doctor Doom. Fantastic Four Annual #3 (1965) presented the wedding of Reed Richards and Sue Storm. Lee and Kirby reintroduced the original Human Torch in Fantastic Four Annual #4 (1966) and had him battle Johnny Storm. Sue Richards' pregnancy was announced in Fantastic Four Annual #5 (1967), and the Richards' son, Franklin Richards was born in Fantastic Four Annual #6 (1968) in a story which introduced Annihilus as well.

Marvel filed for a trademark for "Fantastic Four" in 1967 and the United States Patent and Trademark Office issued the registration in 1970.

Kirby left Marvel in mid-1970, having drawn the first 102 issues plus an unfinished issue, partially published in Fantastic Four #108, with alterations, and later completed and published as Fantastic Four: The Lost Adventure (April 2008), Fantastic Four continued with Lee, Roy Thomas, Gerry Conway and Marv Wolfman as its consecutive regular writers, working with artists such as John Romita Sr., John Buscema, Rich Buckler and George Pérez, with longtime inker Joe Sinnott adding some visual continuity. Jim Steranko also contributed some covers during this time. A short-lived series starring the team, Giant-Size Super-Stars, began in May 1974 and changed its title to Giant-Size Fantastic Four with issue #2. The fourth issue introduced Jamie Madrox, a character who later became part of the X-Men. Giant-Size Fantastic Four was canceled with issue #6 (Oct. 1975). Roy Thomas and George Pérez crafted a metafictional story for Fantastic Four #176 (Nov. 1976) in which the Impossible Man visited the offices of Marvel Comics and met numerous comics creators. Marv Wolfman and Keith Pollard crafted a multi-issue storyline involving the son of Doctor Doom which culminated in issue #200 (Nov. 1978). John Byrne joined the title with issue #209 (Aug. 1979), doing pencil breakdowns for Sinnott to finish. He and Wolfman introduced a new herald for Galactus named Terrax the Tamer in #211 (Oct. 1979).

Bill Mantlo briefly followed Wolfman as writer of the series and wrote a crossover with Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man #42 (May 1980). Byrne wrote and drew a giant-sized Fantastic Four promotional comic for Coca-Cola, which was rejected by Coca-Cola as being too violent and published as Fantastic Four #220-221 (July-Aug. 1980) instead. Writer Doug Moench and penciller Bill Sienkiewicz then took over for 10 issues. With issue #232 (July 1981), the aptly titled "Back to the Basics", Byrne began his run as writer, penciller and inker, the last under the pseudonym Bjorn Heyn for this issue only.

Byrne revitalized the slumping title with his run. Originally, Byrne was slated to write with Sienkiewicz providing the art. Sienkiewicz left to do Moon Knight, and Byrne subsequently became writer, artist, and inker. Various editors were assigned to the comic; eventually Bob Budiansky became the regular editor. Byrne told Jim Shooter that he could not work with Budiansky, although they ultimately continued to work together. In 2006, Byrne said "that's my paranoia. I look back and I think that was Shooter trying to force me off the book". Byrne left following issue #293 (Aug. 1986) in the middle of a story arc, explaining he could not recapture the fun he had previously had on the series. One of Byrne's changes was making the Invisible Girl into the Invisible Woman: assertive and confident. During this period, fans came to recognize that she was quite powerful, whereas previously, she had been primarily seen as a superpowered mother and wife in the tradition of television moms like those played by Donna Reed and Florence Henderson.

Byrne staked new directions in the characters' personal lives, having the married Sue Storm and Reed Richards suffer a miscarriage and the Thing quitting the Fantastic Four, with She-Hulk being recruited as his long-term replacement. He also re-emphasized the family dynamic which he felt the series had drifted away from after the Lee/Kirby run, commenting that, "-and not dysfunctional family-is the central, key element to the FF. It is an absolutely vital dynamic between the characters." [emphases in original]

Byrne was followed by a quick succession of writers: Roger Stern, Tom DeFalco, and Roy Thomas. Steve Englehart took over as writer for issues 304-332 (except #320). The title had been struggling, so Englehart decided to make radical changes. He felt the title had become stale with the normal makeup of Reed, Sue, Ben, and Johnny, so in issue #308 Reed and Sue retired and were replaced with the Thing's new girlfriend, Sharon Ventura, and Johnny Storm's former love, Crystal. The changes increased readership through issue #321. At this point, Marvel made decisions about another Englehart comic, West Coast Avengers, that he disagreed with, and in protest he changed his byline to S.F.X. Englehart (S.F.X. is the abbreviation for Simple Sound Effects). In issue #326, Englehart was told to bring Reed and Sue back and undo the other changes he had made. This caused Englehart to take his name entirely off the book. He used the pseudonym John Harkness, which he had created years before for work he didn't want to be associated with. According to Englehart, the run from #326 through his last issue, #332, was "one of the most painful stretches of [his] career." Writer-artist Walt Simonson took over as writer with #334 (December 1989), and three issues later began pencilling and inking as well. With brief inking exceptions, two fill-in issues, and a three-issue stint drawn by Arthur Adams, Simonson remained in all three positions through #354 (July 1991).

Simonson, who had been writing the team comic The Avengers, had gotten approval for Reed and Sue to join that team after Engelhart had written them out of Fantastic Four. Yet by The Avengers #300, where they were scheduled to join the team, Simonson was told the characters were returning to Fantastic Four. This led to Simonson quitting The Avengers after that issue. Shortly afterward, he was offered the job of writing Fantastic Four. Having already prepared a number of stories involving the Avengers with Reed and Sue in the lineup, he then rewrote these for Fantastic Four. Simonson later recalled that working on Fantastic Four allowed him the latitude to use original Avengers members Thor and Iron Man, which he had been precluded from using in The Avengers.

After another fill-in, the regular team of writer and Marvel editor-in-chief Tom DeFalco, penciller Paul Ryan and inker Dan Bulanadi took over, with Ryan self-inking beginning with #360 (Jan. 1992). That team, with the very occasional different inker, continued for years through #414 (July 1996). DeFalco nullified the Storm-Masters marriage by retconning that the alien Skrull Empire had kidnapped the real Masters and replaced her with a spy named Lyja. Once discovered, Lyja, who herself had fallen for Storm, helped the Fantastic Four rescue Masters. Ventura departed after being further mutated by Doctor Doom. Although some fans were not pleased with DeFalco's run on Fantastic Four, calling him "The Great Satan", the title's sales rose steadily over the period.

Other key developments included Franklin Richards being sent into the future and returning as a teenager; the return of Reed's time-traveling father, Nathaniel, who is revealed to be the father of time-travelling villain Kang the Conqueror and Reed's apparent death at the hands of a seemingly mortally wounded Doctor Doom. It would be two years before DeFalco resurrected the two characters, revealing that their "deaths" were orchestrated by the supervillain Hyperstorm.

The ongoing series was canceled with issue #416 (Sept. 1996) and relaunched with vol. 2 #1 (Nov. 1996) as part of the multi-series " Heroes Reborn" crossover story arc. The yearlong volume retold the team's first adventures in a more contemporary style, and set in a parallel universe. Following the end of that experiment, Fantastic Four was relaunched with vol. 3 #1 (Jan. 1998). Initially by the team of writer Scott Lobdell and penciller Alan Davis, it went after three issues to writer Chris Claremont (co-writing with Lobdell for #4-5) and penciller Salvador Larroca; this team enjoyed a long run through issue #32 (Aug. 2000).

Following the run of Claremont, Lobdell and Larroca, Carlos Pacheco took over as penciller and co-writer, first with Rafael Marín, then with Marín and Jeph Loeb. This series began using dual numbering, as if the original Fantastic Four series had continued unbroken, with issue #42 / #471 (June 2001). At the time, the Marvel Comics series begun in the 1960s, such as and The Amazing Spider-Man, were given such dual numbering on the front cover, with the present-day volume's numbering alongside the numbering from the original series. After issue #70 / #499 (Aug. 2003), the title reverted to its original vol. 1 numbering with issue #500 (Sept. 2003).

Karl Kesel succeeded Loeb as co-writer with issue #51 / #480 (March 2002), and after a few issues with temporary teams, Mark Waid took over as writer with #60 / 489 (October 2002) with artist Mike Wieringo with Marvel releasing a promotional variant edition of their otherwise $2.25 debut issue at the price of nine cents US. Pencillers Mark Buckingham, Casey Jones, and Howard Porter variously contributed through issue #524 (May 2005), with a handful of issues by other teams also during this time. Writer J. Michael Straczynski and penciller Mike McKone did issues #527-541 (July 2005 - Nov. 2006), with Dwayne McDuffie taking over as writer the following issue, and Paul Pelletier succeeding McKone beginning with #544 (May 2007).

As a result of the events of the " Civil War" company-crossover storyline, the Black Panther and Storm temporarily replaced Reed and Susan Richards on the team. During that period, the Fantastic Four also appeared in Black Panther, written by Reginald Hudlin and pencilled primarily by Francis Portela. Beginning with issue #554 (April 2008), writer Mark Millar and penciller Bryan Hitch began what Marvel announced as a sixteen-issue run. Following the summer 2008 crossover storyline, " Secret Invasion", and the 2009 aftermath " Dark Reign", chronicling the U.S. government's assigning of the Nation's security functions to the seemingly reformed supervillain Norman Osborn, the Fantastic Four starred in a five-issue miniseries, Dark Reign: Fantastic Four (May-Sept. 2009), written by Jonathan Hickman, with art by Sean Chen. Hickman took over as the series regular writer as of issue #570 with Dale Eaglesham and later Steve Epting on art.

In the storyline "Three", which concluded in Fantastic Four #587 ( cover date March 2011, published January 26, 2011), the Human Torch appears to die stopping a horde of monsters from the other-dimensional Negative Zone. The series ended with the following issue, #588, and relaunched in March 2011 as simply FF. The relaunch saw the team assume a new name, the Future Foundation, adopt new black-and-white costumes, and accept longtime ally Spider-Man as a member. In October 2011, with the publication of FF #11 (cover-dated Dec. 2011), the Fantastic Four series reached its 599th issue.

In November 2011, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Fantastic Four and of Marvel Comics, the company published the 100-page Fantastic Four #600 (cover-dated Jan. 2012), which returned the title to its original numbering and featured the return of the Human Torch. It revealed the fate of the character of Johnny Storm after issue #587, showing that while he did in fact die, he was resurrected to fight as a gladiator for the entertainment of Annihilus. Storm later formed a resistance force called Light Brigade and defeated Annihilus.

Although it was launched as a continuation of the Fantastic Four title, FF continues publication as a separate series. Starting with issue #12, the title focuses upon the youthful members of the Future Foundation, including Franklin and Valeria Richards.

In the graphic novel Fantastic Four: Season One, the Fantastic Four is given an updated origin story set in the present day instead of the 1960s. The hardcover compilation debuted at number four on The New York Times Best Seller list for graphic novels.

As part of Marvel NOW! Fantastic Four ended with #611, ending Jonathan Hickman's long run on FF titles, and the title was relaunched in November 2012 with the creative team of writer Matt Fraction and artist Mark Bagley. In the new title with its numbering starting at #1, the entire Fantastic Four family explore space together, with the hidden intent for Reed Richards to discover why his powers are fading.

Writer James Robinson and artist Leonard Kirk launched a new Fantastic Four series in February 2014 ( cover dated April 2014).

Robinson later confirmed that Fantastic Four would be cancelled in 2015 with issue #645, saying that "The book is reverting to its original numbers, and the book is going away for a while. I'm moving towards the end of Fantastic Four. I just want to reassure people that you will not leave this book with a bad taste in your mouth." In the aftermath of the " Secret Wars" storyline, the Thing is working with the Guardians of the Galaxy and the Human Torch is acting as an ambassador with the Inhumans. With Franklin's powers restored and Reed having absorbed the power of the Beyonders from Doom, the Richards family is working on travelling through and reconstructing the multiverse, but Peter Parker has purchased the Baxter Building to keep it "safe" until the team is ready to come back together.

A new volume for the Fantastic Four was released in August 2018, written by Dan Slott, as part of Marvel's Fresh Start event. The first issue of the new series was met with strong sales, and a positive critical reaction. When the Future Foundation is threatened by the Griever at the End of All Things, Mister Fantastic plays on her ego to convince her to provide him with equipment that will allow him to summon his teammates. When Human Torch and Thing are reunited with Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman, the other superheroes that were part of the Fantastic Four at some point in their lives also arrived, including unexpectedly, X-Men's Iceman. With the gathered heroes assisted the Fantastic Four into causing so much damage to the Griever's equipment, she is forced to retreat in her final telepod or be trapped in that universe. This left the heroes to salvage components from the broken ship to create their own teleport system to return to their universe. The Fantastic Four and their extended family returned to Earth where they find that Liberteens members Ms. America, 2-D, Hope, and Iceberg have come together as the Fantastix with Ms. America taking the codename of Ms. Fantastix. Following the staged bank robbery that the Wrecking Crew committed and their involvement of being hired to humiliate the Fantastix in public, the Fantastic Four gave the Fantastix their blessing to continue using the Baxter Building.

In the storyline Point of Origin, the Fantastic Four entrust Alicia, H.E.R.B.I.E. Franklin and Valerie to protect Earth while they begin their mission to learn a further origin of the cosmic radiation that granted them their powers in the first place, piloting a new space ship called Marvel-2. While in a middle of space adventure to find the origin behind their super power results from a cosmic ray, the Fantastic Four are attacked by a group who believed themselves to be the superheroes of Planet Spyre, the Unparalleled. As both Reed and Sue got separated from the Thing, while Human Torch is revealed to be the soulmate of the Unparalleled member named Sky, they learned the Unparalleled's leader and the Overseer of Planet Spyre, Revos was responsible for the cosmic rays that struck the team on their original trip as he wanted to stop them coming to his planet, and subsequently mutated his people to 'prepare for their return' before trying to eradicate the mutates who are unable to retain their original forms in the same manner as the Thing, accusing the mutates of being "villains and imperfects"; as a result, through his own paranoia and xenophobia, the Overseer himself is responsible for the fateful creation of the Fantastic Four and mutated his entire race to face a non-existent threat. Revos challenges Mr. Fantastic for a fight over their differences, until it has settled and they finally made peace. As the Fantastic Four are about to depart Spyre after helping its citizens clean up the Planet (as well as Reed providing the mutates with a variation of the temporary 'cure' he has created for Ben), Skye join them to learn about Earth and every unseen galaxy. When the incoming Kree-Skrull Empyre occur at the same time when the teen heroes being outlawed, the original Fantastic Four went to space with Avengers to stop this Empyre, leaving Franklin and Valerie being backed by Spider-Man and Wolverine to defend Earth.

Ancillary titles and features spun off from the flagship series include the 1970s quarterly Giant-Size Fantastic Four and the 1990s Fantastic Four Unlimited and Fantastic Four Unplugged; Fantastic Force, an 18-issue spinoff (November 1994 - April 1996) featuring an adult Franklin Richards, from a different timeline, as Psi-Lord. A 12-issue series Fantastic Four: The World's Greatest Comics Magazine ran in 2001, paying homage to Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's legendary run. A spinoff title Marvel Knights 4 (April 2004 - August 2006) was written by Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa and initially illustrated by Steve McNiven in his first Marvel work. As well, there have been numerous limited series featuring the group.

In 1996, Marvel launched Fantastic Four 2099. The series was part of the company's Marvel 2099 imprint, which explored an alternate future of the Marvel Universe. The four protagonists inexplicably find themselves in 2099, with the world believing them to be clones of the original members of the Fantastic Four. The series ran for 8 issues (Jan. - Aug. 1996), serving as a companion to -an original Marvel 2099 title which featured an individual claiming to be the original Victor von Doom.

In 2004, Marvel launched Ultimate Fantastic Four. As part of the company's Ultimate Marvel imprint, the series re-imagined the team as teenagers. The series ran for 60 issues (Feb. 2004 - Feb. 2009). In 2008, Marvel also launched Marvel Adventures: Fantastic Four, an out-of-continuity series aimed at younger readers.

Although it was launched by Marvel as a continuation of the Fantastic Four title in 2011, continued publication as a separate series after the regular series resumed in 2012. From issues #12, the title focused upon the youthful members of the Future Foundation, including Franklin and Valeria Richards. A second volume was launched as part of Marvel NOW! by Matt Fraction and Mike Allred depicting a substitute Fantastic Four team starring Scott Lang, Medusa, She-Hulk, and Ms. Thing.

The Human Torch was given a solo strip in Strange Tales in 1962 in order to bolster sales of the title. The series began in Strange Tales #101 (October 1962), in 12- to 14-page stories plotted by Lee and initially scripted by his brother, Larry Lieber, and drawn by penciller Kirby and inker Dick Ayers.

Here, Johnny was seen living with his older sister, Susan, in fictional Glenview, Long Island, New York, where he continued high school and, with youthful naiveté, attempted to maintain a "secret identity". In Strange Tales #106 (March 1963), Johnny discovered that his friends and neighbors knew of his dual identity all along, from Fantastic Four news reports, but were humoring him. Supporting characters included Johnny's girlfriend, Doris Evans, usually in consternation as Johnny cheerfully flew off to battle bad guys. She was seen again in a 1973 issue of Fantastic Four, having become a heavyset but cheerful wife and mother. Ayers took over the penciling after ten issues, later followed by original Golden Age Human Torch creator Carl Burgos and others. The Fantastic Four made occasional cameo appearances, and the Thing became a co-star with issue #123 (Aug. 1964).

The Human Torch shared the split book Strange Tales with fellow feature Doctor Strange for the majority of its run, before being replaced in issue #135 (August 1965) by Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.. The Silver Age stories were republished in 1974, along with some Golden Age Human Torch stories, in a short-lived ongoing Human Torch series.

A later ongoing solo series in Marvel's manga-influenced Tsunami imprint, Human Torch, ran 12 issues (June 2003 - June 2004), followed by the five-issue limited series Spider-Man/Human Torch (March-July 2005), an untold tales team-up arc spanning the course of their friendship.

The Thing appeared in two team-up issues of Marvel Feature (#11-12, September-November 1973). Following their success, he was given his own regular team-up title Marvel Two-in-One, co-starring with Marvel heroes not only in the present day but occasionally in other time periods (fighting alongside the World War II-era Liberty Legion in #20 and the 1930s hero Doc Savage in #21, for example) and in alternate realities. The series ran 100 issues (January 1974 - June 1983), with seven summer annuals (1976-1982) and was immediately followed by the solo title The Thing #1-36 (July 1983 - June 1986). Another ongoing solo series, also titled The Thing, ran eight issues (January-August 2006).

In April 2019, Marvel Comics announced that it will publish Invisible Woman, a five-issue miniseries. This will be Sue Storm's first solo title. Adam Hughes drew the cover for Issue #1.

Characters

The Fantastic Four is formed after four civilian astronauts are exposed to cosmic rays during an unauthorized outer space test flight in an experimental rocket ship designed by Dr. Reed Richards. Pilot Ben Grimm and crew-members Susan Storm and her brother Johnny Storm survive an emergency crash-landing in a field on Earth. Upon exiting the rocket, the four discover they have developed incredible superpowers, and decide to use these powers to help others.

In the first issue the crew talks about Reed Richards' rocketship flying to the stars. Stan Lee's original synopsis described the crew's plan to fly to Mars, but Lee later shortly afterward wrote that due to "the rate the Communists are progressing in space, maybe we better make this a flight to the STARS, instead of just to Mars, because by the time this mag goes on sale, the Russians may have already MADE a flight to Mars!"

In a significant departure from preceding superhero conventions, the Fantastic Four make no effort to maintain secret identities or, until issue #3, to wear superhero costumes, instead maintaining a public profile and enjoying celebrity status for scientific and heroic contributions to society. At the same time, they are often prone to arguing and even fighting with one another. Despite their bickering, the Fantastic Four consistently prove themselves to be "a cohesive and formidable team in times of crisis."

While there have been a number of lineup changes to the group, the four characters who debuted in Fantastic Four #1 remain the core and most frequent lineup.

Mister Fantastic (Reed Richards), a scientific genius, can stretch, twist and re-shape his body to inhuman proportions. Mr. Fantastic serves as the father figure of the group, and is "appropriately pragmatic, authoritative, and dull". Richards blames himself for the failed space mission, particularly because of how the event transformed pilot Ben Grimm. Stan Lee said the stretch powers were inspired by DC's Plastic Man, which had no equivalent in Marvel.

Invisible Girl/Invisible Woman (Susan Storm), Reed Richards' girlfriend (and eventual wife) has the ability to bend and manipulate light to render herself and others invisible. Stan Lee did not want Sue to have superstrength, "to be Wonder Woman and punch people", so eventually he came to invisibility, inspired by works such as The Invisible Man. She later develops the ability to generate invisible force fields, which she uses for a variety of defensive and offensive effects.

The Human Torch (Johnny Storm), Sue Storm's younger brother, possesses the ability to control fire, allowing him to project fire from his body, as well as the power to fly. This character was loosely based on a Human Torch character published by Marvel's predecessor Timely Comics in the 1940s, an android that could ignite itself. Lee said that when he conceptualized the character, "I thought it was a shame that we didn't have The Human Torch anymore, and this was a good chance to bring him back". Unlike the teen sidekicks that preceded him, the Human Torch in the early stories was "a typical adolescent - brash, rebellious, and affectionately obnoxious." Johnny Storm was killed in the 2011 storyline "Three", before being brought back and rejoining the reformed Fantastic Four.

(Ben Grimm), Reed Richards' college roommate and best friend, has been transformed into a monstrous, orange, rock-like humanoid possessing high levels of superhuman strength and durability. The Thing is often filled with anger, self-loathing and self-pity over his new existence. He serves as "an uncle figure, a long-term friend of the family with a gruff Brooklyn manner, short temper, and caustic sense of humor". In the original synopsis Lee gave to Kirby, The Thing was intended as "the heavy", but over the years, the character has become "the most lovable group member: honest, direct and free of pretension". Lee said his original pitch to Kirby stated that The Thing was "someone who turned into a monster" and is bitter because unlike the other three he cannot change back to a normal appearance.

The Fantastic Four has had several different headquarters, most notably the Baxter Building, located at 42nd Street and Madison Avenue in New York City. The Baxter Building was replaced by Four Freedoms Plaza at the same location after its destruction at the hands of Kristoff Vernard, adopted son of the team's seminal foe Doctor Doom. (Prior to the completion of Four Freedoms Plaza, the team took up temporary residence at Avengers Mansion.) Pier 4, a waterfront warehouse, served as a temporary headquarters after Four Freedoms Plaza was destroyed by the ostensible superhero team the Thunderbolts shortly after the revelation that they were actually the supervillain team the Masters of Evil in disguise. Pier 4 was eventually destroyed during a battle with the longtime Fantastic Four supervillain Diablo, after which the team received a new Baxter Building, courtesy of one of team leader Reed Richards' former professors, Noah Baxter. This second Baxter Building was constructed in Earth's orbit and teleported into the vacant lot formerly occupied by the original.

A number of characters are closely affiliated with the team, share complex personal histories with one or more of its members but have never actually held an official membership. Some of these characters include, but are not limited to: Namor the Sub-Mariner (previously an antagonist), Alicia Masters, Lyja the Lazerfist, H.E.R.B.I.E., Kristoff Vernard ( Doctor Doom's former protégé), Wyatt Wingfoot, Sue and Johnny's father Franklin Storm, the receptionist android Roberta, governess Agatha Harkness, and Reed and Sue's children Franklin Richards and Valeria Richards.

Several allies of the Fantastic Four have served as temporary members of the team, including Crystal, Medusa, Power Man (Luke Cage), Nova (Frankie Raye), She-Hulk, Ms. Marvel (Sharon Ventura), Ant-Man (Scott Lang), Namorita, Storm, and the Black Panther. A temporary lineup from Fantastic Four #347-349 (December 1990 - February 1991) consisted of the Hulk (in his "Joe Fixit" persona), Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Ghost Rider (Daniel Ketch).

Other notable characters who have been involved with the Fantastic Four include Alyssa Moy, Caledonia ( Alysande Stuart of Earth-9809), Fantastic Force, the Inhumans (particularly the royal family members Black Bolt, Crystal, Medusa, Gorgon, Karnak, Triton, and Lockjaw), Reed's father Nathaniel Richards, the Silver Surfer (previously an antagonist), Thundra, postal worker Willie Lumpkin, Baxter Building landlord Walter Collins, the Thing's rivals the Yancy Street Gang and Uatu the Watcher.

Author Christopher Knowles states that Kirby's work on creations such as the Inhumans and the Black Panther served as "a showcase of some of the most radical concepts in the history of the medium".

Writers and artists over many years have created a variety of characters to challenge the Fantastic Four. Knowles states that Kirby helped to create "an army of villains whose rage and destructive power had never been seen before," and "whose primary impulse is to smash the world." Some of the team's oldest and most frequent enmities have involved such foes as the Mole Man, the Skrulls, Namor the Sub-Mariner, Doctor Doom, the Puppet Master, Kang the Conqueror/Rama-Tut/ Immortus, Blastaar, the Frightful Four, Annihilus, Galactus, and Klaw. Other prominent antagonists of the Fantastic Four have included the Wizard, the Impossible Man, the Red Ghost and the Super-Apes, the Mad Thinker, the Super-Skrull, the Molecule Man, Diablo, Dragon Man, Psycho-Man, Ronan the Accuser, Salem's Seven, Terrax the Tamer, Terminus, Hyperstorm and Lucia von Bardas.

Fantastic Four Incorporated, also known as Fantastic Enterprises, is a fictional organization appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It was founded by Reed Richards to license use of Richard's patents and funded the Fantastic Four's operation and their source of income. Staff are:

Susan Richards (Invisible Woman) - CEO of Fantastic Four Inc.

Johnny Storm (Human Torch) - made COO by Susan to give him some work ethic.

Christi Stoger - with Ethan Crane, tried to frame Johnny Storm for a screw-up to get themselves promoted

Ethan Crane - with Christi Stoger, tried to frame Johnny Storm for a screw-up to get themselves promoted

Jian Feeta - Johnny's Personal Assistant

Bethany Palmer - assisted out of abusive relationship with ex-husband, Jeff, by the Invisible Woman

Jed Schultz - informed Reed about the embezzlement of their funds

Margaret Kofpulski

The Fantastic Four's characterization was initially different from all other superheroes at the time. One major difference is that they do not conceal their identities, leading the public to be both suspicious and in awe of them. Also, they frequently argued and disagreed with each other, hindering their work as a team. Described as "heroes with hangups" by Stan Lee, the Thing has a temper, and the Human Torch resents being a child among adults. Mr. Fantastic blames himself for the Thing's transformation. Social scientist Bradford W. Wright describes the team as a "volatile mix of human emotions and personalities". In spite of their disagreements, they ultimately function well as a team.

The first issue of The Fantastic Four proved a success, igniting a new direction for superhero comics and soon influencing many other superhero comics. Readers grew fond of Ben's grumpiness, Johnny's tendency to annoy others and Reed and Sue's spats. Stan Lee was surprised at the reaction to the first issue, leading him to stay in the comics field despite previous plans to leave. Comics historian Stephen Krensky said that "Lee's natural dialogue and flawed characters appealed to 1960s kids looking to 'get real'".

As of 2005, 150 million comics featuring the Fantastic Four had been sold.

There have been four The Fantastic Four animated TV series and three released feature films. The Fantastic Four also guest-starred in the "Secret Wars" story arc of the 1990s Spider-Man animated series, and the Thing guest-starred (with a small cameo from the other Fantastic Four members) in the "Fantastic Fortitude" episode of the 1996 The Incredible Hulk series. The Fantastic Four also appeared in the 2010 series The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes.

There was a short-lived radio show in 1975 that adapted early Lee/Kirby stories and is notable for casting a pre-Saturday Night Live Bill Murray as the Human Torch. Also in the cast were Bob Maxwell as Reed Richards, Cynthia Adler as Sue Storm, Jim Pappas as Ben Grimm and Jerry Terheyden as Doctor Doom. Other Marvel characters featured in the series included Ant-Man, Prince Namor, Nick Fury and the Hulk. Stan Lee narrated the series and the scripts were taken almost verbatim from the comic books. The radio show was packaged into five-minute segments, with five segments comprising a complete adventure. The team appeared on the Power Records album Fantastic Four: "The Way It Began" book and record set, an audio dramatization of Fantastic Four #126.

The Fantastic Four has been the subject of four animated television series. The first, Fantastic Four, produced by Hanna-Barbera, ran 20 episodes on ABC from September 9, 1967 to September 21, 1968. The second Fantastic Four series, produced by DePatie-Freleng, ran 13 episodes from September 9, 1978, to December 16, 1978; this series features a H.E.R.B.I.E. Unit in place of the Human Torch.

In 1979, the Thing was featured as half of the Saturday morning cartoon Fred and Barney Meet the Thing. The character of the Thing received a radical make-over for the series. The title character for this program was Benjy Grimm, a teenage boy who possessed a pair of magic Thing-rings which could transform him into the Thing when he put them together and said "Thing-ring, do your thing!" The other members of the Fantastic Four do not appear in the series, nor do the animated The Flintstones stars Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble, despite the title of the program. The thirdFantastic Four was broadcast as part of The Marvel Action Hour umbrella, with introductions by Stan Lee. This series ran 26 episodes from September 24, 1994 to February 24, 1996. The fourth series, Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes, debuted on September 2, 2006, on Cartoon Network and ran for 26 episodes.

Different Fantastic Four members appear briefly and with little or no dialogue and are mentioned various times throughout the first season of The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. The most expansive appearances are in the episode "The Private War of Doctor Doom", in which the Avengers team up with the Fantastic Four to battle the titular supervillain, and in the final episode of season two, in which the groups team up to battle Galactus. The Thing becomes a member of the New Avengers in episode 23 of season 2.

The Fantastic Four appear in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Monster No More." The Agents of S.M.A.S.H. assist the Fantastic Four in thwarting the Tribbitite Invasion.

A film adaptation of the characters, The Fantastic Four, was completed in 1994 by producer Roger Corman. The film was not released to theaters or on home video, but it has since been made available through bootleg video distributors. It was made because Constantin Film owned the film rights and would have lost them if it failed to begin production by a certain deadline, a tactic known as creating an ashcan copy. According to producer Bernd Eichinger, Avi Arad had Marvel purchase the film for a few million dollars.

In 2005, the second film adaptation, Fantastic Four directed by Tim Story, was released by 20th Century Fox. Despite mixed reviews from critics, it earned US$155 million in North America and $330 million worldwide. The sequel, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, directed by Story and written by Don Payne, was released in 2007. Despite mixed-to-negative reviews, the sequel earned $132 million in North America and a total of $330.6 million worldwide. Both films feature Ioan Gruffudd as Reed Richards / Mr. Fantastic, Jessica Alba as Susan Storm / Invisible Woman, Chris Evans as Johnny Storm / Human Torch, Michael Chiklis as Ben Grimm / The Thing, and Julian McMahon as Victor Von Doom / Dr. Doom. Stan Lee makes cameo appearances as the mailman Willie Lumpkin in the first film and as himself in the second film.

A reboot directed by Josh Trank (also titled Fantastic Four, but stylized as Fant4stic) was released on August 7, 2015. The film stars Miles Teller as Reed Richards, Kate Mara as Sue Storm, Michael B. Jordan as Johnny Storm, Jamie Bell as Ben Grimm and Toby Kebbell as Doctor Doom. It is based on Ultimate Fantastic Four. It earned poor reviews and box office results. On March 20, 2019, due to the acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, the film rights of Fantastic Four reverted to Marvel Studios.

In July 2019 at the San Diego Comic Con, producer and head of Marvel Studios Kevin Feige, announced that a Fantastic Four film set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe is in development.

In 1985, the Fantastic Four starred in Questprobe #3 The Fantastic Four, an adventure game from Adventure International for the Atari 8-bit series. In 1997, the group starred in the Fantastic Four video game. The team appeared in the Spider-Man: The Animated Series video game, based on the 1990s Spider-Man animated series, for the Super NES and Sega Genesis. The Thing and the Human Torch appeared in the 2005 game Marvel Nemesis: Rise of the Imperfects.

All of the Fantastic Four appear as playable characters in the game Marvel: Ultimate Alliance with Doctor Doom being the main enemy. The members of the Fantastic Four are also featured in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, although the team is separated over the course of the game, with Mister Fantastic being 'locked' into the Pro-Registration side of the game's storyline and the Thing briefly becoming unavailable to the player - just as he left America in protest of the war - until he returns to assist in preventing civilian casualties during the conflict.The Fantastic Four will also return in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order this time as playable DLC (downloadable content) alongside additional members of Marvel Knights and the X-Men.

The Human Torch has an appearance in a mini-game where the player races against him in all versions of Ultimate Spider-Man, except on the Game Boy Advance platform. The Fantastic Four star in tie-in videogames based on the 2005 film Fantastic Four, and its sequel.The Fantastic Four are also playable characters in Marvel Heroes, and Lego Marvel Super Heroes.

The Fantastic Four starred in their own virtual pinball game Fantastic Four for Pinball FX 2 released by Zen Studios.

1. That DC all-star superhero team had debuted in ^ The Brave and the Bold #28 (cover-dated Feb. 1960) before going on to its own hit title (issue #1 cover-dated Nov. 1960).

2. Uslan, in a letter published in ^ Alter Ego #43 (December 2004), pp. 43-44, writes: "Irwin Donenfeld said he never played golf with Goodman, so the story is untrue. I heard this story more than a couple of times while sitting in the lunchroom at DC's 909 Third Avenue and 75 Rockefeller Plaza office as Sol Harrison and [production chief] Jack Adler were schmoozing with some of us... who worked for DC during our college summers.... [T]he way I heard the story from Sol was that Goodman was playing with one of the heads of Independent News, not DC Comics (though DC owned Independent News). ... As the distributor of DC Comics, this man certainly knew all the sales figures and was in the best position to tell this tidbit to Goodman. ... Of course, Goodman would want to be playing golf with this fellow and be in his good graces. ... Sol worked closely with Independent News' top management over the decades and would have gotten this story straight from the horse's mouth."

3. ^ Lee, Stan (September 1974). Origins of Marvel Comics. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster/Fireside Books. ISBN 978-0-671-21863-8. [My wife] Joan was commenting about the fact that after 20 years of producing comics I was still writing television material, advertising copy and newspaper features in my spare time. She wondered why I didn't put as much effort and creativity into the comics as I seemed to be putting into my other freelance endeavors. ...[H]er little dissertation made me suddenly realize that it was time to start concentrating on what I was doing - to carve a real career for myself in the nowhere world of comic books.

4. ^ Groth explains in his 2002 introduction to the interview that Kirby's state of mind needs to be taken into consideration when evaluating certain statements within the interview. Kirby was involved in an acrimonious dispute with Marvel Comics regarding the return of his artwork, and his relationship with Lee had deteriorated, in part due to this dispute but also due to Lee's public statements through the years, which Kirby saw as diminishing his role. Groth states: "Lee's contribution is a matter for endless speculation, but most observers and historians consider Kirby's claims here to be excessive."

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The Fantastic Four are a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The group debuted in Fantastic Four #1 ( cover dated Nov. 1961), which helped to usher in a new level of realism in the medium.

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Bruce Banner
Hulk

Publisher
Marvel Comics

First appearance

The Incredible Hulk #1 (May 1962)

Created by
Stan Lee
Jack Kirby

Full name

Species

Human mutate[a]

Team affiliations
Avengers
Defenders
Horsemen of Apocalypse
Fantastic Four[2]
Pantheon
Warbound
S.M.A.S.H.
Secret Avengers

Partnerships
She-Hulk

Notable aliases

Joe Fixit, World-Breaker, Immortal Hulk/Devil Hulk, Jade Giant, Jade Jaws,[3] Doc Green, Guilt Hulk/Guilt, War

Abilities

As Bruce Banner/Doc Green:

Genius level intellect

Proficient scientist and engineer

As Hulk/Joe Fixit:

Superhuman strength, speed, stamina, and durability

Anger empowerment

Regeneration

Shockwave generation

Gamma ray emission and manipulation

The Hulk is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in the debut issue of The Incredible Hulk (May 1962). In his comic book appearances, the character, who has dissociative identity disorder (DID), is primarily represented by the alter ego Hulk, a green-skinned, hulking and muscular humanoid possessing a limitless degree of physical strength, and the alter ego Dr. Robert Bruce Banner, a physically weak, socially withdrawn, and emotionally reserved physicist, both of whom typically resent each other.

Following his accidental exposure to gamma rays while saving the life of Rick Jones during the detonation of an experimental bomb, Banner is physically transformed into the Hulk when subjected to emotional stress, at or against his will. This transformation often leads to destructive rampages and to conflicts that complicate Banner's civilian life. The Hulk's level of strength is normally conveyed as proportionate to his level of anger. Commonly portrayed as a raging savage, the Hulk has been represented with other alter egos, from a mindless, destructive force ( War), to a brilliant warrior ( World-Breaker), a self-hating protector (the Devil/Immortal), a genius scientist in his own right ( Doc Green), and a gangster ( Joe Fixit).

Despite both Hulk and Banner's desire for solitude, the character has a large supporting cast. This includes Banner's love interest Betty Ross, his best friend Rick Jones, his cousin She-Hulk, and therapist and ally Doc Samson. In addition, the Hulk alter ego has many key supporting characters, like his co-founders of the superhero team the Avengers, his queen Caiera, fellow warriors Korg and Miek, and sons Skaar and Hiro-Kala. However, his uncontrollable power has brought him into conflict with his fellow heroes and others. Despite this, he tries his best to do what's right while battling villains such as the Leader, the Abomination, the Absorbing Man, and more.

Lee stated that the Hulk's creation was inspired by a combination of Frankenstein and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Although the Hulk's coloration has varied throughout the character's publication history, the most usual color is green.

One of the most iconic characters in popular culture, the character has appeared on a variety of merchandise, such as clothing and collectable items, inspired real-world structures (such as theme park attractions), and been referenced in a number of media. Banner and the Hulk have been adapted in live-action, animated, and video game incarnations. The character was first played in live-action by Bill Bixby and Lou Ferrigno in the 1978 television series The Incredible Hulk and its subsequent television films The Incredible Hulk Returns (1988), The Trial of the Incredible Hulk (1989), and The Death of the Incredible Hulk (1990). In film, the character was played by Eric Bana in 2003's (2003). In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), the character was first portrayed by Edward Norton in the film The Incredible Hulk (2008) and then by Mark Ruffalo in later appearances in the franchise.

Publication history

Concept and creation

The Hulk first appeared in The Incredible Hulk #1 ( cover dated May 1962), written by writer-editor Stan Lee, penciled and co-plotted by Jack Kirby, and inked by Paul Reinman. Lee cites influence from Frankenstein and Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in the Hulk's creation:

It was patently apparent that [the monstrous character the] Thing was the most popular character in [Marvel's recently created superhero team the] Fantastic Four. ... For a long time, I'd been aware of the fact that people were more likely to favor someone who was less than perfect. ... It's a safe bet that you remember Quasimodo, but how easily can you name any of the heroic, handsomer, more glamorous characters in The Hunchback of Notre Dame? And then there's Frankenstein ... I've always had a soft spot in my heart for the Frankenstein monster. No one could ever convince me that he was the bad guy. ... He never wanted to hurt anyone; he merely groped his torturous way through a second life trying to defend himself, trying to come to terms with those who sought to destroy him. ... I decided I might as well borrow from Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde as well-our protagonist would constantly change from his normal identity to his superhuman alter ego and back again.

Hulk comic logo

Kirby, commenting upon his influences in drawing the character, recalled as inspiration witnessing in person the hysterical strength of a mother lifting a car off her trapped child.

Lee has also compared Hulk to the Golem of Jewish mythology. In The Science of Superheroes, Gresh and Weinberg see the Hulk as a reaction to the Cold War and the threat of nuclear attack, an interpretation shared by Weinstein in Up, Up and Oy Vey. This interpretation corresponds with other popularized fictional media created during this time period, which took advantage of the prevailing sense among Americans that nuclear power could produce monsters and mutants.

In the debut, Lee chose grey for the Hulk because he wanted a color that did not suggest any particular ethnic group. Colorist Stan Goldberg, however, had problems with the grey coloring, resulting in different shades of grey, and even green, in the issue. After seeing the first published issue, Lee chose to change the skin color to green. Green was used in retellings of the origin, with even reprints of the original story being recolored for the next two decades, until The Incredible Hulk vol. 2, #302 (December 1984) reintroduced the grey Hulk in flashbacks set close to the origin story. An exception is the early trade paperback, Origins of Marvel Comics, from 1974, which explains the difficulties in keeping the grey color consistent in a Stan Lee-written prologue, and reprints the origin story keeping the grey coloration. Since December 1984, reprints of the first issue have displayed the original grey coloring, with the fictional canon specifying that the Hulk's skin had initially been grey.

Lee gave the Hulk's alter ego the alliterative name "Bruce Banner" because he found he had less difficulty remembering alliterative names. Despite this, in later stories he misremembered the character's name and referred to him as " Bob Banner", an error which readers quickly picked up on. The discrepancy was resolved by giving the character the official full name " Robert Bruce Banner."

Series history

The Hulk's original series was canceled with issue #6 (March 1963). Lee had written each story, with Kirby penciling the first five issues and Steve Ditko penciling and inking the sixth. The character immediately guest-starred in The Fantastic Four #12 (March 1963), and months later became a founding member of the superhero team the Avengers, appearing in the first two issues of the team's eponymous series (Sept. and Nov. 1963), and returning as an antagonist in issue #3 and as an ally in #5 (Jan.-May 1964). He then guest-starred in Fantastic Four #25-26 (April-May 1964), which revealed Banner's full name as Robert Bruce Banner, and The Amazing Spider-Man #14 (July 1964).

The Incredible Hulk #1 (May 1962). Cover art by Jack Kirby and Paul Reinman.

Around this time, co-creator Kirby received a letter from a college dormitory stating the Hulk had been chosen as its official mascot. Kirby and Lee realized their character had found an audience in college-age readers.

A year and a half after The Incredible Hulk was canceled, the Hulk became one of two features in Tales to Astonish, beginning in issue #60 (Oct. 1964).

This new Hulk feature was initially scripted by Lee, with pencils by Steve Ditko and inks by George Roussos. Other artists later in this run included Jack Kirby (#68-87, June 1965 - Oct. 1966); Gil Kane (credited as "Scott Edwards", #76, (Feb. 1966)); Bill Everett (#78-84, April-Oct. 1966); John Buscema (#85-87); and Marie Severin. The Tales to Astonish run introduced the super-villains the Leader, who would become the Hulk's nemesis, and the Abomination, another gamma-irradiated being. Marie Severin finished out the Hulk's run in Tales to Astonish. Beginning with issue #102 (April 1968) the book was retitled The Incredible Hulk vol. 2, and ran until 1999, when Marvel canceled the series and launched Hulk #1. Marvel filed for a trademark for "The Incredible Hulk" in 1967, and the United States Patent and Trademark Office issued the registration in 1970.

Len Wein wrote the series from 1974 through 1978, working first with Herb Trimpe, then, as of issue #194 (December 1975), with Sal Buscema, who was the regular artist for ten years. Issues #180-181 (Oct.-Nov. 1974) introduced Wolverine as an antagonist, who would go on to become one of Marvel Comics' most popular characters. In 1977, Marvel launched a second title, The Rampaging Hulk, a black-and-white comics magazine. This was originally conceived as a flashback series, set between the end of his original, short-lived solo title and the beginning of his feature in Tales to Astonish. After nine issues, the magazine was retitled The Hulk! and printed in color.

In 1977, two Hulk television films were aired to strong ratings, leading to an Incredible Hulk TV series that aired from 1978 to 1982. A huge ratings success, the series introduced the popular Hulk catchphrase "Don't make me angry. You wouldn't like me when I'm angry", and broadened the character's popularity from a niche comic book readership into the mainstream consciousness.

Bill Mantlo became the series' writer for five years beginning with issue #245 (March 1980). Mantlo's "Crossroads of Eternity" stories (#300-313 (Oct. 1984 - Nov. 1985)) explored the idea that Banner had suffered child abuse. Later Hulk writers Peter David and Greg Pak have called these stories an influence on their approaches to the character. Mantlo left the series for Alpha Flight and that series' writer John Byrne took over The Incredible Hulk. The final issue of Byrne's six issue run featured the wedding of Bruce Banner and Betty Ross. Writer Peter David began a 12-year run with issue #331 (May 1987). He returned to the Roger Stern and Mantlo abuse storylines, expanding the damage caused, and depicting Banner as suffering dissociative identity disorder (DID).

In 1998, David killed off Banner's long-time love Betty Ross. Marvel executives used Ross' death as an opportunity to pursue the return of the Savage Hulk. David disagreed, leading to his parting ways with Marvel. Also in 1998, Marvel relaunched The Rampaging Hulk as a standard comic book rather than as a comics magazine. The Incredible Hulk was again cancelled with issue #474 of its second volume in March 1999 and was replaced with a new series, Hulk the following month, with returning writer Byrne and art by Ron Garney. New series writer Paul Jenkins developed the Hulk's multiple dissociative identities, and his run was followed by Bruce Jones with his run featuring Banner being pursued by a secret conspiracy and aided by the mysterious Mr. Blue. Jones appended his 43-issue Incredible Hulk run with the limited series Hulk/Thing: Hard Knocks #1-4 (Nov. 2004 - Feb. 2005), which Marvel published after putting the ongoing series on hiatus. Peter David, who had initially signed a contract for the six-issue Tempest Fugit limited series, returned as writer when it was decided to make that story the first five parts of the revived (vol. 3). After a four-part tie-in to the " House of M" storyline and a one-issue epilogue, David left the series once more, citing the need to do non-Hulk work for the sake of his career.

Writer Greg Pak took over the series in 2006, leading the Hulk through several crossover storylines including " Planet Hulk" and " World War Hulk", which left the Hulk temporarily incapacitated and replaced as the series' title character by the demigod Hercules in the retitled The Incredible Hercules (Feb. 2008). The Hulk returned periodically in Hulk, which then starred the new Red Hulk. In September 2009, The Incredible Hulk was relaunched as The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #600. The series was retitled The Incredible Hulks with issue #612 (Nov. 2010) to encompass the Hulk's expanded family, and ran until issue #635 (Oct. 2011) when it was replaced with The Incredible Hulk (vol. 3) (15 issues, Dec. 2011 - Dec. 2012) written by Jason Aaron with art by Marc Silvestri. As part of Marvel's 2012 Marvel NOW! relaunch, a series called Indestructible Hulk (Nov. 2012) debuted under the creative team of Mark Waid and Leinil Yu. This series was replaced in 2014 with The Hulk by Waid and artist Mark Bagley.

A new series titled The Immortal Hulk, written by Al Ewing and drawn by Joe Bennett, was launched in 2018 and ran for 50 issues. The series had a spin-off one-shot Immortal She-Hulk and a spin-off series about Gamma Flight in June 2021.

In November 2021, Donny Cates became the new writer of Hulk, with Ryan Ottley joining as artist. In May 2022, the series did a crossover with the Thor series, also written by Cates, entitled Hulk vs Thor: Banner of War. The series ran for 14 issues, with Ottley taking over as writer for the last 4 issues afters Cates left the book.

In March 2023, it was announced that a new volume of The Incredible Hulk would launch in June 2023, written by Philip Kennedy Johnson and drawn by Nic Klein.

Fictional character biography

Hulk, as he appeared on a pin-up from the comic book issue Fantastic Four Annual #1 (July 1963). Art by the character's co-creator Jack Kirby.

During the experimental detonation of a gamma bomb, scientist Robert Bruce Banner saves teenager Rick Jones who has dared onto the testing field; Banner pushes Jones into a trench to save him, but is hit with the blast, absorbing massive amounts of gamma radiation. He awakens later seemingly unscathed, but that night transforms into a lumbering grey form. A pursuing soldier dubs the creature a "hulk". Originally, it was believed that Banner's transformations into the Hulk were caused by sunset and undone at sunrise, but later, after Rick witnessed Banner turn into Hulk at daytime following a failed attempt by Ross' men to shoot the Hulk into space, it was discovered to be caused by anger. Banner was cured in The Incredible Hulk #4, but chose to restore Hulk's powers with Banner's intelligence. The gamma-ray machine needed to affect the transformation-induced side effects that made Banner temporarily sick and weak when returned to his normal state.

In The Avengers #1 (September 1963), the Hulk became a founding member of the title's eponymous superhero team. By The Avengers #3, overuse of the gamma-ray machine rendered the Hulk as an uncontrollable, rampaging monster, subject to spontaneous changing. In Tales to Astonish #59 (September 1964) the Hulk appeared as an antagonist for Giant-Man. The series established stress as the trigger for Banner turning into the Hulk and vice versa. It was during this time that the Hulk developed a more savage and childlike identity, shifting away from his original portrayal as a brutish but not entirely unintelligent figure. Also, his memory, both long-term and short-term, would now become markedly impaired in his Hulk state. Tales to Astonish #64 (February 1965) was the last Hulk story to feature him speaking in complete sentences. In Tales to Astonish #77 (March 1966), Banner's and the Hulk's dual identity became publicly known when Rick Jones, mistakenly convinced that Banner was dead (when he actually had been catapulted into the future), told Major Glenn Talbot, a rival to Banner for the affections of Betsy Ross, the truth. Consequently, Glenn informed his superiors and that turned Banner into a wanted fugitive upon returning to the present.

The 1970s saw Banner and Betty nearly marry in The Incredible Hulk #124 (February 1970). Betty ultimately married Talbot in issue #158 (Dec. 1972). The Hulk also traveled to other dimensions, one of which had him meet empress Jarella, who used magic to bring Banner's intelligence to the Hulk, and came to love him. The Hulk helped to form the Defenders.

In the 1980s, Banner once again gained control over the Hulk, and gained amnesty for his past rampages; however, due to the manipulations of supernatural character Nightmare, Banner eventually lost control over the Hulk. It was also established that Banner had serious mental problems even before he became the Hulk, having suffered childhood traumas that engendered Bruce's repressed rage. Banner comes to terms with his issues for a time, and the Hulk and Banner were physically separated by Doc Samson. Banner is recruited by the U.S. government to create the Hulkbusters, a government team dedicated to catching the Hulk. Banner finally married Betty in The Incredible Hulk #319 (May 1986) following Talbot's death in 1981. Banner and the Hulk were reunited in The Incredible Hulk #323 (Sep. 1986) and with issue #324, returned the Hulk to his grey coloration, with his transformations once again occurring at night, regardless of Banner's emotional state. In issue #347 the grey Hulk persona "Joe Fixit" was introduced, a morally ambiguous Las Vegas enforcer and tough guy. Banner remained repressed in the Hulk's mind for months, but slowly began to reappear.

The 1990s saw the Green Hulk return. In issue #377 (Jan. 1991), the Hulk was revamped in a storyline that saw the various dissociative identities of Banner, Fixit, and Savage confront Banner's past abuse at the hands of his father Brian and a new " Guilt" identity. Overcoming the trauma, the intelligent Banner, cunning Fixit, and powerful Savage identities merge into a new single entity possessing the traits of all three. The Hulk also joined the Pantheon, a secretive organization of superpowered individuals. His tenure with the organization brought the Hulk into conflict with a tyrannical alternate future version of himself called the Maestro in the 1993 Future Imperfect miniseries, who rules over a world where many heroes are dead.

In 2000, Banner and the three Hulks (Savage, Fixit, and the "Merged Hulk", now considered a separate identity and referred to as the Professor) become able to mentally interact with one another, each identity taking over the shared body as Banner began to weaken due to his suffering from Lou Gehrig's disease. During this, the four identities (including Banner) confronted yet another submerged identity, a sadistic "Devil" intent on attacking the world and attempting to break out of Banner's fracturing psyche, but the Devil was eventually locked away again when the Leader was able to devise a cure for the disease using genes taken from the corpse of Brian Banner. In 2005, it is revealed that the Nightmare has manipulated the Hulk for years, and it is implied that some or all of the Hulk's adventures written by Bruce Jones may have been just an illusion.

In 2006, the Illuminati decide the Hulk is too dangerous to remain on Earth and send him away by rocket ship which crashes on Planet Sakaar ushering in the " Planet Hulk" storyline that saw the Hulk find allies in the Warbound, and marry alien queen Caiera, a relationship that was later revealed to have born him two sons: Skaar and Hiro-Kala. After the Illuminati's ship explodes and kills Caiera, the Hulk returns to Earth with his superhero group Warbound and declares war on the planet in World War Hulk (2007). However, after learning that Miek, one of the Warbound, had actually been responsible for the destruction, the Hulk allows himself to be defeated, with Banner subsequently redeeming himself as a hero as he works with and against the new Red Hulk to defeat the new supervillain team the Intelligencia.

In the 2010s, Hiro-Kala traveled to Earth to destroy the OldStrong Power wielded by Skaar, forcing Skaar and the Hulk to defeat and imprison him within his home planet.

During the 2011 Fear Itself storyline, the Hulk finds one of the Serpent's magical hammers associated with the Worthy and becomes Nul: Breaker of Worlds. As he starts to transform, the Hulk tells the Red She-Hulk to run far away from him. Rampaging through South and Central America, Nul was eventually transported to New York City where he began battling Thor, with aid of the Thing, who was transformed into Angrir: Breaker of Souls. After defeating the Thing, Thor stated that he never could beat the Hulk, and instead removed him from the battle by launching him into Earth orbit, after which Thor collapsed from exhaustion. Landing in Romania, Nul immediately began heading for the base of the vampire-king Dracula. Opposed by Dracula's forces, including a legion of monsters, Nul was seemingly unstoppable. Only after the intervention of Raizo Kodo's Forgiven was Nul briefly slowed. Ultimately, Nul makes his way to Dracula's castle where the timely arrival of Kodo and Forgiven member Inka, disguised as Betty Ross, is able to throw off the effects of the Nul possession. Throwing aside the hammer, the Hulk regains control, and promptly leaves upon realizing "Betty's" true nature.

With the crisis concluded, the Hulk contacted Doctor Doom for help separating him and Banner for good in return for an unspecified favor. Doom proceeded to perform brain surgery on the Hulk, extracting the uniquely Banner elements from the Hulk's brain and cloning a new body for Banner. When Doctor Doom demands to keep Banner for his own purposes, the Hulk reneges on the deal and flees with Banner's body, leaving his alter ego in the desert where he was created to ensure that Doctor Doom cannot use Banner's intellect. When Banner goes insane due to his separation from the Hulk, irradiating an entire tropical island trying to recreate his transformation- something he cannot do as the cloned body lacks the genetic elements of Banner that allowed him to process the gamma radiation- the Hulk is forced to destroy his other side by letting him be disintegrated by a gamma bomb, prompting the Hulk to accuse Doom of tampering with Banner's mind, only for Doom to observe that what was witnessed was simply Banner without the Hulk to use as a scapegoat for his problems. Initially assuming that Banner is dead, the Hulk soon realizes that Banner was somehow "re-combined" with him when the gamma bomb disintegrated Banner's body, resulting in the Hulk finding himself waking up in various strange locations, including helping the Punisher confront a drug cartel run by a mutated dog, hunting sasquatches with Kraven the Hunter, and being forced to face Wolverine and the Thing in an old SHIELD base. Banner eventually leaves a video message for the Hulk in which he apologizes for his actions while they were separate, having come to recognize that he is a better person with the Hulk than without, the two joining forces to thwart the Doombots' attempt to use the animals on Banner's irradiated island as the basis for a new gamma army using a one-of-a-kind gamma cure Banner had created to turn all the animals back to normal. Following this, Bruce willingly joined the spy organization S.H.I.E.L.D., allowing them to use the Hulk as a weapon in exchange for providing him with the means and funding to create a lasting legacy for himself.

During the 2014 " Original Sin" storyline, Bruce Banner confronted by the eye of the murdered Uatu the Watcher. Bruce temporarily experienced some of Tony Stark's memories of their first meeting before either of them became the Hulk or Iron Man. During this vision, Bruce witnessed Tony modifying the gamma bomb to be more effective prompting Bruce to realize that Tony was essentially responsible for him becoming the Hulk in the first place. Subsequent research reveals that Tony's tampering had actually refined the bomb's explosive potential so that it would not disintegrate everyone within the blast radius, with the result that Tony's actions had actually saved Bruce's life.

In the 2014 " AXIS" storyline, when a mistake made by the Scarlet Witch causes various heroes and villains to experience a moral inversion, Bruce Banner attended a meeting between Nick Fury Jr. and Maria Hill of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the Avengers who refused to turn over Red Skull. Later when he sided with Edwin Jarvis and tried to prevent his teammates from executing the Red Skull, the Hulk was thrown aside by Luke Cage. The Hulk's sorrow at his friends' betrayal awakened a new persona known as the bloodthirsty Kluh (described as the Hulk's Hulk, being the ruthless part of himself that even the Hulk repressed) with this new version easily defeating the Avengers, sneering that the Hulk they knew was nothing more than a "sad piece of 'Doc Green's' ID." Kluh then leaves to wreak havoc, with Nova attempting to stop him after witnessing his rampage with the remaining good heroes. As with the other inverted Avengers and X-Men, Kluh was restored to Hulk when Brother Voodoo was summoned back to life by Doctor Doom so that Daniel Drumm's ghost can possess the Scarlet Witch and undo the inversion.

With his newfound intellect, Doc Green came to the conclusion that the world was in danger by Gamma Mutates and thus needed to be depowered. He developed a serum made from Adamantium nanobites that absorbed gamma energy. He used these to depower Red Leader, Red She-Hulk, Red Hulk, Skaar, Gamma Corps, and A-Bomb, but decided to 'spare' She-Hulk as he concluded that she was the one gamma mutation whose life had been legitimately improved by her mutation. At the close of the storyline, Doc Green discovered that he was beginning to disappear as the result of the Extremis serum wearing off. He ultimately allowed himself to fade away, returning to his normal Hulk form, as he feared that remaining at his current intellectual level would lead to him becoming the Maestro.

As part of the 2015-2018 All-New, All-Different Marvel branding, Amadeus Cho becomes the new Hulk. Flashbacks reveal that the Hulk had absorbed a dangerous new type of radiation while helping Iron Man and the Black Panther deal with a massive accident on Kiber Island. Fearing the Hulk's meltdown would kill countless innocents, Cho was able to use special nanites to absorb the Hulk from Banner and take it into himself to become his own version of the Hulk, leaving Banner normal and free from the Hulk. He is then rescued from a bar fight by Amadeus, who tells him that he is cured. Having confirmed that he can no longer transform or sense the Hulk, Bruce spends some time traveling across America taking various risks such as driving at high speeds, running away from a bear, or gambling in Las Vegas, until he is confronted by Tony Stark out of concern that Bruce has a death wish. Bruce instead acknowledges that he still harbors guilt and rage over how so many of the Hulk's rampages were provoked by various agencies refusing to leave him alone.

During the 2016 " Civil War II" storyline, the vision of the Inhuman Ulysses shows a rampaging Hulk standing over the corpses of the superheroes. Meanwhile, Bruce Banner is shown to have set up a laboratory in Alpine, Utah, where he is approached by Captain Marvel, followed by Tony Stark, the rest of the Avengers, the X-Men, and the Inhumans. The confrontation leads to the Beast hacking into Banner's work servers and the revelation that he had been injecting himself with dead gamma-irradiated cells. S.H.I.E.L.D. Director Maria Hill places him under arrest. Banner gets infuriated at all these events, when suddenly, Hawkeye shoots Banner with an arrow to the head and then to the heart, killing him, much to the dismay and horror of the superheroes, especially Tony Stark. At an Avengers-presided tribunal, Hawkeye states that Bruce Banner had approached him and ordered him to kill him if he ever showed signs of turning into the Hulk again. At the funeral, Korg of the Warbound stated how Hulk wanted to be left alone and how his allies that he made along the way have become his family. In his video will, Bruce leaves various items to other heroes and his allies including leaving Doctor Strange his notes on the Hulk's ability to perceive ghosts and an egg-timer for the various former/current other Hulks (based on one of Bruce's more successful attempts to control himself as he would sit down for three minutes doing nothing before making a particularly big decision and then decide if he still wanted to do it).

Following the funeral of Bruce Banner, the Hand in allegiance with Daniel Drumm's ghost steal Bruce Banner's body in order to use the dead to bolster their ranks. When the reassembled Uncanny Avengers went to Japan and attempted to enlist Elektra for help in stopping the Hand, the ritual that the Hand performed has been completed as the Uncanny Avengers are attacked by a revived Hulk who is wearing samurai armor. The Uncanny Avengers were able to contain Hulk's rampage and sever his mystical link to the Beast of the Hand. Afterward, Hulk regressed back to Bruce Banner and returned to the dead.

During the 2017 " Secret Empire" storyline, Arnim Zola used an unknown method to temporarily revive Bruce Banner, and the Hydra Supreme version of Captain America persuades his Hulk side to attack the Underground's hideout called the Vault. He fought Thing and Giant-Man's A.I.Vengers until the temporary revival started to wear off and caused Hulk to die again.

During the "No Surrender" arc, the exiled Elder of the Universe Challenger revives Hulk to be his ace in the hole during a contest between his Black Order and Grandmaster's Lethal Legion. Hulk participated since he knew that Earth will be destroyed either way while his Bruce Banner suspects that Hulk's revivals were a manifestation of Hulk's immortality. While defeating Cannonball and Living Lightning, breaking Vision, and draining the gamma energy out of Robert Maverick's Hulk Plug-In, Wonder Man successfully reasoned with him as Hulk destroyed the Pyarmoid in Voyager's possession. After feeling remorse for what happened, Bruce Banner became Hulk and faced off against Challenger. After Challenger sent Hulk into Earth's orbit, Hulk was pleased that he managed to hurt Challenger.

While maintaining a low profile, Bruce Banner was shot by Tommy Hill of the Dogs of Hell biker gang during a robbery that also claimed the lives of Sandy Brockhurst and Josh Alfaro. He came back to life and turned into Hulk where he badly beat up Tommy Hill. The witnesses in the Dogs of Hell told Detective Gloria Mayes of the attacker as she and reporter Jackie McGee have a suspicion that it was Hulk even though Banner is believed to be dead.

During the events of " Absolute Carnage", the Venom Symbiote takes Bruce as its host to fight Carnage. Inside of Bruce's mind, Bruce converses with the Venom Symbiote as the other Hulk identities such as Joe Fixit and Savage add their opinions about their current situation. Devil (in his more traditional-looking reptilian form) is against the symbiote's presence in Bruce and says it should be removed immediately, saying they have more important matters to deal with. In the end, Bruce, Fixit, and Savage agree to collaborate with the Venom Symbiote and Devil storms off, saying they are making a mistake. As Bruce states that the vote is three to one with two abstentions, he welcomes the Venom symbiote to the family.

Characterization

Like other long-lived characters, the Hulk's character and cultural interpretations have changed with time, adding or modifying character traits. The Hulk is typically seen as a hulking man with green skin, hair, and eyes, wearing only a pair of torn purple pants that survive his physical transformation as the character progressed. As Bruce Banner, the character is about 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m) tall and weighs 128 lbs (58.05 kg), but when transformed into the Hulk, the character stands between 7 and 8 ft (2.13 - 2.43 m) tall and weighs between 1,040 and 1,400 lbs (471.73 - 635.02 kg). The Gray Hulk stands 6 ft 6 in (1.98 m) tall and weighs 900 lbs (408.23 kg); the Merged Hulk stands 7 ft 6 in (2.28 m) tall and weighs 1,150 lbs (521.63 kg); the Green Scar stands 8 ft 8 in (2.64 m) tall and weighs 2,400 lbs (1.08 ton). The Immortal Hulk is roughly the same size as Sasquatch, standing around 9 or 10 ft (2.74 / 3.04 m) tall and weighing roughly 2,000 lbs (907.18 kg). Following his debut, Banner's transformations were triggered at nightfall, turning him into a grey-skinned Hulk. In Incredible Hulk #2, the Hulk started to appear with green skin, and in Avengers #3 (1963) Banner realized that his transformations were now triggered by surges of adrenaline in response to feelings of fear, pain or anger. Incredible Hulk #227 (1978) established that the Hulk's separate identity was not due to the mutation affecting his brain, but because Banner was suffering from dissociative identity disorder, with the savage Green Hulk representing Banner's repressed childhood rage and aggression, and the Grey Hulk representing Banner's repressed selfish desires and urges.

Identities

Bruce Banner

During his decades of publication, Banner has been portrayed differently, but common themes persist. Banner, a physicist who earned his Ph.D. in nuclear physics from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), is sarcastic and seemingly very self-assured when he first appears in Incredible Hulk #1, but is also emotionally withdrawn. Banner designed the gamma bomb that caused his affliction, and the ironic twist of his self-inflicted fate has been one of the most persistent common themes. Arie Kaplan describes the character thus: "Robert Bruce Banner lives in a constant state of panic, always wary that the monster inside him will erupt, and therefore he cannot form meaningful bonds with anyone." As a child, Banner's father Brian often got mad and physically abused both Banner and his mother, creating the psychological complex of fear, anger, and the fear of anger and the destruction it can cause that underlies the character. Banner has been shown to be emotionally repressed, but capable of deep love for Betty Ross, and for solving problems posed to him. Under the writing of Paul Jenkins, Banner was shown to be a capable fugitive, applying deductive reasoning and observation to figure out the events transpiring around him. On the occasions that Banner controlled the Hulk's body, he applied principles of physics to problems and challenges and used deductive reasoning. It was shown after his ability to turn into the Hulk was taken away by the red Hulk that Banner has been extremely versatile as well as cunning when dealing with the many situations that followed. When he was briefly separated from the Hulk by Doom, Banner became criminally insane, driven by his desire to regain the power of the Hulk, but once the two recombined he came to accept that he was a better person with the Hulk to provide something for him to focus on controlling rather than allowing his intellect to run without restraint against the world.

The traditional Hulk, often called "Savage Hulk", was originally shown as grey and average in intelligence. He roamed aimlessly and became annoyed at "puny" humans who took him for a dangerous monster. Shortly after becoming the Hulk, his transformation continued turning him green, coinciding with him beginning to display primitive speech. By Incredible Hulk #4, radiation treatments gave Banner's mind complete control of the Hulk's body. While Banner relished his indestructibility and power, he was quick to anger and more aggressive in his Hulk form. He became known as a hero alongside the Avengers, but his increasing paranoia caused him to leave the group. He was convinced that he would never be trusted.

Originally, the Hulk was shown as simple-minded and quick to anger. The Hulk generally divorces his identity from Banner's, decrying Banner as "puny Banner." From his earliest stories, the Hulk has been concerned with finding sanctuary and quiet. He is often shown to quickly react emotionally to situations. Grest and Weinberg call Hulk the "dark, primordial side of Banner's psyche." Even in the earliest appearances, Hulk spoke in the third person. Hulk retains a modest intelligence, thinking and talking in full sentences. Lee even gives the Hulk expository dialogue in issue #6, allowing readers to learn just what capabilities Hulk has, when the Hulk says, "But these muscles ain't just for show! All I gotta do is spring up and just keep goin'!" In the 1970s, Hulk was shown as more prone to anger and rage, and less talkative. Writers played with the nature of his transformations, briefly giving Banner control over the change, and the ability to maintain control of his Hulk form. Artistically and conceptually, the character has become progressively more muscular and powerful in the years since his debut.

Originally, Stan Lee wanted the Hulk to be grey. Due to ink problems, Hulk's color was changed to green. This was later changed in the story to indicate that the Grey Hulk and the Savage Hulk are separate dissociative identities or entities fighting for control in Bruce's subconscious. The Grey Hulk incarnation can do the more unscrupulous things that Banner could not bring himself to do, with many sources comparing the Grey Hulk to the moody teenager that Banner never allowed himself to be. While the grey Hulk still had the-madder-he-gets, the-stronger-he-gets part that is similar to the Savage Hulk, it is on a much slower rate. It is said by the Leader that the Grey Hulk is stronger on nights of the new moon and weaker on nights of the full moon. Originally, the night is when Bruce Banner became the Grey Hulk and changed back by dawn. In later comics, willpower or stress would have Banner turn into the Grey Hulk. During one storyline where he was placed under a spell to prevent him turning back into Bruce Banner and publicly presumed dead when he was teleported away from a gamma bomb explosion that destroyed an entire town, the grey Hulk adopted a specific name as Joe Fixit, a security expert for Las Vegas casino owner Michael Berengetti, with the grey Hulk often being referred to as Joe after these events. Joe Fixit later gained the ability to transform into his version of form when in the Below-Place.

Merged Hulk

Convinced that unaided, the Banner, Green Hulk, and Grey Hulk identities would eventually destroy each other, Doc Samson uses hypnosis to merge the three to create a new single identity combining Banner's intelligence with the Grey Hulk's and Banner's attitudes and the Green Hulk's body. This new Merged Hulk, Professor Hulk, or simply The Professor, considered himself cured and began a new life, but the merger was not perfect, and the Hulk sometimes still considered Banner a separate person, and when overcome with rage the Merged Hulk would transform back into Banner's human body while still thinking himself the Hulk. The Merged Hulk is the largest of the three primary Hulk incarnations. While in a calm emotional state, the Merged Hulk is stronger than Savage Hulk when he is calm. Unlike the Savage Hulk and the Grey Hulk, Banner subconsciously installed a type of safeguard within this incarnation. The safeguard is that when the Merged Hulk gets angry, he regresses back to Banner with the mind of the Savage Hulk.

A variation of the Merged Hulk identity takes on the name Doc Green as the result of Extremis fixing Hulk's brain, becoming powerful enough to destroy Tony Stark's mansion with one thunderclap. This form was also known as Omega Hulk. It was theorized by Doc Green that this form was an earlier incarnation of his possible future form Maestro.

The Devil/Immortal

The Devil Hulk or Immortal Hulk, or simply the Devil or Immortal, is the result of the Hulk needing a father figure. While the character's physical appearance varies, he is always depicted as having glowing red eyes and reptilian traits. The new form of the Devil Hulk is the result of Banner and Hulk having been through different deaths and rebirths. This incarnation is articulate, smart, and cunning, and does merciless attacks on those who do harm. Unlike the other Hulk incarnations, the Devil Hulk is content with waiting inside Bruce. If Bruce is injured by sunset, the Devil Hulk will emerge with his transformation being limited to night-time. Thanks to the Devil Hulk side and Banner working together, the Devil Hulk can maintain his form in sunlight.

Other identities

The Gravage Hulk is the result of Banner using the Gamma Projector on himself which merged his Savage Hulk and Grey Hulk identities. This form possesses the raw power of the Savage Hulk and the cunning intellect of the Grey Hulk. While he does not draw on anger to empower him, the Gravage Hulk identity draws on dimensional nexus energies to increase his strength.

The Dark Hulk identity is the result of Hulk being possessed by Shanzar. This form has black skin and is viciously strong.

The is a malevolent representation of Banner's abusive father, Brian Banner, that manifests itself in Banner's childhood memories.

The Green Scar identity is unleashed on Sakaar and is an enraged version of the Gravage Hulk. In addition, he is an expert in armed combat like the use of swords and shields. Green Scar is also a capable leader and an expert strategist.

Kluh is a personality of Hulk who is described as the "Hulk's Hulk". This form sports a white mohawk, black skin, and red lines on him.

Titan is a more monstrous and malicious form of Hulk who stands at 30 ft., has black skin, rock-like spikes on his shoulders, and possesses the ability to shoot lasers from his eyes. This personality was born when it was planted in Hulk by D'Spayre.

Powers and abilities

Bruce Banner

Considered to be one of the greatest scientific minds on Earth, Banner possesses "a mind so brilliant it cannot be measured on any known intelligence test." Norman Osborn estimates that he is the fourth most-intelligent person on Earth. Banner holds expertise in biology, chemistry, engineering, medicine, physiology, and nuclear physics. Using this knowledge, he creates advanced technology dubbed "Bannertech", which is on par with technological development from Tony Stark or Doctor Doom. These technologies include and a teleporter and a force field that can protect him from the attacks of Hulk-level entities.

After becoming a fugitive from the law, Banner is forced to go on the run and over the years learns various skills in order to both survive and remain under radar of those who are hunting him. Banner's most frequent method of travel includes hitchhiking, train hopping or simply just walking as he is unable to travel legally via planes, passenger ships or buses due to being in several travel watchlists. Banner is generally on the move and rarely ever stays in one place for very long and only does so if there's a possibility of curing himself. He will only ever stay in one place for an extended period of time if it provides him with complete solitude and privacy where the Hulk can do little to no harm.

To avoid being tracked, Banner does not use cell phones, debit or credit cards and will only use payphones or cash. He will often use fake identities when staying at motels or working jobs that require identification. Having been on the run for years, Banner can normally tell when he is being followed and will generally make a run for it when he is discovered. Having traveled across the globe, Banner is able to sneak over borders without being detected and can get by, by either knowing or learning the local language. Often traveling light, Banner has little to no possessions that he carries in either a satchel or backpack. Often losing everything he owns after transforming into the Hulk, Banner avoids keeping anything of personal value to him so that he can easily replace the items and clothes that were lost or destroyed.

To support himself financially, Banner will work quick part time jobs and will only accept payments in cash. These jobs have varied from simply working in low pay diners to working as local doctor. Banner's work ethic as well as his vast knowledge and skillset in science, medicine and engineering often help him get hired rather quickly. Unless desperate, Banner will generally avoid jobs that are high stress due to the potential danger of transforming into the Hulk.

During his travels, Banner has developed several different techniques to help suppress or control his transformations when he becomes a little angry or upset. Among the techniques he's learned over the years include meditation and hypnotherapy. While they have helped him to better understand and suppress his transformations, none of techniques Banner has learned have helped him to gain full control over the Hulk.

The Hulk possesses the potential for seemingly limitless physical strength that is influenced by his emotional state, particularly his anger. This has been reflected in the repeated comment "The madder Hulk gets, the stronger Hulk gets." The cosmically powerful entity known as the Beyonder once analyzed the Hulk's physiology, and claimed that the Hulk's potential strength had "no finite element inside." Hulk's strength has been depicted as sometimes limited by Banner's subconscious influence; when Jean Grey psionically "shut Banner off", Hulk became strong enough to overpower and destroy the physical form of the villain Onslaught. Writer Greg Pak described the Worldbreaker Hulk shown during World War Hulk as having a level of physical power where "Hulk was stronger than any mortal-and most immortals-who ever walked the Earth" and depicted the character as powerful enough to completely destroy entire planets. His strength allows him to leap into lower Earth orbit or across continents, and he has displayed superhuman speed. Exposure to radiation has also been shown to make the Hulk stronger. It is unknown how he gains biomass during transformation but it may be linked to the One-Below-All.

His durability, regeneration, and endurance also increase in proportion to his temper. Hulk is resistant to injury or damage, though the degree to which varies between interpretations, but he has withstood the equivalent of solar temperatures, nuclear explosions, and planet-shattering impacts. Despite his remarkable resiliency, continuous barrages of high-caliber gunfire can hinder his movement to some degree while he can be temporarily subdued by intense attacks with chemical weapons such as anesthetic gases, although any interruption of such dosages will allow him to quickly recover. He has been shown to have both regenerative and adaptive healing abilities, including growing tissues to allow him to breathe underwater, surviving unprotected in space for extended periods, and when injured, healing from most wounds within seconds, including, on one occasion, the complete destruction of most of his body mass. His future self, the "Maestro", was even eventually able to recover from being blown to pieces. As an effect, he has an extremely prolonged lifespan.

He also possesses less commonly described powers, including abilities allowing him to "home in" to his place of origin in New Mexico; resist psychic control, or unwilling transformation; grow stronger from radiation or dark magic; punch his way between separate temporal or spatial dimensions; and to see and interact with astral forms. Some of these abilities were in later years explained as being related; his ability to home in on the New Mexico bomb site was due to his latent ability to sense astral forms and spirits, since the bomb site was also the place where the Maestro's skeleton was and the Maestro's spirit was calling out to him in order to absorb his radiation. He is also shown to have a separate memory to Bruce Banner - when Spider-Man has the knowledge of his secret identity erased during Spider-Man: One More Day, the Hulk later asks how Peter is doing, not Spider-Man; upon questioning, he enigmatically states "Banner forgot. But I don't forget."

In the first Hulk comic series, "massive" doses of gamma rays would cause the Hulk to transform back to Banner, although this ability was written out of the character by the 1970s.

Supporting characters

Over the long publication history of the Hulk's adventures, many recurring characters have featured prominently, including his best friend and sidekick Rick Jones, love interest and wife Betty Ross and her father, the often adversarial General "Thunderbolt" Ross. Both Banner and Hulk have families created in their respective personas. Banner is son to Brian, an abusive father who killed Banner's mother while she tried to protect her son from his father's delusional attacks, and cousin to Jennifer Walters, the She-Hulk, who serves as his frequent ally. Banner had a stillborn child with Betty, while the Hulk has two sons with his deceased second wife Caiera Oldstrong, Skaar and Hiro-Kala, and his DNA was used to create a daughter named Lyra with Thundra the warrior woman.

The Fantastic Four #12 (March 1963), featured the Hulk's first battle with the Thing. Although many early Hulk stories involve Ross trying to capture or destroy the Hulk, the main villain is often a radiation-based character, like the Gargoyle or the Leader, along with other foes such as the Toad Men, or Asian warlord General Fang. Ross' daughter Betty loves Banner and criticizes her father for pursuing the Hulk. General Ross' right-hand man, Major Glenn Talbot, also loves Betty and is torn between pursuing Hulk and trying to gain Betty's love more honorably. Rick Jones serves as the Hulk's friend and sidekick in these early tales. The Hulk's archenemies are the Abomination and the Leader. The Abomination is more monstrous-looking, twice as strong as the Hulk at normal levels (however, the Abomination's strength levels do not increase when he gets angry) and wreaks havoc for fun and pleasure. The Leader is a gamma-irradiated super-genius who has tried plan after plan to take over the world.

Cultural impact

The Hulk character and the concepts behind it have been raised to the level of iconic status by many within and outside the comic book industry. In 2003, Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine claimed the character had "stood the test of time as a genuine icon of American pop culture." In 2008, the Hulk was listed as the 19th greatest comic book character by magazine. magazine named him as the 14th-greatest comic-book character and the fifth-greatest Marvel character. In 2011, the Hulk placed No. 9 on IGN's list of "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes", and fourth on their list of "The Top 50 Avengers" in 2012.

The Hulk is often viewed as a reaction to war. As well as being a reaction to the Cold War, the character has been a cipher for the frustrations the Vietnam War raised, and Ang Lee said that the Iraq War influenced his direction. In the Michael Nyman edited edition of The Guardian, Stefanie Diekmann explored Marvel Comics' reaction to the September 11 attacks. Diekmann discussed The Hulk's appearance in the 9/11 tribute comic Heroes, claiming that his greater prominence, alongside Captain America, aided in "stressing the connection between anger and justified violence without having to depict anything more than a well-known and well-respected protagonist." In Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics, Les Daniels addresses the Hulk as an embodiment of cultural fears of radiation and nuclear science. He quotes Jack Kirby thus: "As long as we're experimenting with radioactivity, there's no telling what may happen, or how much our advancements in science may cost us." Daniels continues, "The Hulk became Marvel's most disturbing embodiment of the perils inherent in the atomic age."

In Comic Book Nation, Bradford Wright alludes to Hulk's counterculture status, referring to a 1965 magazine poll amongst college students which "revealed that student radicals ranked Spider-Man and the Hulk alongside the likes of Bob Dylan and Che Guevara as their favorite revolutionary icons." Wright goes on to cite examples of his anti-authority symbol status. Two of these are "The Ballad of the Hulk" by Jerry Jeff Walker, and the Rolling Stone cover for September 30, 1971, a full color Herb Trimpe piece commissioned for the magazine. The Hulk has been caricatured in such animated television series as The Simpsons, Robot Chicken, and , and such comedy TV series as The Young Ones. The character is also used as a cultural reference point for someone displaying anger or agitation. For example, in a 2008 Daily Mirror review of an EastEnders episode, a character is described as going "into Incredible Hulk mode, smashing up his flat." In September 2019, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson likened himself to The Hulk in an interview with the Mail On Sunday, as political pressure built on him to request an extension to the date of the UK's withdrawal from the European Union.

The Hulk, especially his alter ego Bruce Banner, is also a common reference in hip hop music. The term was represented as an analogue to marijuana in Dr. Dre's , while more conventional references are made in Ludacris and Jermaine Dupri's popular single " Welcome to Atlanta".

The 2003 Ang Lee-directed film saw discussion of the character's appeal to Asian Americans. The Taiwanese-born Ang Lee commented on the "subcurrent of repression" that underscored the character of The Hulk, and how that mirrored his own experience: "Growing up, my artistic leanings were always repressed-there was always pressure to do something 'useful,' like being a doctor." Jeff Yang, writing for the San Francisco Chronicle, extended this self-identification to Asian American culture, arguing that "the passive-aggressive streak runs deep among Asian Americans-especially those who have entered creative careers, often against their parents' wishes."

There have been explorations about the real-world possibility of Hulk's gamma-radiation-based origin. In The Science of Superheroes, Lois Grest and Robert Weinberg examined Hulk's powers, explaining the scientific flaws in them. Most notably, they point out that the level of gamma radiation Banner is exposed to at the initial blast would induce radiation sickness and kill him, or if not, create significant cancer risks for Banner, because hard radiation strips cells of their ability to function. They go on to offer up an alternate origin, in which a Hulk might be created by biological experimentation with adrenal glands and GFP. Charles Q. Choi from LiveScience.com further explains that, unlike the Hulk, gamma rays are not green; existing as they do beyond the visible spectrum, gamma rays have no color at all that we can describe. He also explains that gamma rays are so powerful (the most powerful form of electromagnetic radiation and 10,000 times more powerful than visible light) that they can even convert energy into matter - a possible explanation for the increased mass that Bruce Banner takes on during transformations. "Just as the Incredible Hulk 'is the strongest one there is,' as he says himself, so too are gamma-ray bursts the most powerful explosions known."

Other Marvel Comics characters called the Hulk

Prior to the debut of the Hulk in May 1962, Marvel had earlier monster characters that used the name the "Hulk", but had no direct relation.

In Strange Tales #75 (June 1960), Albert Poole built an armor he called the Hulk. In modern-day reprints, the character's name was changed to Grutan.

In Journey into Mystery #62 (Nov. 1960) was Xemnu the Living Hulk, a huge, furry alien monster went by the name of the Hulk. Coincidentally, the character's debut story was also illustrated by Jack Kirby. The character reappeared in issue #66 (March 1961). Since then the character has been a mainstay in the Marvel Universe, and was renamed Xemnu the Living Titan.

A huge, orange, slimy monster called the Hulk was featured in a movie titled The Hulk in Tales to Astonish #21 (July 1961). In modern-day reprints, the character's name was changed to the Glop.

Alternative versions of Hulk

A number of alternate universes and alternate timelines in Marvel Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on the Hulk, in which the character's origins, behavior, and morality differ from the mainstream setting. In some stories, someone other than Bruce Banner is the Hulk.

In some versions, the Hulk succumbs to the darker side of his nature: in "Future Imperfect" (December 1992), a future version of the Hulk has become the Maestro, the tyrannical and ruthless ruler of a nuclear war-irradiated Earth, and in " Old Man Logan" (2008), an insane Hulk rules over a post-apocalyptic California and leads a gang of his inbred Hulk children created with his first cousin She-Hulk.

Age of Apocalypse

In the Age of Apocalypse alternative setting, Bruce Banner was never exposed to gamma radiation. Therefore, he did not become the Hulk. Instead he became a member of the Human High Council, where he was a scientist and became a weapons designer. However he also yearns to gain knowledge and power, something Apocalypse was willing to help with, and so Bruce sold himself to Mikhail Rasputin, one of the Horsemen of Apocalypse, to give him mutants as test subjects. He succeeds in his experiments and can now transform into a creature resembling the Grey Hulk. He was used as a mole in the council, but was discovered by Susan Storm and Ben Grimm because the patterns of Bruce's injuries were identical to those sustained by the Hulk.

Amalgam Comics

The Skulk is a hero of the Amalgam Universe. He is amalgamation of the Hulk and DC Comics' Solomon Grundy.

Bruce Banner was a scientist working with gamma rays. He was testing his gamma bomb out in the desert, but a tall figure walked out into the testing area. When Banner went out to see who it was, the man turned out to be Solomon Grundy. The bomb went off fusing Grundy and Banner together. When Banner gets angry he becomes Grundy, but the creature made a name for itself, calling itself Skulk.

Breaker-Apart

In a potential future, the One Below All is able to destroy Bruce Banner's soul and possesses the body of the Hulk. After which, it went on to kill Franklin Richards, Galactus, Mister Immortal, and many others until it was the only being left in the universe. Taking on Bruce's appearance, the One Below All encounters the Sentience of the Eighth Cosmos/Metatron and is able to trick and devour him, absorbing his powers. In the newly formed Ninth Cosmos, the One Below All used its newly acquired powers to transform Hulk into a Galactus-like being named the 'Breaker-Apart'. 10 billion years later, the Breaker-Apart has destroyed all light, all life, and all planets in the Multiverse. When Par%l tried to make contact and reason with it, the alien instead meets the abstract form of the One Below All which told hir it wanted to "Make all hollow as I, dark and dead as I" and killed Par%l and hir's planet, O%los.

Bullet Points

In the Bullet Points mini-series, Peter Parker finds himself on the test site for a Gamma bomb and absorbs a large dose of gamma radiation, becoming the Hulk. In a further twist, later in the series, in an attempt to find a cure for Peter, Dr. Bruce Banner examines specimens taken from the test site and is bitten by a radioactive spider, becoming Spider-Man. Parker is killed by Galactus and Banner is killed by an Inheritor during the Spider-Verse event.

During the " Ultimate Invasion" storyline, Maker visits Earth-6160 and remakes it into his own image. One of the things he couldn't succeed in was prevent the origin of Hulk who would later find enlightenment. He and his fellow monks would later attend an event held by Maker at the City in Latveria. Hulk and the Children of the Light are revealed to rule India. While giving condolences to Howard Stark over the death of Obadiah Stane, Hulk tells Howard that each of the leaders takes turns being the "enemy". Hulk and the other leaders later discuss about The City closing up for two months with Maker inside. With Howard Stark being inside The City, Hulk and the other leaders plan to divide up Howard's territories among themselves.

The Earth X series featured a vastly different take on the character, one in which the Hulk and Bruce Banner have finally achieved separation. However, they still rely on each other with Banner becoming a blind child who sees through the Hulk's eyes. In an interview in Comicology Volume I: The Kingdom Come Companion, Alex Ross said that the design of Earth-X Banner and Hulk was based on the appearance of Moon-Boy and Devil Dinosaur.

Numerous alternate versions of the Hulk have been present in the Exiles series.

A crazy version of the Hulk was seen attacking Canada. He was stopped by the Exiles and Alpha Flight. This battle featured the first appearance of the rogue reality jumpers known as Weapon X. The crazy Hulk was presumed dead after this encounter.

Another visually different Hulk appeared in this universe. This version had a long ponytail and wore a "Peace Out" costume, but he still retained his gamma-irradiated appearance, strength and his famous smashing abilities. He teamed up with an evil Firestar and was recruited by the Timebroker to stop an evil Hyperion. The plan succeeded and they both joined Weapon X. When Hyperion had gone even crazier than before, Hulk attacked and Weapon X began to fight with each other. This version of The Hulk was killed when Hyperion brutally fought him until he was in a weakened state, Hyperion then used his heat vision on The Hulk, melting and destroying him. His body is sent back to his reality, where his funeral is held. Some time after Hulk's death, Firestar committed suicide when she incinerates herself and a teammate.

A conqueror version of the Hulk, in his gladiator outfit, killed Annihilus, most of the superhumans, took full control of the Annihilation Wave, and decimated Earth. He has been apparently knocked unconscious by the Exiles. It is unknown if he survived this incident. This version is even more insane than the other alternate versions of the Hulk. While the Exiles had been dealing with Proteus, Hulk's Annihilation Wave killed many of the superhumans which should not have happened if not for Proteus. A new version of the Exiles have been present showing the surviving superhumans and they all have one goal: to stop Hulk and his Annihilation Wave, in which they apparently succeeded.

Hulk: Chapter One

In the Hulk 1999 Annual, writer John Byrne revised the Hulk's origin, much like his Spider-Man: Chapter One. In the revised origin, the Gamma Bomb that was being tested is now a gamma laser, and a Skrull was responsible for Rick Jones' presence on the base during the gamma test. The Skrull also disguised himself as Igor Rasminsky (Drenkov in the original stories), a fellow scientist working on the project. The contemporary setting removes the Cold War context of the original story, and serves as a tie-in to the Marvel: The Lost Generation maxi-series created by Roger Stern and Byrne, which also brought the origins of many Marvel characters out of the 1960s and into contemporary times. The storyline is currently designated as set on Earth-9992, and is not part of mainstream Marvel continuity ( Earth-616).

The Last Avengers Story

In the 1995 Two Issues mini series The Last Avengers Story, Hulk was amongst those who joined , and in a mysterious conflict known as the "Great Cataclysm" which threatened and . The event ended with Hulk holding Hercules's golden mace and his skin temporarily turned grey, suggesting that the Hulk was the only survivor of this conflict. After the Event Hulk was recruited alongside Mockingbird, , and to fight However Hulk had been seemingly corrupted by the events of the Great Cataclysm, Hulk turned on his allies, ripping Tigra in half and puncturing Wonder Man, Wonder Man unleashed his energy against the Hulk, seemingly killing them both and accidentally blinding Hawkeye.Hulk is finally defeated by Thor, which ends the chaos.

In the reality, Bruce Banner disappears in Australia, where he befriends an Aborigine tribe, and attempts to control his dark side. When the mutant rulers of the Earth attack his tribe he retaliates, and eventually conquers Australia with the aid of Advanced Idea Mechanics (A.I.M.).

Infernal Hulk

Set in a post apocalyptic future, the Hulk has mutated into the dictator Maestro ruling the remains of humanity with an iron fist. Ruthless, sadistic, violent, and tyrannical, the Maestro was shown to be an example of what would happen if the Hulk ever embraced his darker roots. Maestro was known to be an enemy of the Hulk, as the two alternate versions fought each other on Maestro's world.

Marvel 2099

For the Marvel 2099 imprint, Gerard Jones and Dwayne Turner created a new version of the character. First appearing in 2099 Unlimited #1, John Eisenhart, a selfish film producer in "LotusLand" (future Hollywood) is inadvertently exposed to gamma radiation by the Knights of the Banner (a cult worshipping the original Hulk) who intend to create a Hulk of their own. As the Hulk, Eisenhart finds himself representing freedom to a closed-off society. A series was published for 10 issues.

Marvel Comics 2

In another take, The Hulk is shown to still be active in the alternative future of the MC2 universe. There, he is shown as an amalgamation of his three main transformations; He has the strength of the Savage Hulk, the attitude of the Grey Hulk, and the intelligence of the Professor Hulk.

He's also shown to have fathered a son named David by an unknown spouse.

He was later seen within the pages of Last Hero Standing, where Loki manipulated him into attacking the heroes. When he was freed of his manipulation he was critical in punishing Loki by forcing him into the voided dimension that Thor had opened a rift into, Hulk informing Loki that he was ruined on Earth because of Loki's actions and he therefore had nothing to lose by ensuring that Loki would be punished for eternity.

Marvel Zombies

Marvel Zombies: Dead Days

In the series Marvel Zombies, the Hulk has been infected with a virus which makes him into an undead zombie (he is actually infected by the zombie Fantastic Four). Although he still retains his strength and invulnerability, he no longer heals, is losing weight because of his now-deteriorating tissue, does not feel pain and now craves human flesh. The zombie Hulk's transformations are physically controlled purely by his appetite - after feeding, he transforms back into Banner, who is also a zombie, until the hunger returns. When Hulk first transforms back into Banner, his stomach starts to burst. He is directly responsible for killing the Silver Surfer by biting off his head. Later he joins Spider-Man, Iron-Man, Giant-Man, Wolverine and Luke Cage as the Galacti after killing and consuming Galactus.

Marvel Zombies 2

Forty years later, the zombie Hulk, along with the other zombies, had eaten or converted most of the universe, prompting them to return to Earth to try to recover the dimensional transporter. Although the other zombies managed to beat their hunger by going without food for a time, the Hulk's raw hunger was too great for him to be convinced to stop, resulting in him killing the zombified but "cured" Iron Man, Jean Grey, Hawkeye, and Firelord. Once he feeds and returns to Bruce Banner, he is finally killed by Spider-Man, Wolverine, and Giant-Man, recognizing that there is no other way to stop the Hulk from feeding again.

Marvel Zombies 3

Hulk makes a cameo appearance in Marvel Zombies 3' when Machine Man, Ultron, and Jocasta travel to Earth 2149, killing winged zombies (zombie Beak, Angel, Vulture, and Falcon altogether). He also makes another cameo appearance when Vanessa Fisk explains to the 3 androids how the Silver Surfer died, and how the zombie Kingpin, who is, surprisingly, her husband, created a zombie empire forming a huge alliance.

Marvel Zombies Return

Old Man Logan

Old Man Logan is set 50 years into an apocalyptic future. The world is in ruin and shadow following a massive conflict. A large coordinated force of super villains has killed a majority of the heroes and seized control of the United States splitting it into sections. Bruce Banner is said to have gone mad from radiation sickness, possibly from nuclear weapons that may have been used during the conflict or this and other changes may be the long-term result of his famous gamma radiation accident. Bruce's personality and powers seem altered, in human form he now has little empathy and possesses superhuman strength. Banner and his cousin Jennifer Walters have mated and produced offspring that possess their green skin and a little of their strength. They form the hillbilly-like "" that rule the entire west coast of the country dubbed "Hulkland", a domain formerly held by the Abomination until Banner killed him. Banner, along with his children and grandchildren, live in a collection of caves and trailers, forcing those that live on the west coast to pay them rent in order to be allowed to live.

There were two versions of the Hulk that appear:

Earth-807128

"Pappy" Bruce Banner's family threaten Logan's family over rent due to the Banners. Logan accompanies Clint Barton on a cross country delivery to source the rent money. When Logan returns and finds the bodies of his family, killed by the Banners, he kills the Hulk Gang and attacks Pappy Banner who admits that he set all of this into motion because he missed their old brawls. Banner gets angry when Wolverine calls him a redneck SOB and drives his claws through his chest. He transforms into The Hulk. Hulk overpowers Logan and eats him. Logan's mutant healing factor then allows him to recover and slash his way out of Hulk's stomach, killing him. Logan spots Banner's son, Bruce, Jr. and spares him. Logan takes the boy to raise in an effort to someday help combat the various villains that still rule the country.

Earth-21923

Pappy Banner's history on Earth-21923's history was still intact up to his death at the hands of Old Man Logan. When Old Man Logan uses Asmodeus' help to return to this future to rescue Bruce Banner Jr., he finds that the time has been altered in which Maestro appears in the place of Pappy Banner. This unidentified version of Maestro has rounded up the remaining members of the Hulk Gang as he makes plans to help them build a paradise for all Hulks on Earth-616. With help from the Cambria Banner, Logan and Hawkeye of Earth-616 were able to defeat Maestro and the surviving members of the Hulk Gang went their separate ways.

Otto Banner

During the " Devil's Reign" storyline, Doctor Octopus started forming his Superior Four that includes a Hulk that has four extra arms growing from his back. His real name is Otto Banner of Earth-8816 and he was also abused by his Earth's version of Brian Banner.

In the Warren Ellis series , a dark flip to the Kurt Busiek tale , the accidents, experiments and mutations that led to the creation of Super Heroes and super humans, instead led to terrible deformations and painful deaths. Here, Bruce Banner's story went exactly the same with his 616 counterpart, but when he was caught in the middle of the gamma bomb explosion, instead of transforming into The Incredible Hulk, his whole body opened up from the gigantic tumors that appeared inside it, pushing most of his organs and skull outside his body, and giving Rick Jones cancer. He didn't die, and was put in an underground vault by the CIA, codenamed "the Hulk".

Secret Wars (2015)

During the Secret Wars storyline, different versions of Hulk reside in each Battleworld domain.

The Battleworld domain of Greenland is filled with an assortment of Hulks ranging from Tribal Hulks (a group of Hulks that live like a tribe), Bull Hulks (a group of gamma-irradiated cattle), Sand Hulks (who evoke the traits of Hulk and Sandman), and a Sea Hulk. This land is a recreation of Earth-71612 where it was rendered into a Hulk-filled land by a gamma bomb strike by A.I.M. It was stated that Bruce Banner had started Bannertech Industries and his fate hasn't been mentioned since A.I.M.'s gamma bomb strike. In addition to the various type of Hulks and a variation of a Red Hulk that rules Greenland as the Red King", a variation of Steve Rogers that was sent into Greenland by God Emperor Doom and Sheriff Strange encountered another variation of Steve Rogers that operated as Doc Green.

The Battleworld domain of Spider-Island that was based from the remnants of Earth-19919 told an alternate version of the Spider-Island storyline where Hulk was mutated into Spider-Hulk and served as one of Spider-Queen's minions. However, Agent Venom uses Curt Connors' Lizard Formula to mutate Hulk into a giant lizard monster, which broke him free from the Spider Queen's control.

The Battleworld domain of Marville that was based from the remnants of Earth-71912 featured a child version of Hulk that is a member of the Avengers.

The Battleworld domain of the Kingdom of Manhattan is based from the remnants of Earth-61610 where variations of characters from Earth-616 and Earth-1610 co-exist on the combined version of both reality's Manhattan. In this case, a variation of Hulk's Doc Green form co-exists with a variation of Earth-1610's Hulk.

The Battleworld domain of Bug World that was based from the remnants of Earth-22312 features an anthropomorphic insect version of Hulk called Roly-Poly Hulk.

The Battleworld domain of the Walled City of New York that was based from the remnants of Earth-21722 features a version of Hulk that is a member of the Avengers where they are allied with S.H.I.E.L.D.'s side of the Walled City of New York.

Spider-Geddon

During the " Spider-Geddon" storyline, a sequel to " Spider-Verse", Robbie Banner is a punk on Earth-138 who is allied with Spider-Punk and can turn into the Hulk while listening to "Atomic Bomb" music. He helped Spider-Punk and Captain Anarchy fight the U-Foes at the Hellfire Club, assisted Spider-Punk and M.C. Strange push the Universal Church of Truth out of Queens, and fought Hydra on the streets. After obtaining the "Atomic Bomb" tape from Captain Anarchy, Spider-Punk visited Robbie to get his help, but the latter was reluctant to listen to the tape. When Kang the Conglomerator went on the attack, Robbie reluctantly listened to the tape and transformed into the Hulk to help Spider-Punk fight Kang.

In other tales, possible futures for the character have been shown. Using a post apocalyptic wasteland as a backdrop, the Peter David written Incredible Hulk: The End one-shot features an elderly Bruce Banner as the last surviving inhabitant of Earth, the Hulk having hidden in a cave during a nuclear war until he was released by the Recorder sent to confirm humanity's demise. After Bruce has spent time traveling Earth, transforming into the Hulk at night and when attacked by the mutated cockroaches that are the only other surviving lifeforms on Earth, the story concludes with Banner dying of a heart attack, thus leaving the Hulk as the last living being on the planet, Hulk musing that he is now "the only one there is", having achieved his wish to be left alone, but aware that he will die if he turns back into Banner.

Ultimate Marvel

In the Ultimate Marvel universe, the Hulk first appears in Ultimate Marvel Team-Up #2 (2001), written by Brian Michael Bendis and drawn by Phil Hester. In the series, Bruce Banner works for S.H.I.E.L.D., attempting to re-create the super-soldier formula that created Captain America.

He was later among the scientists that are used to recreate the Super-Soldier Formula that created Captain America. Bruce Banner is shown to have been hired by the U.S. Government and General Nick Fury as part of a project to secretly recreate the Super Soldier Serum. At a covert lab in Dover, New Jersey, Bruce works alongside fellow scientists, Hank Pym, Franklin Storm, father of Sue and Johnny Storm, and Richard Parker, father of Peter Parker. Bruce believes that he has come up with the correct formula for the serum, but needs to test it out. Eager to try his results on a human subject, Banner synthesizes his serum and injects himself with it. The serum turns him into the Hulk for the very first time. Banner goes on a rampage inside the laboratory and eventually destroys the entire complex, nearly killing Richard Parker, along with his wife Mary, who had brought an infant Peter along with her to visit Richard. Years later, Hulk laid waste to Chelsea Piers before he could be subdued by Spider-Man and taken into custody.

Banner and Henry Pym were both hired by S.H.I.E.L.D. to create post-human soldiers for S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Ultimates, with Banner focusing on the Super-Soldier formula responsible for Captain America, and Henry Pym experimenting with his Giant-Man formula. Whereas Pym found success and celebrity with " Giant-Man", Banner found himself unable to crack the Super-Soldier formula. Classifying himself a failure and suffering ridicule at the hands of Pym, Banner took some of the recently rediscovered Captain America's blood, combined it with his Hulk formula, and injected it. Banner rationalized his decision by saying that turning himself into a monster gave the Ultimates a villain to fight, thereby justifying their existence at a time when they were accused of being an enormous multi-billion dollar waste of government resources. Before lapsing into unconsciousness however, Banner confessed that "honest-to-God truth of the matter" is that he simply "just missed being big".

Shortly afterwards, Banner transformed into a sociopathic grey-skinned Hulk that channeled and amplified Banner's hidden emotions, unleashing the darkest depths of his id. The Hulk proceeded to track down and pursue Betty Ross, the object of Bruce Banner's affection who, because of relationship problems with Banner, was courting the favor of Hollywood film star Freddie Prinze, Jr. that night, and inadvertently boasted about it to Banner over the phone shortly before his transformation. During his rampage and cross-town pursuit of the fleeing Betty Ross, The Hulk informed Betty that he was "horny as Hell" and destroyed everything in his path, indiscriminately killing hundreds of people in the process. After rendering Giant-Man unconscious and overpowering Iron Man, Captain America, and Thor, who were all dispatched to stop his rampage, The Hulk changed back into Banner after the Wasp entered his skull through the ear canal and fired her bio-electric sting directly into his brain. Upon regaining consciousness, Banner was promptly knocked unconscious, restrained and shuttled away to S.H.I.E.L.D., the connection between him and the Ultimate Hulk covered up. Later, after being subdued by the Ultimates, an examination on Banner's blood revealed that the latest Super-Soldier Formula he took has placed a more permanent effect on Banner. The "Hulk cells" were not disappearing like they did after the first time Banner transformed, showing that the new Super-Soldier Formula Banner took would forever keep the Hulk within him.

After his rampage, Banner spent a number of months in a cell specifically designed to withstand the Hulk's fury, with Anti-Hulk serum administered to him on a continuous basis. Amidst the Chitauri's assault on Earth and their takeover of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the United States Armed Forces, General Fury quickly mobilized an army and attacked the alien base in Arizona. During his battle with Herr Kleiser, a Chitauri agent capable of absorbing and administering enormous physical damage, Captain America, with all other tactical options exhausted, gave the order for "the Weapon of Last Resort" and gave "Permission to traumatize Banner", who was in a helicopter with a military escort hovering over the S.H.I.E.L.D. battlefield. The delicate procedure of traumatizing a 90-pound scientist simply amounted to throwing him out of the chopper in hopes that his anger would overcome the effects of the anti-Hulk serum coursing through his veins. The Hulk's first course of action was to bodyslam Captain America into the concrete to pay him back for breaking Banner's jaw after the first Hulk transformation in Manhattan. Captain America immediately pointed out Herr Kleiser, declaring that he had been "all over Betty" while Banner was in his solitary cell. Not one to be overshadowed by a skinny German Nazi, the Hulk promptly pounded Kleiser to a pulp and even ate him. While Hulk was dining on Kleiser, Captain America manipulated him once more by calling down to him, telling Hulk that the Chitauri alien fleet had called him a "sissy-boy" and asked if the Hulk intended to let the aliens get away with such an insult. In a most vigorous defense of his heterosexuality, Hulk leaped a mile into the air, ripping apart the entire airborne alien fleet that clouded the sky, all the while proclaiming that "Hulk no Sissy Boy...HULK STRAIGHT!" Even after destroying the entire fleet and saving what remained of the day, the Hulk was full of adrenaline and rage, and needed to be sedated. Hawkeye, the marksman, was called in to take him down with an adamantium-tipped syringe full of anti-Hulk serum. Hawkeye did, but barely succeeded since Hulk seemed to be impervious to the antidote Hawkeye shot into Hulk before he finally passed out. While Banner returned to normal while in containment in S.H.I.E.L.D., his caretakers monitored him closely. Because of Herr Kleiser's shapeshifting abilities, Banner's stool were collected and properly disposed of after the battle, to rule out the possibility of Kleiser reconstituting himself in a cunning, if disgusting, way.

When Magneto attacked the Triskelion's lockup during the " Ultimate War" series, power went down for the entire facility. The Hulk was said to have eaten six members of the nursing staff in the chaos.

Banner remained in his cell for a year, with very few Hulk episodes; during one such transformation, he sat on the couch and watched Curb Your Enthusiasm until he changed back. The few visitors he received included Hank Pym, demonstrating his new "Ant Man" technology. Shortly thereafter, he learned from the national news that somebody had leaked top-secret information to the press regarding the Hulk/Banner connection. S.H.I.E.L.D. hired lawyer Matt Murdock to try to avoid the death penalty for 800-plus murder counts by bringing up the important things Banner had done in the interests of national security, and his work for the Ultimates. During jury deliberation, Banner received a visit from General Nick Fury, who told him that the case had been dismissed, and presented him with a bottle of champagne. Eagerly drinking his first drink as a free man, Banner passed out - the bottle had been drugged by Hank Pym at Fury's request - and awakened much later on the deck of an aircraft carrier, with a one-megaton nuclear weapon nearby. Fortunately for his well-being, he transformed into the Hulk right before the nuclear device was detonated. Later, Banner anonymously calls Pym from a public telephone to thank him for deliberately botching the dose before Banner decided to go into hiding. It is not clear if Pym deliberately botched the dose, or was merely incompetent in his research.

Bruce Banner later appears in Washington D.C. before one of the Crimson Dynamo's giant duplicates, letting it step on him, all the while muttering to himself about being "in touch with his inner sociopath". The Hulk appears in the next panel, lifting the robot with both hands and then ripping it in two, finishing the issue with a declaration of "NOW BRING IT ON!" He then continues to aid the Ultimates against the Liberators by defeating, dismembering, and finally eating Abomination.

He then appeared together with Iron Man in their own mini-series titled Ultimate Human, focusing on Bruce Banner approaching Tony Stark about the possibility of using the Iron Man nanites to control the Hulk transformations. The Leader is introduced as Pete Wisdom, a scientist after the blood of both men, for use in the creation of a superhuman. This series depicts the Hulk's physiology as almost infinitely adaptive to adverse conditions, including simulations of hostile extraterrestrial environments such as the surface of the planet Venus. It also described him as generating carbon Fullerenes in his skin structure, adding to his durability.

A naked Hulk comes into a restaurant demanding food. Princess Zarda who is already at the restaurant fights and defeats the Hulk. After the fight, the two form a bond and go to another restaurant before renting a motel room and having sex.

During the " Ultimatum" storyline, the Hulk appears in New York and is convinced by Spider-Man to help him rescue people. When demons start appearing they go to the home of Doctor Strange, only to learn that his body had been possessed by Nightmare. He then starts to torture them. Hulk in response heats the Orb of Acmantata, which causes an explosion. He survives and is recruited by the remaining Ultimates and X-Men to stop Magneto. In Magneto's Citadel, he and Colossus are tasked with destroying some of the citadel's machinery. They try to stop Mystique and Sabretooth from escaping, but fail. Hulk survives Ultimatum and is later seen in Ultimate Comics: X in a soup kitchen as Bruce Banner in New York. He is convinced by Karen Grant to be their "enforcer" in a new team sponsored by former Director Nick Fury.

During the European crisis involving the Children of Tomorrow, Hulk was convinced by S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Flumm to attack the Children of Tomorrow in exchange for the safety of Betty Ross, currently in custody. Hulk was unleashed in Children's base called The City, but the Maker managed to calm him down and convince him that he was being used. In that moment, the US Government launched an ineffective nuclear attack on the City, and the Children detonate an anti-matter bomb in Washington, D.C. in retaliation. When the Ultimates finally turned the tide, the Maker injected the Hulk with the Giant-Man serum, turning him into a giant juggernaut, although he was defeated and put into sedated custody beneath the Triskelion once more.

Bruce was freed by the mysterious woman called Kang, and convinced him to steal the Infinity Gems with which he battled the Ultimates. After the arrival of escapee Reed Richards, the heroes escaped, but Captain America decided to be left behind in order to stop the villains, although he was defeated by Thor.

When Maker merged all realities in order to help Eternity to fight the First Firmament, Hulk is among the Ultimates members that are revived. It was shown that Hulk didn't retain his intelligence and referred to himself in the third person. When the Ultimates of Earth-616 arrived on Counter-Earth to confront Maker for his actions, he had the Earth-1610 Ultimates fight the Earth-616 Ultimates where Hulk was thrown out of the building by Blue Marvel. Eventually, Hulk and the rest of the Earth-1610 Ultimates decided that there was no reason to fight the Earth-616 Ultimates which resulted in Maker killing the Earth-1610 Captain America. After aiding the Earth-616 Ultimates into giving Eternity the power to defeat the First Firmament, Hulk and the rest of the Earth-1610 Ultimates left to pursue Maker.

After Earth-1610 was restored, Hulk was seen with the Avengers where they help Spider-Man fight Green Goblin.

In other media

The character has been played in live-action and animation by a variety of actors. The character was first played in live-action by Bill Bixby and Lou Ferrigno in the 1978 television series The Incredible Hulk and its subsequent television films The Incredible Hulk Returns (1988), The Trial of the Incredible Hulk (1989), and The Death of the Incredible Hulk (1990), and Eric Bana in the film (2003). In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), the character was first portrayed by Edward Norton in the film The Incredible Hulk (2008), and then by Mark Ruffalo in later appearances, including the films The Avengers (2012), (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Captain Marvel (2019), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021), and the television series She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022) and (2021).

The Hulk was ranked #1 on a listing of Marvel Comics' monster characters in 2015.

In 2018, ranked The Thing (Bruce Banner) 2nd in their "Age Of Apocalypse: The 30 Strongest Characters In Marvel's Coolest Alternate World" list.

In 2022, Screen Rant included Hulk in their "10 Most Powerful Hercules Villains In Marvel Comics" list.

References

1. ^ Rothman, Michael (July 13, 2016). "Marvel Kills Off Iconic 'Avenger' and 50-Year-Old Superhero". Good Morning America. Yahoo!. Archived from the original on October 1, 2016.

2. ^ DeFalco, Tom (2008). "1960s". In Gilbert, Laura (ed.). Marvel Chronicle A Year by Year History. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 85. ISBN 978-0756641238. Based on their collaboration on The Fantastic Four, [Stan] Lee worked with Jack Kirby. Instead of a team that fought traditional Marvel monsters, however, Lee decided that this time he wanted to feature a monster as the hero.

3. ^ Weinstein, Simcha (2006). Up, Up, and Oy Vey!. Baltimore, Maryland: Leviathan Press. pp. 82-97. ISBN 978-1-881927-32-7.

4. ^ Hill, Dave (July 17, 2003). "Green with anger". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on May 5, 2013. one of the Hulk comic books' artists, Jack Kirby, has said he was inspired by seeing a woman rescue her child from beneath a trapped car.

5. ^ Groth, Gary (May 23, 2011). "Jack Kirby Interview - Part 6". The Comics Journal. KIRBY: The Hulk I created when I saw a woman lift a car. Her baby was caught under the running board of this car. The little child was playing in the gutter and he was crawling from the gutter onto the sidewalk under the running board of this car - he was playing in the gutter. His mother was horrified. She looked from the rear window of the car, and this woman in desperation lifted the rear end of the car. From The Comics Journal #134 (February 1990)

6. ^ Lipstak, Andrew (August 30, 2015). "The Incredible Hulk Was Inspired By A Woman Saving Her Baby". Gizmodo. Jack Kirby witnessed a woman lift a car to get her child out from under it. The moment helped inspire one of his most famous creations: the Incredible Hulk.

7. Poole, W. Scott. ^ Monsters in America: Our Historical Obsession with the Hideous and the Haunting. Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60258-314-6.

8. ^ Manning, Matthew K. (2012). "1960s". In Gilbert, Laura (ed.). Spider-Man Chronicle Celebrating 50 Years of Web-Slinging. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 26. ISBN 978-0756692360. Another important character entered Spider-Man's life in Amazing Spider-Man #14. Hiding in the same cavern that Spider-Man entered during his fight with the Enforcers and the [Green] Goblin, Totally paranoic now, the Hulk attacked the web-slinger.

9. DeFalco "1960s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 128: "Hailing 1968 as the beginning of the 'Second Age of Marvel Comics,' and with more titles to play with, editor Stan Lee discarded his split books and gave more characters their own titles ... ^ Tales to Astonish #101 [was followed] by The Incredible Hulk #102."

10. ^ Amash, Jim (2010). Sal Buscema: Comics' Fast & Furious Artist. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 978-1605490212.

11. ^ Sanderson, Peter "1970s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 167: "Len Wein wrote and Herb Trimpe drew Wolverine's cameo appearance in The Incredible Hulk #180 and his premiere in issue #181."

12. Sanderson, "1970s", in Gilbert (2008), p. 186: "To appeal to the audience of the popular new ^ Incredible Hulk TV series, Marvel revamped The Rampaging Hulk magazine, calling it The Hulk!."

13. ^ O'Neill, Patrick Daniel (February 1992). "Peter David". Comics Interview. No. 105. Fictioneer Books. p. 22.

14. DeFalco "1980s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 227: "Dr. Bruce Banner first met Betty Ross in The Incredible Hulk #1 (May 1962) and finally married her in issue #319 by John Byrne."

15. ^ Radford, Bill (February 21, 1999). "Marvel's not-so-jolly green giant gets a fresh start and a new team". The Gazette. Colorado Springs, Colorado. p. L4.

16. Manning "2000s" in Gilbert (2008), p. 310: "Creating a lengthy run to rival J. Michael Straczynski over on ^ The Amazing Spider-Man and Brian Michael Bendis on Daredevil, writer Bruce Jones reinvented the green goliath with a modern, cinematic approach."

17. "The Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators". www.maelmill-insi.de.

18. ^ Arrant, Chris (January 7, 2014). "Mark Waid Talks 2014 Hulk Relaunch, Who Shot Bruce Banner?". Newsarama. Archived from the original on April 29, 2014.

19. Pak, Greg (^ w), Cho, Frank (p), Cho, Frank (i). "Cho Time: Part One" Totally Awesome Hulk, no. 1 (February 2016). Marvel Comics.
Pak, Greg (w), Cho, Frank (p), Cho, Frank (i). "Cho Time: Part Two" Totally Awesome Hulk, no. 2 (March 2016). Marvel Comics.
Pak, Greg (w), Cho, Frank (p), Cho, Frank (i). "Cho Time: Part Three" Totally Awesome Hulk, no. 3 (April 2016). Marvel Comics.
Pak, Greg (w), Cho, Frank (p), Cho, Frank (i). "Cho Time: Part Four" Totally Awesome Hulk, no. 4 (May 2016).

20. Bendis, Brian Michael (^ w), Marquez, David (a). "How we looking, Friday?" Civil War II, no. 2 (August 2016). Marvel Comics.

21. Bendis, Brian Michael (^ w), Marquez, David; Coipel, Olivier (a). "Mister Murdock, call your first witness" Civil War II, no. 3 (September 2016). Marvel Comics.

22. Immortal Hulk #1. Marvel Comics.

23. ^ "Hulk". Marvel Comics. Archived from the original on September 24, 2016. Height 5' 9¹⁄₂" (Banner); 6'6" (gray Hulk); 7' - 8' (green/savageHulk); 7'6" (green/Professor Hulk) Weight 128 lbs. (Banner); 900 lbs. (gray Hulk); 1,040 - 1,400 lbs.(green/savage Hulk); 1,150 lbs. (green/Professor Hulk)

24. ^ Kaplan, Arie (2006). Masters of the Comic Book Universe Revealed!. Chicago, Illinois: Chicago Review Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-1556526336.

25. Wright, Bradford (March 22, 2001). Comic Book Nation. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 336. ISBN 978-0-8018-6514-5.

26. ^ Randerson, James (May 17, 2006). "Superman copycats 'risk health'". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on May 5, 2013.

27. Hill, Kyle (December 9, 2014). "Who Would Win In A Fight Between Superman And The Hulk?". Nerdist News. Archived from the original on August 28, 2015.

28. ^ Lobdell, Scott; Waid, Mark (w), Kubert, Adam; Bennett, Joe (p), Green, Dan; Thibert, Art; Townsend, Tim; Delpergang, Jesse (i). "With Great Power ..." Onslaught: Marvel, no. 1 (October 1996).

29. ^ "The 200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time". Wizard. May 23, 2008. Archived from the original on May 26, 2008. The one constant for this 'atomic Jekyll-and-Hyde,' as they used to say, remains Bruce Banner's eternal struggle to control the gamma-spawned half of his psyche. The green goliath never goes out of style: The Hulk is, undeniably, all the rage.

30. ^ Phelan, Stephen (December 23, 2007). "The Clash of Symbols". Sunday Herald. Glasgow, United Kingdom. p. 42.

31. ^ Daniels, Les (1991). Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics. New York, New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 89. ISBN 9780810938212.

32. ^ Swartzwelder, John (writer); Sheetz, Chuck (director) (April 28, 2002). "I Am Furious Yellow". The Simpsons. Season 13. Episode 18. Fox Broadcasting Company.

33. ^ Smith, Danny (writer); Polcino, Dominic (director) (April 18, 1999). "Chitty Chitty Death Bang". . Season 1. Episode 3. Fox Broadcasting Company.

34. ^ Quigley, Maeve (February 5, 2008). "We love telly: We love soaps". Daily Mirror. London, United Kingdom. p. 1.

35. ^ Yang, Jeff (June 1, 2006). "Look ... Up in the sky! It's Asian Man!". San Francisco Chronicle. Hearst Corporation. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008.

36. ^ McGinley, Brendan (June 19, 2013). "The 5 Most Ridiculous Attempts to Reinvent Superheroes". Cracked. Archived from the original on October 2, 2016.

37. ^ Buxton, Marc (October 30, 2015). "Marvel's 31 Best Monsters". Den of Geek. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. The Hulk is way more superhero than horror icon, but in the character's year history, there were plenty of times that this titanic creature was cast in the role of classic monster.

External links

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bruce BannerHulk Publisher Marvel Comics First appearance The Incredible Hulk #1 (May 1962) Created by Stan Lee Jack Kirby Full name Species Human mutate[a] Team affiliations Avengers Defenders Horsemen of Apocalypse Fantastic Four [2] Pantheon Warbound S.M.A.S.H.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
, the god of Norse mythology, has appeared as a character in various comics over the years, appearing in series from a range of publishers.

Thor Odinson (often called The Mighty Thor) is a Marvel Comics superhero, based on the thunder god of Norse mythology. The superhero was created by editor Stan Lee and penciller Jack Kirby, who co-plotted, and scripter Larry Lieber, and first appeared in Journey into Mystery #83 (Aug. 1962).

On a mission from his father, Odin, Thor acts as a superhero while maintaining the secret identity of Dr. Donald Blake, an American physician with a partially disabled leg. Blake can transform by tapping his walking stick on the ground; the cane becomes the magical hammer Mjolnir and Blake transforms into Thor.

Thor, a founding member of the superhero group the Avengers, often battles his evil adoptive brother Loki, a Marvel character adapted from the Norse god of mischief. He is among Marvel's most powerful superheroes. Many recurring characters in his stories are based on Norse Mythology. As with other superheroes, the Thor identity has been taken by other characters, including Jane Foster, who became a female Thor.

Apart from this main superhero, Marvel features a number of characters based on him.

Chris Hemsworth portrays Thor in films set within Marvel Studios' cinematic universe, first appearing in the 2011 film . Hemsworth reprised his role for The Avengers, Thor: The Dark World, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Doctor Strange, Thor: Ragnarok, Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame.

Jack Kirby made a story featuring Thor in Tales of the Unexpected #16. A cowboy finds Thor's hammer in the American desert and uses it for his own gain, until it is reclaimed by Thor. This version of Thor is not similar to the Marvel Comics character that Kirby would create five years later, although there are some minor similarities, such as the design of Mjolnir and the circles in Thor's chest. Kirby would often cite this adventure to claim that he was the main creator of the Marvel Comics character.

Thor appears in the first issues of Jack Kirby's Fourth World by John Byrne. His appearance is explicitly based on Kirby's design of the Marvel character, but is more faithful to the original mythology having red hair, a beard and a more brutish personality. He and the other Asgard gods are stated to be related to, but not synonymous with, the Old Gods (the progenitors of the New Gods). Later Thor clarifies that they are "echoes" of the Old Gods and resemble them down to their names, thus explaining how the Norse gods can still exist in the DC Universe when the event that killed the Old Gods is implied to have been Ragnarök.

Thor also appears briefly in Neil Gaiman's series in the story "Seasons of Mists". In that story, he, Odin and Loki try (and fail) to get the key of Hell. Thor is portrayed as a lewd drunk. This is in contrast to the Marvel Comics portrayal of Thor, where Thor is portrayed as very noble and earnest. In the later Sandman story, "Kindly Ones", he helps Odin capture Loki.

In another story, Wonder Woman and Superman travel to Valhalla and help Thor in a war for a thousand years.

America's Best Comics (ABC)

The deity Thor (called Þunor or Thunor as in Thor's Old English name) appears in the America's Best Comics police procedural series by artist Gene Ha and writer Alan Moore, where officers interview the deity and other gods as witnesses to the death of Baldur at the hands of Hod. The god appears here as a belligerent, red-bearded, balding man, prone to swearing, whose lack of cooperation leads to a swift takedown by Smax.

Thor is also a fictional character in the Comico comic book series Elementals. He was created by Bill Willingham and first appeared in Elementals #23 (Volume 1).

Willy Vandersteen group (Flemish)

The Flemish comic artist Willy Vandersteen started three series in which a Thor was featured. His very first published newspaper comic series (when World War II stopped US-import in 1941) was "Tor de Holbewoner", about a caveman called Tor. Taking into account that "Tor" is a Dutch word for beetle, in Dutch the difference between T and Th is hardly (if at all) heard and that it was about a caveman living way before the invention of orthography, it is no miracle that this caveman returned (still during the war) with his name changed to "Thor".

In " De Rode Ridder" series the existence of the thunder god Thor is shown in #45, (The Hammer of Thor, 1970) and the Thunderer has a role in #63 (The Valkyrie, 1974), in which the Rode/Red Knight has been chosen by Odin to complete a mission the gods cannot do themselves without causing Ragnarok. Both albums are by Karel Biddeloo. Unlike the Marvel Thor, Biddeloo's Thor is more or less a country boy, with enormous powers but bound by responsibility (avoidance of Ragnarok). The hammer of Thor was a weapon mortals could and did carry and use, but it was too powerful to control.

In the most popular series started by Vandersteen, Suske en Wiske ( Spike and Suzy), Thor is featured once in #158 in a story by Paul Geerts. Thor in this version is a cruel, grey-bearded god, going a bit bald on top, thundering and lightninging with his hammer, without throwing it. (Odin in this story is the young-looking, bearded redhead). Like Biddeloo's Thor, this one is also dressed in animal skins, and that may be seen as a reference to the caveman.

Madsen's Valhalla Thor (Danish)

This is Thor in the European "comedic adventure" tradition of Asterix, Lucky Luke etc. with the difference that where those series are using history as source material, Peter Madsen uses mythology for his series Valhalla (1978), with the same freedom to make jokes about current reality or other works of fiction, mostly following the Eddas.

Thor is one of the main heroes of the series and can be seen as a central character.

Thor is here rather correctly put, as the honest, red bearded muscular, powerful god, with a bit of extra human weaknesses to keep the comic funny. Statements that he would be fat are false, but may be based on his disguise in #3 as Volstagg, thus parodying Marvel's Asgardians.

Thrud and Modi are his firstborn children (in #2), their mother is Sif (pregnant from the start of the series). Magni has Jarnsaxa as mother and shows up in #9.

Other uses of the Norse myth in comics

Other uses of the Thor of Norse mythology include:

Thor is a semi-regular character in the Karl Vincent: Vampire Hunter series from KRG comics

Thor and Dynamite Thor: The Golden Age anthology Weird Comics by the Fox Feature Syndicate featured two characters named Thor. The first, seen in issues #1-5, is a mortal man given strange lightning powers by the Norse God. Grant Ferrell was chosen by the real Thor, looking down at humanity from his perch in Valhalla. Thor decided to bestow powers on a mortal, and spied Grant, a meek man who lost his girlfriend Glenda at a nightclub. Thor picked Grant up and brought him to Valhalla, where he was trained in using the powers of lightning and Mjolnir, Thor's magic hammer. Grant returns to Earth dressed in a revealing costume - just trunks, a cape and a helmet. He rescues Glenda from a group of spies, and decides to devote his life to heroic deeds. He goes on to fight spies and Germans. That character lasted for five issues, and was then rebooted in issue #6 as a new character, Peter "Dynamite" Thor, with different powers, but the same girlfriend. Dynamite Thor was a demolitions expert who was immune to the effect of explosives. He used dynamite to propel himself through the air. He used his abilities to fight spies, mad scientists and the devious War Maniac. Dynamite Thor appeared in Weird Comics #6 and 7, and then moved to Blue Beetle #6-8.

Thor, along with the other Norse gods, appears in David Brin's comic, The Life Eaters.

Thôrr-Sverd: The Sword of Thor #1-3, published ca. 1987 by Vincent Creations, began the telling of the story of the impact of the gods on the Proto-Indo-European people. It suggested that perhaps, contrary to canonical mythology, the giants were the good guys and the gods were the villains.

Erik Larsen's Savage Dragon has its own version of Thor, a red-headed villainous thunder god.

A villainous Thor appeared in Rob Liefeld's comic book Youngblood.

El Cazador de Aventuras from Argentina included in its 32-34 issues a remake of the Ragnarok, with Cazador in the middle of it.

In Fate/Kaleid Liner Prisma Illya, the antagonist Beatrice Flowerchild uses the Berserker Class Card to gain Thor's powers and his hammer, Mjolnir.

Other characters by the name of Thor in comics

Other characters by the name of Thor include:

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the god of Norse mythology, has appeared as a character in various comics over the years, appearing in series from a range of publishers. Thor Odinson (often called The Mighty Thor) is a Marvel Comics superhero, based on the thunder god of Norse mythology.

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Spider-Man is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko, he first appeared in the anthology comic book Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962) in the Silver Age of Comic Books. He has been featured in comic books, television shows, films, video games, novels, and plays.

Spider-Man's secret identity is Peter Benjamin Parker. Initially, Peter was depicted as a teenage high school student and an orphan raised by his Aunt May and Uncle Ben in New York City after his parents Richard and Mary Parker died in a plane crash. Lee and Ditko had the character deal with the struggles of adolescence and financial issues and gave him many supporting characters, such as Flash Thompson, J. Jonah Jameson, and Harry Osborn; romantic interests Gwen Stacy, Mary Jane Watson, and the Black Cat; and enemies such as the Green Goblin, Doctor Octopus, and Venom. In his origin story, Spider-Man gets his superhuman spider-powers and abilities after being bitten by a radioactive spider; these include superhuman strength, agility, reflexes, stamina, durability, coordination, and balance, clinging to surfaces and ceilings like a spider, and detecting danger with his precognition ability called "spider-sense". He builds wrist-mounted "web-shooter" devices that shoot artificial spider-webs of his own design, which he uses both for fighting and for web-swinging across the city. Peter Parker originally used his powers for his own personal gain, but after his Uncle Ben was killed by a thief that Peter could not stop, he began to use his powers to fight crime by becoming Spider-Man.

When Spider-Man first appeared in the early 1960s, teenagers in superhero comic books were usually relegated to the role of sidekick to the protagonist. The Spider-Man comic series broke ground by featuring Peter Parker, a high school student from Queens, New York, as Spider-Man's secret identity, whose "self-obsessions with rejection, inadequacy, and loneliness" were issues to which young readers could relate. While Spider-Man was a quintessential sidekick, unlike previous teen heroes Bucky Barnes and Robin, Spider-Man had no superhero mentor like Captain America and Batman; he had learned the lesson for himself that " with great power comes great responsibility"-a line included in a text box in the final panel of the first Spider-Man's origin story, but later retroactively attributed to the late Uncle Ben Parker.

Marvel has featured Spider-Man in several comic book series, the first and longest-lasting of which is The Amazing Spider-Man. Since his introduction, the main-continuity version of Peter has gone from a high school student to attending college to currently being somewhere in his late 20s. Peter has been a member of numerous superhero teams, most notably the Avengers and Fantastic Four. Doctor Octopus also took on the identity for a story arc spanning 2012-2014, following a body swap plot in which Peter appears to die. Marvel has also published comic books featuring alternate versions of Spider-Man, including Spider-Man 2099, which features the adventures of Miguel O'Hara, the Spider-Man of the future; Ultimate Spider-Man, which features the adventures of a teenage Peter Parker in the alternate universe; and Ultimate Comics: Spider-Man, which depicts a teenager named Miles Morales who takes up the mantle of Spider-Man after Ultimate Peter Parker's apparent death. Miles later became a superhero in his own right and was brought into mainstream continuity during the Secret Wars event, where he sometimes works alongside the mainline version of Peter.

Spider-Man is one of the most popular and commercially successful superheroes. He has appeared in countless forms of media, including several animated TV series: the first original animated series , with Paul Soles voicing the titular character, a live-action television series, syndicated newspaper comic strips, and multiple series of films. Spider-Man was first portrayed in live-action by Danny Seagren in Spidey Super Stories, a recurring skit on The Electric Company from 1974 to 1977. In live-action films, Spider-Man has been portrayed by actors Tobey Maguire in Sam Raimi's Spider-Man trilogy, by Andrew Garfield in two films directed by Marc Webb, and in the Marvel Cinematic Universe by Tom Holland. Reeve Carney originally starred as Spider-Man in the 2010 Broadway musical Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark. Spider-Man was also voiced by Jake Johnson and Chris Pine in the animated film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse.

Publication history

Creation and development

Richard Wentworth, a.k.a. the Spider in the pulp magazine The Spider. Stan Lee stated the Spider influenced the creation of Spider-Man.[14]

In 1962, with the success of the Fantastic Four, Marvel Comics editor and head writer Stan Lee was casting for a new superhero idea. He said the idea for Spider-Man arose from a surge in teenage demand for comic books and the desire to create a character with whom teens could identify. As with Fantastic Four, Lee saw Spider-Man as an opportunity to "get out of his system" what he felt was missing in comic books. In his autobiography, Lee cites the non-superhuman pulp magazine crime fighter the Spider as a great influence, and in a multitude of print and video interviews, Lee stated he was inspired by seeing a spider climb up a wall-adding in his autobiography that he has told that story so often he has become unsure of whether or not this is true. Besides the name, the Spider was wanted by both the law and the criminal underworld (a defining theme of Spider-Man's early years) and had through years of ceaseless struggle developed a "sixth sense", which warns him of danger, the inspiration for Spider-Man's "spider sense". Although at the time teenage superheroes were usually given names ending with "boy", Lee says he chose "Spider-Man" because he wanted the character to age as the series progressed, and felt the name "Spider-Boy" would have made the character sound inferior to other superheroes. He also decided to insert a hyphen in the name, as he felt it looked too similar to Superman, another superhero with a red and blue costume that starts with an "S" and ends with "man" (although artist Steve Ditko intended the character to have an orange and purple costume). At that time, Lee had to get only the consent of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman for the character's approval. In a 1986 interview, Lee described in detail his arguments to overcome Goodman's objections. Goodman eventually agreed to a Spider-Man tryout in what Lee, in numerous interviews, recalled as what would be the final issue of the science-fiction and supernatural anthology series Amazing Adult Fantasy, which was renamed Amazing Fantasy for issue #15 ( cover-dated August 1962, on sale June 5, 1962). In particular, Lee stated that the fact that it had already been decided that Amazing Fantasy would be canceled after issue #15 was the only reason Goodman allowed him to use Spider-Man. While this was the final issue, its editorial page anticipated the comic continuing and that "The Spider-Man ... will appear every month in Amazing."

Regardless, Lee received Goodman's approval for the name Spider-Man and the "ordinary teen" concept and approached artist Jack Kirby. As comics historian Greg Theakston recounts, Kirby told Lee about an unpublished character on which he had collaborated with Joe Simon in the 1950s, in which an orphaned boy living with an old couple finds a magic ring that granted him superhuman powers. Lee and Kirby "immediately sat down for a story conference," Theakston writes, and Lee afterward directed Kirby to flesh out the character and draw some pages. Steve Ditko would be the inker. When Kirby showed Lee the first six pages, Lee recalled, "I hated the way he was doing it! Not that he did it badly-it just wasn't the character I wanted; it was too heroic". Lee turned to Ditko, who developed an art style Lee found satisfactory. Ditko recalled:

One of the first things I did was to work up a costume. A vital, visual part of the character. I had to know how he looked ... before I did any breakdowns. For example: A clinging power so he wouldn't have hard shoes or boots, a hidden wrist-shooter versus a web gun and holster, etc. ... I wasn't sure Stan would like the idea of covering the character's face but I did it because it hid an obviously boyish face. It would also add mystery to the character....

Although the interior artwork was by Ditko alone, Lee rejected Ditko's cover art and commissioned Kirby to pencil a cover that Ditko inked. As Lee explained in 2010, "I think I had Jack sketch out a cover for it because I always had a lot of confidence in Jack's covers."

Amazing Fantasy #15 (Aug. 1962) first introduced the character. It was a gateway to commercial success for the superhero and inspired the launch of The Amazing Spider-Man comic book. - Cover art by penciller Jack Kirby and inker Steve Ditko

In an early recollection of the character's creation, Ditko described his and Lee's contributions in a mail interview with Gary Martin published in Comic Fan #2 (Summer 1965): "Stan Lee thought the name up. I did costume, web gimmick on wrist & spider signal." At the time, Ditko shared a Manhattan studio with noted fetish artist Eric Stanton, an art-school classmate who, in a 1988 interview with Theakston, recalled that although his contribution to Spider-Man was "almost nil", he and Ditko had "worked on storyboards together and I added a few ideas. But the whole thing was created by Steve on his own ... I think I added the business about the webs coming out of his hands." Ditko claimed in a rare interview with Jonathan Ross that the costume was initially envisioned with an orange and purple color scheme, rather than the recognizable red and blue.

Kirby disputed Lee's version of the story and claimed Lee had minimal involvement in the character's creation. According to Kirby, the idea for Spider-Man had originated with Kirby and Joe Simon, who in the 1950s had developed a character called the Silver Spider for the Crestwood Publications comic Black Magic, but the character was left unused. Simon, in his 1990 autobiography, disputed

Kirby's account, asserting that Black Magic was not a factor and that Simon devised the name "Spider-Man" (later changed to "The Silver Spider"), while Kirby outlined the character's story and powers. Simon later elaborated that his and Kirby's character conception became the basis for Simon's Archie Comics superhero, the Fly. Artist Steve Ditko stated that Lee liked the name Hawkman from DC Comics, and that "Spider-Man" was an outgrowth of that interest.

Simon concurred that Kirby had shown the original Spider-Man version to Lee, who liked the idea and assigned Kirby to draw sample pages of the new character, but disliked the results-in Simon's description, " Captain America with cobwebs". Writer Mark Evanier notes that Lee's reasoning that Kirby's character was too heroic seems unlikely-Kirby still drew the covers for Amazing Fantasy #15 and the first issue of The Amazing Spider-Man. Evanier also disputes Kirby's given reason that he was "too busy" to draw Spider-Man in addition to his other duties, since Kirby was, said Evanier, "always busy". Neither Lee's nor Kirby's explanation explains why key story elements like the magic ring were dropped; Evanier states that the most plausible explanation for the sudden change was that Goodman, or one of his assistants, decided that Spider-Man, as drawn and envisioned by Kirby, was too similar to the Fly.

Author and Ditko scholar Blake Bell writes that it was Ditko who noted the similarities to the Fly. Ditko recalled that "Stan called Jack about the Fly", adding that "[d]ays later, Stan told me I would be penciling the story panel breakdowns from Stan's synopsis." It was at this point that the entire concept of the strip went through a major overhaul. "Out went the magic ring, adult Spider-Man and whatever legend ideas that Spider-Man story would have contained." Lee gave Ditko the premise of a teenager bitten by a spider and developing powers, where Ditko would expand upon to the point he became what Bell describes as "the first work for hire artist of his generation to create and control the narrative arc of his series". On the issue of the initial creation, Ditko stated, "I still don't know whose idea was Spider-Man". Ditko did, however, view the published version of Spider-Man as a separate creation to the one he saw in the five pencilled pages that Kirby had completed. To support this, Ditko used the analogy of the Kirby/Marvel Thor, which was based on a name or idea of a character in Norse mythology: "If Marvel's Thor is a valid created work by Jack, his creation, then why isn't Spider-Man by Stan and me valid created work, our creation?"

Kirby noted in a 1971 interview that it was Ditko who "got Spider-Man to roll, and the thing caught on because of what he did". Lee, while claiming credit for the initial idea, had acknowledged Ditko's role, stating, "If Steve wants to be called co-creator, I think he deserves [it]". He has further commented that Ditko's costume design was key to the character's success; since the costume completely covers Spider-Man's body, people of all races could visualize themselves inside the costume and thus easily identify with the character.

Commercial success

A few months after Spider-Man's introduction, publisher Goodman reviewed the sales figures for that issue and was shocked to find it was one of the nascent Marvel's highest-selling comics. A solo ongoing series followed, beginning with The Amazing Spider-Man #1 ( cover-dated March 1963). The title eventually became Marvel's top-selling series with the character swiftly becoming a cultural icon; a 1965 poll of college campuses found that college students ranked Spider-Man and fellow Marvel hero the Hulk alongside Bob Dylan and Che Guevara as their favorite revolutionary icons. One interviewee selected Spider-Man because he was "beset by woes, money problems, and the question of existence. In short, he is one of us." Following Ditko's departure after issue #38 (July 1966), John Romita Sr. replaced him as penciller and would draw the series for the next several years. In 1968, Romita would also draw the character's extra-length stories in the comics magazine The Spectacular Spider-Man, a proto- graphic novel designed to appeal to older readers. It lasted for two issues and represented the first Spider-Man spin-off publication, aside from the original series' summer Annuals that began in 1964.

An early 1970s Spider-Man story ultimately led to the revision of the Comics Code Authority. Previously, the Code forbade the depiction of the use of illegal drugs, even negatively. However, in 1970, the Nixon administration's Department of Health, Education, and Welfare asked Stan Lee to publish an anti-drug message in one of Marvel's top-selling titles. Lee chose the top-selling The Amazing Spider-Man; issues #96-98 (May-July 1971) feature a story arc depicting the negative effects of drug use. In the story, Peter Parker's friend Harry Osborn becomes addicted to pills. When Spider-Man fights the Green Goblin (Norman Osborn, Harry's father), Spider-Man defeats him by revealing Harry's drug addiction. While the story had a clear anti-drug message, the Comics Code Authority refused to issue its seal of approval. Marvel nevertheless published the three issues without the Comics Code Authority's approval or seal. The issues sold so well that the industry's self-censorship was undercut, and the Code was subsequently revised.

In 1972, a second monthly ongoing series starring Spider-Man began: Marvel Team-Up, in which Spider-Man was paired with other superheroes and supervillains. From that point on, there have generally been at least two ongoing Spider-Man series at any time. In 1976, his second solo series, Peter Parker, the Spectacular Spider-Man, began running parallel to the main series. A third series featuring Spider-Man, Web of Spider-Man, launched in 1985 to replace Marvel Team-Up. The launch of a fourth monthly title in 1990, the "adjectiveless" (with the storyline " Torment"), written and drawn by popular artist Todd McFarlane, debuted with several different covers, all with the same interior content. All four versions combined sold over three million copies, an industry record at the time. Several miniseries, one-shot issues, and loosely related comics have also been published, and Spider-Man makes frequent cameos and guest appearances in other comic book series. In 1996, The Sensational Spider-Man was created to replace Web of Spider-Man.

In 1998, writer-artist John Byrne revamped the origin of Spider-Man in the 13-issue limited series Spider-Man: Chapter One (Dec. 1998-Oct. 1999), similar to Byrne's adding details and some revisions to Superman's origin in DC Comics' The Man of Steel. During that time, the original The Amazing Spider-Man ended with issue #441 (Nov. 1998), and The Amazing Spider-Man started with volume 2, #1 (Jan. 1999). In 2003, Marvel reintroduced the original numbering for The Amazing Spider-Man and what would have been volume 2, #59, became issue #500 (Dec. 2003).

When the main series The Amazing Spider-Man reached issue #545 (Dec. 2007), Marvel dropped its spin-off ongoing series and instead began publishing The Amazing Spider-Man three times monthly, beginning with #546-548 (all January 2008). The scheduling of The Amazing Spider-Man lasted until November 2010, when the comic book expanded from 22 pages to 30 pages for each issue. Later on, The Amazing Spider-Man was published twice a month, beginning with #648-649 (both November 2010). The following year, Marvel launched Avenging Spider-Man as the first spin-off ongoing series in addition to The Amazing Spider-Man, since the previous ones were canceled at the end of 2007. The Amazing series temporarily ended with issue #700 in December 2012 and was replaced by The Superior Spider-Man, which had Doctor Octopus serve as the new Spider-Man by taking over Peter Parker's body. Superior was an enormous commercial success for Marvel, and ran for 31 issues before the real Peter Parker returned in a newly relaunched The Amazing Spider-Man #1 in April 2014.

Following the 2015 Secret Wars crossover event, a number of Spider-Man-related titles were either relaunched or created as part of the " All-New, All-Different Marvel" event. Among them, The Amazing Spider-Man was relaunched and primarily focuses on Peter Parker continuing to run Parker Industries and becomes a successful businessman who is operating worldwide.

Fictional character biography

Early years

In Forest Hills, Queens, New York City, Midtown High School student Peter Benjamin Parker is a science-whiz orphan living with his Uncle Ben and Aunt May. As depicted in Amazing Fantasy #15 (Aug. 1962), he is bitten by a radioactive spider (erroneously classified as an insect in the panel) at a science exhibit and "acquires the agility and proportionate strength of an arachnid". Along with heightened athletic abilities, Parker gains the ability to adhere to walls and ceilings. Through his knack for science, he develops a gadget that lets him fire adhesive webbing of his own design through small, wrist-mounted barrels. Initially seeking to capitalize on his new abilities, Parker dons a costume and, as "Spider-Man", becomes a novelty television star. However, "[h]e blithely ignores the chance to stop a fleeing thief, [and] his indifference ironically catches up with him when the same criminal later robs and kills his Uncle Ben." Spider-Man tracks and subdues the killer and learns, in the story's next-to-last caption, "With great power there must also come-great responsibility!"

In the first issue of The Amazing Spider-Man (March 1963), despite his superpowers, Peter struggles to help his widowed Aunt May pay the rent, is taunted by Flash, and continues fighting crime and saving the city as Spider-Man, but his heroic deeds engender the editorial wrath of newspaper publisher of the Daily Bugle, J. Jonah Jameson, holds a grudge against Spider-Man, and continues making false statements about Spider-Man despite his heroism. Peter gets hired as a freelance photographer by Mr. Jameson to take pictures of Spider-Man, with him being unaware that Spider-Man is Peter Parker. Spider-Man fights his enemies, including superpowered and non-superpowered supervillains-his arch-enemy and nemesis Green Goblin, and then Doctor Octopus, Sandman, Chameleon, Lizard, Vulture, Kraven the Hunter, Electro, and Mysterio, defeating them one by one-but Peter finds juggling his personal and superhero life difficult. In time, Peter graduates from high school and enrolls at Empire State University (a fictional institution evoking the real-life Columbia University and New York University), where he meets roommate and best friend Harry Osborn and girlfriend Gwen Stacy, and Aunt May introduces him to Mary Jane Watson. As Peter deals with Harry's drug problems, and Harry's father, Norman Osborn, is revealed to be the Green Goblin, Peter attempts to give up his costumed identity for a while. Gwen Stacy's father, New York City Police detective Captain George Stacy, is accidentally killed during a battle between Spider-Man and Doctor Octopus (issue #90, November 1970).

In issue #121 (June 1973), the Green Goblin throws Gwen Stacy from a tower of either the Brooklyn Bridge (as depicted in the art) or the George Washington Bridge (as given in the text). She dies during Spider-Man's rescue attempt, and Spider-Man swears revenge against his nemesis; a note on the letters page of issue #125 states: "It saddens us to say that the whiplash effect she underwent when Spidey's webbing stopped her so suddenly was, in fact, what killed her." The following issue, Spider-Man vengefully attacks and overpowers the Green Goblin, who kills himself accidentally in the ensuing battle with Spider-Man.

Working through his grief, Peter eventually develops tentative feelings toward Mary Jane, and the two "become confidants rather than lovers". A romantic relationship eventually develops, with Parker proposing to her in issue #182 (July 1978), and being turned down an issue later. Peter went on to graduate from college in issue #185, and becomes involved with the shy Debra Whitman and the extroverted, flirtatious costumed thief Felicia Hardy, a.k.a. the Black Cat, whom he meets in issue #194 (July 1979).

The Amazing Spider-Man #252 (May 1984): The black costume debut was controversial among fans. The suit was later revealed as an alien symbiote and was used in the creation of the villain Venom. - Cover art by Ron Frenz and Klaus Janson

From 1984 to 1988, Spider-Man wore a black costume with a white spider design on his chest. The new costume originated in the Secret Wars miniseries on an alien planet where Spider-Man participates in a battle between Earth's major superheroes and supervillains. He continues wearing the costume when he returns, starting in The Amazing Spider-Man #252. The change to a longstanding character's design met with controversy, "with many hardcore comics fans decrying it as tantamount to sacrilege. Spider-Man's traditional red and blue costume was iconic, they argued, on par with those of his D.C. rivals Superman and Batman." The creators then revealed the costume was an alien symbiote, which Spider-Man rejects after a difficult struggle, though the symbiote returns several times as Venom for revenge. Peter proposes to Mary Jane in The Amazing Spider-Man #290 (July 1987), and she accepts two issues later, with the wedding taking place in The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #21 (1987)-promoted with a real-life mock wedding using actors at Shea Stadium, with Stan Lee officiating, on June 5, 1987. David Michelinie, who scripted based on a plot by editor-in-chief Jim Shooter, said in 2007, "I didn't think they actually should [have gotten] married. ... I had actually planned another version, one that wasn't used." Peter publishes a book of Spider-Man photographs called Webs, and returns to his Empire State University graduate studies in biochemistry in #310 (Dec. 1988).

In the controversial 1990s storyline the " Clone Saga", a clone of Parker, created in 1970s comics by insane scientist Miles Warren, a.k.a. the Jackal, returns to New York City upon hearing of Aunt May's health worsening. The clone had lived incognito as Ben Reilly, but now assumes the superhero guise the Scarlet Spider and allies with Parker. To the surprise of both, new tests indicate Ben is the original and Peter is the clone. Complicating matters, Mary Jane announces in The Spectacular Spider-Man #220 (Jan. 1995) that she is pregnant with Peter's baby. Later, however, a resurrected Green Goblin (Norman Osborn) has Mary Jane poisoned, causing premature labor and the death of her and Peter's unborn daughter. It is later revealed that The Green Goblin switched the results of the clone test in an attempt to destroy Peter's life by making him believe himself to be the clone. Ben is killed while saving Peter, in Peter Parker: Spider-Man #75 (Dec. 1996), and his body immediately crumbles into dust, confirming Ben was the clone.

In issue #97 (Nov. 1998) of the second series titled Peter Parker: Spider-Man, Parker learns his Norman Osborn kidnapped Aunt May and her apparent death in The Amazing Spider-Man #400 (April 1995) had been a hoax. Shortly afterward, in The Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 2) #13 (#454, Jan. 2000), Mary Jane is killed in an airplane explosion. She is revealed to be alive in volume 2, issue #28 (#469, April 2001), but she and Peter are completely separated in the following issue.

creator J. Michael Straczynski began writing The Amazing Spider-Man, illustrated by John Romita Jr., beginning with volume 2, #30 (#471, June 2001). Two issues later, Peter, now employed as a teacher at his old high school, meets the enigmatic Ezekiel, who possesses similar spider powers and suggests that Peter, having gained such abilities, might not have been a fluke-that Parker has a connection to a totemic spider spirit. In vol. 2, #37 (#478, Jan. 2002), Aunt May discovers her nephew is Spider-Man. Peter and Mary Jane reconcile in (vol. 2) #50 (#491, April 2003), and in #512 (Nov. 2004)-the original issue numbering having returned with #500-Parker learns his late girlfriend Gwen Stacy had had two children with Norman Osborn.

He joins the superhero team The New Avengers in New Avengers #1-2. After a deranged, superpowered former high-school classmate destroys their respective homes, Peter, Mary Jane, and May move into Stark Tower, and Peter begins working as Tony Stark's assistant while freelancing for The Daily Bugle and continuing his teacher career. In the 12-part 2005 story arc " The Other", Peter undergoes a transformation that evolves his powers. In the comic #2 (June 2006), part of the company-wide crossover arc of that title, the U.S. government's Superhuman Registration Act leads Spider-Man to reveal his true identity publicly. A growing unease about the Registration Act prompts him to escape with May and Mary Jane and joins the anti-registration underground.

In issue #537 (Dec. 2006), Aunt May is critically wounded from Wilson Fisk's sniper, and enters into a coma. Peter, desperate to save her, exhausts all possibilities and makes a pact with the demon-lord Mephisto, who saves May's life in exchange for Peter and Mary Jane agreeing to have their marriage and all memory of it disappear. In this changed reality, Spider-Man's identity is secret once again, and in #545 (Jan. 2008), Mary Jane returns and is cold toward him. The controversial storyline "One More Day" rolled back much of the fictional continuity at the behest of editor-in-chief Joe Quesada, who said, "Peter being single is an intrinsic part of the very foundation of the world of Spider-Man". It caused unusual public friction between Quesada and writer Straczynski, who "told Joe that I was going to take my name off the last two issues of the [story] arc", but was talked out of doing so. At issue with Straczynski's climax to the arc, Quesada said, was

...that we didn't receive the story and methodology to the resolution that we were all expecting. What made that very problematic is that we had four writers and artists well underway on [the sequel arc] "Brand New Day" that were expecting and needed "One More Day" to end in the way that we had all agreed it would. ... The fact that we had to ask for the story to move back to its original intent understandably made Joe upset and caused some major delays and page increases in the series. Also, the science that Joe was going to apply to the retcon of the marriage would have made over 30 years of Spider-Man books worthless, because they never would have had happened. ...[I]t would have reset way too many things outside of the Spider-Man titles. We just couldn't go there....

In this new continuity, designed to have very limited repercussions throughout the remainder of the Marvel Universe, Parker returns to work at the Daily Bugle, which has been renamed The DB under a new publisher. He soon switches to the alternative press paper The Front Line. J. Jonah Jameson becomes the Mayor of New York City in issue #591 (June 2008). Jonah's estranged father, J. Jonah Jameson Sr., marries May in issue #600 (Sept. 2009).

During the " Secret Invasion" by shape-shifting extra-terrestrials, the Skrulls, Norman Osborn shoots and kills the Skrull queen Veranke. He leverages this widely publicized success, positioning himself as the new director of the S.H.I.E.L.D.-like paramilitary force H.A.M.M.E.R. to advance his agenda, while using his public image to start his own Dark Avengers. Norman, by himself, leads the Dark Avengers as the Iron Patriot, a suit of armor fashioned by himself after Iron Man's armor with Captain America's colors.

Harry is approached by Norman with the offer of a job within the Dark Avengers. It is later revealed that it is a ruse to coerce Harry into taking the American Son armor, whom Norman had planned to kill, in order to increase public sympathy. When Harry has the option of killing Norman, Spider-Man says to decapitate him, since Norman's healing factor may repair a blow to the head. Spider-Man also cautions Harry that killing Norman will cause Harry to "become the son Norman always wanted". Harry instead backs down, and turns away from his father forever.

At Loki's suggestion, Norman Osborn creates a rationale to invade Asgard, claiming the world poses a national security threat. He is defeated, and ends up incarcerated in the Raft penitentiary. A conflict between Spider-Man and Doctor Octopus over Osborn's son ends when it is revealed the child's father is Harry, who leaves town to raise him. One of Doctor Octopus' Octobots swaps his and Spider Man's personality, causing Peter to become trapped in the Doctor's dying body, while he in turn claimed Peter's life for himself. Though Peter failed to reverse the change, he manages to establish a weak link with the Doctor's mind, forcing him to relive all of his memories; Otto understands Peter's ideals of power and responsibility and swears to carry on with Peter's life with dignity as a "Superior" Spider-Man.

A portion of Peter survived in his original body in the form of a subconsciousness. Later, realizing that he failed in his role as the "Superior" Spider-Man, Otto willingly allows Peter to reclaim his body in order to defeat Osborn and save Anna Maria Marconi, Otto's love. In the aftermath of these events, Peter began to amend the relationships damaged by Otto's arrogance and negligence, both as Peter Parker and Spider-Man. He additionally took up the reins of Parker Industries, a small company founded by Otto after leaving Horizon Labs.

Peter soon learns a second person had been bitten by the radioactive spider, Cindy Moon. Spider-Man tracks her down and frees her from a bunker owned by the late Ezekiel Simms. Not long after rescuing Cindy, who went on to adopt her own heroine identity as Silk, Spider-Man encounters a contingent of spider-people from all over the Multiverse that banded together to fight the Inheritors, a group of psychic vampires who had begun to hunt down the spider-totems of other realities. During a mission to gather more recruits in 2099, the Spider-Army stumbled upon another party of spider-people led by an alternate version of Otto Octavius. Together, they neutralize the Inheritors.

Peter then stops a nefarious plan put forward by the Jackal. After the events of " Go Down Swinging", Peter's life was plagued with problems on both sides. As Spider-Man, Mayor Fisk publicly supports him, condemning all other vigilantes in order to isolate him from his superhero peers. As Peter Parker, his academic credentials were revoked after accusations of plagiarizing his doctoral dissertation from Octavius, resulting in Peter being fired from the Daily Bugle. Subsequently, Peter became romantically involved with Mary Jane. Briefly, Peter Parker and Spider-Man split into separate beings due to an accident involving the reverse-engineered Isotope Genome Accelerator. Peter eventually manages to reverse the process, and merges his two halves back together before the side-effects worsen and result in their death.

Kindred uses the resurrected Sin-Eater's sins to possess Miles Morales, Spider-Gwen, Spider-Woman, Anya Corazon, and Julia Carpenter. Doctor Strange, who manages to restrain a possessed Silk, agrees to help Spider-Man. However, Peter dies when fighting Kindred. While dead, Peter's consciousness remembers the fateful day of the start of One More Day; Kindred is willing to resurrect Peter.

Personality and themes

"People often say glibly that Marvel succeeded by blending super hero adventure stories with soap opera. What Lee and Ditko actually did in The Amazing Spider-Man was to make the series an ongoing novelistic chronicle of the lead character's life. Most super heroes had problems no more complex or relevant to their readers' lives than thwarting this month's bad guys... Parker had far more serious concern in his life: coming to terms with the death of a loved one, falling in love for the first time, struggling to make a living, and undergoing crises of conscience."

Sally Kempton for the Village Voice opined in 1965 that "Spider-Man has a terrible identity problem, a marked inferiority complex, and a fear of women. He is antisocial, castration-ridden, racked with Oedipal guilt, and accident-prone ... [a] functioning neurotic". Agonizing over his choices, always attempting to do right, he is nonetheless viewed with suspicion by the authorities, who seem unsure as to whether he is a helpful vigilante or a clever criminal.

Cultural historian Bradford W. Wright notes:

Spider-Man's plight was to be misunderstood and persecuted by the very public that he swore to protect. In the first issue of The Amazing Spider-Man, J. Jonah Jameson, publisher of the Daily Bugle, launches an editorial campaign against the "Spider-Man menace". The resulting negative publicity exacerbates popular suspicions about the mysterious Spider-Man and makes it impossible for him to earn any more money by performing. Eventually, the bad press leads the authorities to brand him an outlaw. Ironically, Peter finally lands a job as a photographer for Jameson's Daily Bugle.

The mid-1960s stories reflect the political tensions of the time; early 1960s Marvel stories often deal with the Cold War and communism. Wright writes:

From his high-school beginnings to his entry into college life, Spider-Man remained the superhero most relevant to the world of young people. Fittingly, then, his comic book also contained some of the earliest references to the politics of young people. In 1968, in the wake of actual militant student demonstrations at Columbia University, Peter Parker finds himself in the midst of similar unrest at his Empire State University.... Peter has to reconcile his natural sympathy for the students with his assumed obligation to combat lawlessness as Spider-Man. As a law-upholding liberal, he finds himself caught between militant leftism and angry conservatives.

Powers, skills, and equipment

Peter Parker has superhuman spider-powers and abilities derived from mutations resulting from the bite of a radioactive spider. Since the original Lee- Ditko stories, Spider-Man has had the ability to cling to walls. This has been speculated to be based on a distance-dependent interaction between his body and surfaces, known as the van der Waals force, though in the 2002 Spider-Man film, his hands and feet are lined with tiny clinging cilia in the manner of a real spider's feet. Spider-Man's other powers include superhuman strength, agility, and balance and a precognitive sixth sense referred to as his "spider sense", which alerts him to danger.

Spider-Man has a healing factor that allows him to recover from injuries sustained during battle. In the aftermath of the 1989 " Acts of Vengeance" storyline, Spider-Man was said to have "superhuman recuperative abilities" that sped up his recovery from the exhaustion he suffered in defeating the Tri-Sentinel.

The character was originally conceived by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko as intellectually gifted, and later writers have depicted his intellect at genius level. After years of fighting, Peter honed his skill into an equivalent of martial arts that is unique to his powers. Academically brilliant, Peter has expertise in the fields of applied science, chemistry, physics, biology, engineering, mathematics, and mechanics.

With his talents, he sews his own costume to conceal his identity, and he constructs many devices that complement his powers, most notably mechanical web-shooters that allow him to shoot webs, swing at high speeds throughout the city, and navigate and trap his enemies with his webs, additionally with a spider-signal as a flashlight and a warning beacon to criminals. Thomas Fireheart's scientists, world-renowned, are unable to replicate the fluid Parker created while in high school.

Supporting cast

Spider-Man contains a wide number of enemies and side characters. A variant cover art of The Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 3) #1 depicts the heads of various Spider-Man enemies behind Spider-Man (as drawn by Kevin Maguire), shown in the center.

Spider-Man has had a large range of supporting characters introduced in the comics that are essential in the issues and storylines that star him. After his parents died, Peter Parker was raised by his loving aunt, May Parker, and his uncle and father figure, Ben Parker. After Uncle Ben is murdered by a burglar, Aunt May is virtually Peter's only family, and she and Peter are very close.

J. Jonah Jameson is the publisher of the Daily Bugle and Peter Parker's boss. A harsh critic of Spider-Man, he constantly features negative articles about the superhero in his newspaper. Despite his role as Jameson's editor and confidant, Robbie Robertson is always depicted as a supporter of both Spider-Man and his alter ego Peter Parker.

Eugene "Flash" Thompson is commonly depicted as Peter Parker's high school tormentor and bully, who idolizes Spider-Man, but is unaware that Spider-Man is Peter Parker. Later, he becomes a friend of Peter and adopts his own superhero identity, Agent Venom, after merging with the Venom symbiote. Meanwhile, Harry Osborn, son of Norman Osborn, is most commonly recognized as Peter's best friend, although some versions depicted him as his rival.

Writers and artists over the years have established a rogues gallery of supervillains to face Spider-Man, in comics and in other media. As with Spider-Man, the majority of the villains' powers originate with scientific accidents or the misuse of scientific technology, and many have animal-themed costumes or powers. The most notable Spider-Man villains are listed down below in the ordering of their original chronological appearance:

Indicates a group.

Unlike most superheroes, Spider-Man does not have a single villain with whom he has come into conflict the most. Instead, he is often regarded as having three archenemies:

1. ^ Doctor Octopus (a.k.a. Doc Ock) is a highly intelligent mad scientist who uses four mechanical appendages for both movement and combat. He has been described as Spider-Man's greatest enemy, and the man Peter Parker might have become if he had not been raised with a sense of responsibility. Doc Ock is infamous for defeating him the first time in battle and for almost marrying Peter's Aunt May. He is also the core leader of the Sinister Six, and at one point adopted the "Master Planner" alias. ("If This Be My Destiny...!") Later depictions revealed him in Peter Parker's body, where he was the titular character for a while.

2. ^ The Norman Osborn version of the Green Goblin is most commonly regarded as Spider-Man's arch-enemy. While Norman is usually portrayed as an amoral industrialist and the head of the Oscorp scientific corporation, the Goblin is a psychopathic alternate personality, born after Norman's exposore to some unstable chemicals that also increased his strength and agility. The Goblin is a Halloween-themed villain, dressing up like an actual goblin and utilizing a large arsenal of high tech weapons, including a glider and pumpkin-shaped explosives. Unlike most villains, who only aim to kill Spider-Man, the Goblin also targets his loved ones and shows no remorse in killing them as long as it caused pain to Spider-Man. His most infamous feat is killing Spider-Man's girlfriend, in what became one of the most famous Spider-Man stories of all time and helped to end the Silver Age of Comic Books and begin the Bronze Age of Comic Books. While the Goblin was killed in the same story, he returned in the 1990s to plague Spider-Man once again, committing more heinous acts (such as being involved in the murder of Aunt May). He also came into conflict with other heroes, such as the Avengers. Norman is sometimes depicted as an enemy of Spider-Man, even when not being the Green Goblin.

3. ^ The Eddie Brock incarnation of Venom is often regarded as Spider-Man's deadliest foe, and has been described as an evil mirror version of Spider-Man in many ways. He is also among Spider-Man's most popular villains. Originally a reporter who grew to despise Spider-Man, Eddie later came into contact with the Venom symbiote, which had been rejected by Spider-Man. The symbiote merges with Eddie and gives him the same powers as Spider-Man, in addition to making him immune to the web-slinger's "spider sense". Venom's main goal is to ruin Peter Parker's life and mentally confuse him in any way he can. The character has a sense of honor and justice, and later starred in his own comic book stories, where he is depicted as an antihero and has a desire to protect innocent people from harm. On several occasions, he and Spider-Man even put their differences aside and became allies.

Romantic interests

Peter Parker's romantic interests range between his first crush, fellow high-school student Liz Allan, to having his first date with Betty Brant, secretary to the Daily Bugle newspaper publisher J. Jonah Jameson. After his breakup with Betty Brant, Peter eventually falls in love with his college girlfriend Gwen Stacy, daughter of New York City Police Department detective Captain George Stacy, both of whom are later killed by supervillain enemies of Spider-Man. Mary Jane Watson became Peter's best friend and eventually his wife. Felicia Hardy, the Black Cat, is a reformed cat burglar who had been Spider-Man's sole superhuman girlfriend and partner at one point.

Over the course of the comics, Peter Parker had several biological children across different continuities, usually with Mary Jane Watson, including Spider-Girl (Mayday Parker) and Benjy Parker from the MC2 universe, and Spiderling (Annie Parker) from Earth-18119.

Alternate versions of Spider-Man

Within the Marvel Universe, there exists a multiverse with many variations of Spider-Man. An early character included in the 1980s is the fictional anthropomorphic animal parody of Spider-Man as a pig named Spider-Ham (Peter Porker). Many imprints of Spider-Men were created, like the futuristic version of Spider-Man in Marvel 2099 named Miguel O'Hara. In the Marvel Comics 2 imprint, Peter marries Mary Jane and has a daughter named Mayday Parker, who carries on Spider-Man's legacy, while Marvel Noir has a 1930s version of Peter Parker. Other themed versions exist within the early 2000s, such as a Marvel Mangaverse version and an Indian version from Spider-Man: India, Pavitr Prabhakar.

Ultimate Spider-Man was a popular modern retelling of Spider-Man, Peter Parker. The version of Peter Parker would later be depicted as being killed off and replaced by a Black Hispanic Spider-Man named Miles Morales.

The storyline " Spider-Verse" brought back many alternate takes on Spider-Man and introduced many new ones, such as an alternate world where Gwen Stacy gets bitten by a radioactive spider instead, along with a British-themed version named Spider-UK, who is Billy Braddock from the Captain Britain Corps.

Cultural impact and legacy

In The Creation of Spider-Man, comic book writer-editor and historian Paul Kupperberg calls the character's superpowers "nothing too original"; what was original was that outside his secret identity, he was a "nerdy high school student". Going against typical superhero fare, Spider-Man included "heavy doses of soap-opera and elements of melodrama". Kupperberg feels that Lee and Ditko had created something new in the world of comics: "the flawed superhero with everyday problems". This idea spawned a comics revolution. The insecurity and anxieties in Marvel's early 1960s comic books, such as The Amazing Spider-Man, The Incredible Hulk, The Fantastic Four, and ushered in a new type of superhero, very different from the certain and all-powerful superheroes before them, and changed the public's perception of them. After the comics depicted a real address in Forest Hills, Queens, New York, as May Parker's residence, its residents received many letters from children to the superhero.

Spider-Man has become one of the most recognizable fictional characters in the world, and has been used to sell toys, games, cereal, candy, soap, and many other products. He has been used as the company mascot. When Marvel became the first comic book company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1991, The Wall Street Journal announced "Spider-Man is coming to Wall Street"; the event was in turn promoted with an actor in a Spider-Man costume accompanying Stan Lee to the Stock Exchange. Since 1962, hundreds of millions of comics featuring the character have been sold around the world. Spider-Man is the world's most profitable superhero.[needs update ] In 2014, global retail sales of licensed products related to Spider-Man reached approximately $1.3 billion. Comparatively, this amount exceeds the global licensing revenue of Batman, Superman, and the Avengers combined.

U.S. President Barack Obama pretending to be webbed up by a boy dressed in a Spider-Man costume inside the White House

Spider-Man joined the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade from 1987 to 1998 as one of the balloon floats, designed by John Romita Sr., one of the character's signature artists. A new, different Spider-Man balloon float also appeared from 2009 to 2014.

When Marvel wanted to issue a story dealing with the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks, the company chose the December 2001 issue of The Amazing Spider-Man. In 2006, Spider-Man garnered major media coverage with the revelation of the character's secret identity, an event detailed in a full-page story in the New York Post before the issue containing the story was even released.

In 2008, Marvel announced plans to release a series of educational comics the following year in partnership with the United Nations, depicting Spider-Man alongside the UN Peacekeeping Forces to highlight UN peacekeeping missions. A BusinessWeek article listed Spider-Man as one of the top 10 most intelligent fictional characters in American comics.

In 2015, the Supreme Court of the United States decided Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC, a case concerning royalties on a patent for an imitation web shooter. The opinion for the Court, by Justice Elena Kagan, included several Spider-Man references, concluding with the statement that "with great power, there must also come-great responsibility".

Spider-Man has become a subject of scientific inquiry. In 1987, researchers at Loyola University conducted a study into the utility of Spider-Man comics for informing children and parents about issues relating to child abuse.

The culmination of nearly every superhero that came before him, Spider-Man is the hero of heroes. He's got fun and cool powers, but not on the god-like level of Thor. He's just a normal guy with girlfriend problems and money issues, so he's more relatable than playboy billionaire Iron Man. And he's an awkward teenager, not a wizened adult like Captain America. Not too hot and not too cold, Spider-Man is just right.

-IGN staff on placing Spider-Man as the number one hero of Marvel.

In 2005, Bravo's Ultimate Super Heroes, Vixens, and Villains TV series declared that Spider-Man was the number 1 superhero. magazine ranked him the fifth-greatest comic book character of all time. magazine placed Spider-Man as the third-greatest comic book character on their website. In 2011, Spider-Man placed third on IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time, behind DC Comics characters Superman and Batman, and sixth in their 2012 list of "The Top 50 Avengers". In 2014, IGN identified Spider-Man the greatest Marvel Comics character of all time. A 2015 poll at Comic Book Resources named Spider-Man the greatest Marvel character of all time. IGN described him as the common everyman that represents many normal people, but also noted his uniqueness compared to many superheroes with his depicted flaws as a superhero. IGN wrote that despite being one of the most tragic superheroes of all time, he is "one of the most fun and snarky superheroes in existence." Empire praised Spider-Man's always-present sense of humor and wisecracks in the face of the many tragedies he faces. The magazine website appraised the depiction of his "iconic" superhero poses, describing it as "a top artist's dream".

George Marston of called Spider-Man's origin the greatest origin story of all time, opining that "Spider-Man's origin combines all of the most classic aspects of pathos, tragedy and scientific wonder into the perfect blend for a superhero origin."

Real-life comparisons

Real-life people who have been compared to Spider-Man for their climbing feats include:

In 1981, skyscraper-safety activist Dan Goodwin, wearing a Spider-Man suit, scaled the Sears Tower in Chicago, Illinois, the Renaissance Tower in Dallas, Texas, and the John Hancock Center in Chicago.

Alain Robert, nicknamed "Spider-Man", is a rock and urban climber who has scaled more than 70 tall buildings using his hands and feet, without using additional devices. He sometimes wears a Spider-Man suit during his climbs. In May 2003, he was paid approximately $18,000 to climb the 95-metre (312 ft) Lloyd's building to promote the premiere of the movie Spider-Man on the British television channel Sky Movies.

"The Human Spider", alias Bill Strother, scaled the Lamar Building in Augusta, Georgia, in 1921.

In Argentina, criminals that climb buildings and trespass into private property through the open balconies are said to use the "Spider-Man method" (in Spanish, el Hombre Araña).

In other media

Spider-Man has appeared in comics, cartoons, films, video games, coloring books, novels, records, children's books, and theme park rides. On television, he first starred in the ABC animated series (1967-1970), Spidey Super Stories (1974-1977) on PBS, and the CBS live-action series The Amazing Spider-Man (1978-1979), starring Nicholas Hammond. Other animated series featuring the superhero include the syndicated (1981-1982), Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends (1981-1983), Fox Kids' (1994-1998), Spider-Man Unlimited (1999-2000), Spider-Man: The New Animated Series (2003), The Spectacular Spider-Man (2008-2009), Ultimate Spider-Man (2012-2017), Disney XD's (2017-2020), and Spidey and His Amazing Friends (2021-present).

A tokusatsu series featuring Spider-Man was produced by Toei and aired in Japan. It is commonly referred to by its Japanese pronunciation Supaidā-Man. Spider-Man also appeared in other print forms besides the comics, including novels, children's books, and the daily newspaper comic strip The Amazing Spider-Man, which debuted in January 1977, with the earliest installments written by Stan Lee and drawn by John Romita Sr. Spider-Man has been adapted to other media including games, toys, collectibles, and miscellaneous memorabilia, and has appeared as the main character in numerous computer and video games on over 15 gaming platforms.

Spider-Man was featured in a trilogy of live-action films directed by Sam Raimi and starring Tobey Maguire as the titular superhero. The first film of the trilogy was released on May 3, 2002, followed by Spider-Man 2 (2004) and Spider-Man 3 (2007). A third sequel was originally scheduled to be released in 2011; however, Sony later decided to reboot the franchise with a new director and cast. The reboot, titled The Amazing Spider-Man, was released on July 3, 2012, directed by Marc Webb, and starred Andrew Garfield as the new Spider-Man. It was followed by The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014). In 2015, Sony and Disney made a deal for Spider-Man to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Tom Holland made his debut as Spider-Man in the MCU film Captain America: Civil War (2016), before later starring in his standalone film Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), directed by Jon Watts. Holland reprised his role as Spider-Man in Avengers: Infinity War (2018), Avengers: Endgame (2019), Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), and Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021); Maguire and Garfield reprise their roles in the latter film. Jake Johnson voiced an alternate universe version of Spider-Man in the animated film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, and reprised the role in its sequel Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023). Chris Pine also voiced another version of Peter Parker in Into the Spider-Verse.

Following a brief contract dispute over financial terms, in 2019, Sony and Disney reached a deal to allow Spider-Man to return to the MCU, with the two studios jointly producing Spider-Man films.

A Broadway musical, Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark, began previews on November 14, 2010, at the Foxwoods Theatre on Broadway, with the official opening night on June 14, 2011. The music and lyrics were written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2, with a book by Julie Taymor, Glen Berger, and Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa. Turn Off the Dark is currently the most expensive musical in Broadway history, costing an estimated $70 million. In addition, the show's unusually high running costs are reported to have been about $1.2 million per week.

In the fine arts, since the Pop Art period of the 1960s, the character of Spider-Man has been "appropriated" by multiple visual artists and incorporated into contemporary artwork, including Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Mel Ramos, Dulce Pinzon, Mr. Brainwash, and F. Lennox Campello,.

References

External links

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Spider-Man is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko, he first appeared in the anthology comic book Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962) in the Silver Age of Comic Books. He has been featured in comic books, television shows, films, video games, novels, and plays.

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Iron Man is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Co-created by writer and editor Stan Lee, developed by scripter Larry Lieber, and designed by artists Don Heck and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Tales of Suspense #39 in 1963, and received his own title with #1 in 1968. Shortly after his creation, Iron Man was a founding member of a superhero team, the Avengers, with Thor, Ant-Man, Wasp and the Hulk. Iron Man stories, individually and with the Avengers, have been published consistently since the character's creation.

Iron Man is the superhero persona of Anthony Edward " Tony" Stark, a businessman and engineer who runs the company Stark Industries. Beginning his career as a weapons manufacturer, he is captured in a war zone, and his heart is severely injured by shrapnel. To sustain his heart and escape his captors, he builds a technologically advanced armor. After escaping, he continues using the armor as a superhero, creating more advanced models that grant him superhuman strength, flight, energy projection, and other abilities. The character was used to explore political themes, and early Iron Man stories were set in the Cold War. Later stories explored other themes, such as civil unrest, technological advancement, corporate espionage, alcoholism, and governmental authority.

Major Iron Man stories include Demon in a Bottle (1979), (1987-1988), (2005), and Iron Man 2020 (2020). He is also a leading character in the company-wide stories Civil War (2006-2007), Dark Reign (2008-2009), and Civil War II (2016). Iron Man's supporting cast has produced additional superhero characters, including James Rhodes as War Machine, Pepper Potts as Rescue, and Riri Williams as Ironheart as well as reformed villains Black Widow and Hawkeye. Iron Man's list of enemies includes his archenemy, the Mandarin, as well as many supervillains of communist origin and many that double as business rivals for Stark.

Robert Downey Jr. portrayed Tony Stark in Iron Man (2008), the first film of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, and continued to portray the character until his final appearance in Avengers: Endgame (2019). Downey's portrayal popularized the character, elevating Iron Man as one of Marvel's most recognizable superheroes.

Publication history

Creation and premiere

Following the success of the Fantastic Four in 1961 and the subsequent revival of superhero comic books, Marvel set about creating new superhero characters. During this time, Stan Lee developed the initial concept for Iron Man. Lee was interested in making an unlikeable character likeable, saying that he "thought it would be fun to take the kind of character that nobody would like, none of [Marvel's] readers would like, and shove him down their throats and make them like him". Iron Man was created in the years after a permanent arms industry developed in the United States, and this was incorporated into the character's backstory. The character was introduced as an active player in the Vietnam War. Lee described the national mood toward Vietnam in which Iron Man was created as "a time when most of us genuinely felt that the conflict in that tortured land really was a simple matter of good versus evil".

As superhero comics became more popular, Marvel began replacing its previous comic book lines with superheroes. The monster-themed anthology series Tales of Suspense began running Iron Man stories alongside more traditional science-fiction and horror stories, featuring Iron Man on each cover. Iron Man's first appearance, "Iron Man is Born!", was in Tales of Suspense #39, released in December 1962 with a cover date of March 1963. In 1964, the science-fiction and horror stories were removed entirely, with the series running only Iron Man and Captain America stories.

Larry Lieber developed Iron Man's origin and wrote the first Iron Man story, while Jack Kirby and Don Heck were responsible for the initial design. Kirby initially drew Iron Man as a "round and clunky gray heap", and the design was modified by Heck to incorporate gadgets such as jets, drills, and suction cups. Heck continued as the primary Iron Man artist until 1965, as Kirby had obligations to other Marvel properties. Heck later said that when designing Tony Stark, he was attempting to create "an Errol Flynn type". Though the Iron Man armor was gray in its first appearance, it was quickly changed to gold due to issues with printing. Lee briefly delegated the writing to other creators at Marvel, but he felt that their work was substandard; as with his other characters, Lee again took control of Iron Man so he could write the stories himself.

When Marvel's distributor allowed them more monthly releases, The Avengers was developed as a new comic book series. Iron Man was one of the five characters that formed the titular superhero team. By 1965, the difficulty of maintaining continuity between The Avengers with heroes' solo comics prompted Lee to write the original cast out of The Avengers, including Iron Man.

As part of a shuffling to match artists with the characters they were most suited for, Steve Ditko became the artist for Iron Man. Ditko was responsible for only three issues in late 1963, but in this time he had Iron Man's suit redesigned with the red and gold color scheme that became the character's primary image. Iron Man's recurring nemesis, the Mandarin, first appeared shortly after in Tales of Suspense #50.

Growing opposition to the American involvement in Vietnam prompted a shift in Iron Man's characterization at this time as part of a larger push by Marvel to be more apolitical. Lee shifted the focus of Iron Man stories to espionage and domestic crime, incorporating the intelligence agency S.H.I.E.L.D. into these stories. They also incorporated the villains of other Marvel heroes, avoiding Iron Man's primarily communist rogues' gallery. Some of Iron Man's villains were given new motivations without their communist allegiances.

Previously relegated to short stories in an anthology series, Iron Man was one of several characters to receive a full length dedicated series in 1968. The final issues of Tales of Suspense and Sub-Mariner's Tales to Astonish were combined as a one-shot special, Iron Man and Sub-Mariner. then began its run under writer Archie Goodwin. Political themes were reintroduced slowly over the following years, with a focus on domestic issues like racial conflict and environmentalism rather than geopolitics.

I don't feel Tony Stark is a dinosaur, a creature unable to change before the weight of time crushes him aside. Yeah, it is hard in 1977 to praise a millionaire industrialist, playboy and former munitions-manufacturer-but it isn't impossible to change that image. Which is what I plan to do.

Over the years, the letters to the editor column in several issues saw extensive political debate. When Goodwin was made editor-in-chief, assigned Gerry Conway as the writer for Iron Man. Conway began a four-year-long effort to reform Iron Man in 1971 with stories that directly addressed the character's history as a weapons manufacturer. These stories were especially prominent during a run by Mike Friedrich, in which corporate reform of Stark Industries was a recurring subplot.

Iron Man was one of several Marvel characters that declined in popularity during the 1970s, and the series went for a period of time without a dedicated writer until Bill Mantlo took over in 1977. The following year, David Michelinie and Bob Layton took charge of the series beginning with issue #116. While inking the series, Layton used issues of , , and electronics catalogues as visual references, and they stayed informed on developments in real world technology so that the Iron Man armor would always be a more advanced version of what existed. Layton was inspired by the vast collection of specialized outfits used by Batman when designing Iron Man's various armors.

In Iron Man #117 and #118, Michelinie and Layton replaced many elements that had developed in the series: they removed Iron Man's romantic interest, they removed the Life Model Decoys that served as robotic doubles of Tony Stark, and they had him move to a different home. Iron Man's new romantic interest, Bethany Cabe, was introduced as a feminist character who worked as Tony Stark's bodyguard. The largest change they made was making Iron Man an alcoholic. This was unprecedented for a major comic book hero, and for much of popular fiction. This began the Demon in a Bottle story arc that ran from #120 to #128. At the same time, they introduced the character of Justin Hammer, who became the main backer of several Iron Man villains.

1980s and 1990s

The 1980s saw increased focus on Iron Man as a businessman reflecting the economic changes associated with Reaganomics, and many of his challenges involved threats to his company. Denny O'Neil was put in charge of Iron Man beginning with issue #158. His run explored Tony Stark's psychology, having the character again fall into his alcoholism and suffer at the hands of business rival Obadiah Stane. O'Neil eventually wrote Tony Stark out of the role entirely, having him temporarily retire as Iron Man and replacing him with his ally James Rhodes. The 1987 story arc blends the superhero and businessman aspects of Iron Man more directly when Tony Stark seeks legal recourse for rivals stealing the Iron Man technology. Michelinie and Layton returned to the series with issue #211, and they again began experimenting with different variations on the Iron Man armor.

In 1990, Michelinie and Layton stopped writing for Iron Man, and the series was given to John Byrne, one of the most highly regarded comic book writers of the time. His run consisted of three story arcs across twenty issues: Armor Wars II (which had already been announced by Michelinie and Layton), The Dragon Seed Saga, and War Games. He did not have further interest in the series by 1992, as his collaborators John Romita Jr. and Howard Mackie had moved on to other projects. During his run, Byrne rewrote Iron Man's origin to remove references to communism and the Vietnam War. Iron Man's supporting character War Machine was spun off into his own comic book series in 1994.

As part of a company-wide reorganization, Marvel's major characters, including Iron Man, were given to former Marvel writers Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld in a profit-sharing agreement. Lee and Liefeld were given charge of the 1996 Heroes Reborn branding that renumbered Marvel's long-running periodicals at #1. This new iteration, labeled volume two, was set in an alternate universe created during the Onslaught event. It ran for thirteen issues, written by Lee and Scott Lobdell and drawn by Whilce Portacio. The following year, Marvel introduced the Heroes Return event to bring the characters back from the alternate universe, which again reset characters such as Iron Man to issue #1. This was labeled volume three, which was taken on by writer Kurt Busiek and artist Sean Chen.

21st century

When the Ultimate Marvel imprint was created with reimagined versions of Marvel's characters, an alternate Iron Man appeared in 2002 with the Ultimates, the imprint's adaptation of The Avengers. A five issue limited series, Ultimate Iron Man, was released featuring this character in 2005.

In 2004, Iron Man was a major character in the Avengers Disassembled event and subsequently became a founding member of The New Avengers. Volume four of Iron Man began in 2005. This new run was written by Warren Ellis and drawn by Adi Granov, and its first story arc, sees Iron Man upgrade his body directly through the Extremis virus, giving him direct control over a biological armor. The first fourteen issues of volume four carried the Iron Man title, while issues #15-32 were titled Iron Man: Director of S.H.I.E.L.D. Iron Man was the leader of the "pro-registration" faction during the 2006 crossover event by Mark Millar and Steve McNiven. After the character was rebranded as "Director of S.H.I.E.L.D.", he also appeared with The Mighty Avengers in 2007.

Coinciding with the release of the first Iron Man film, Marvel restarted Iron Man's comic book run with Invincible Iron Man, written by Matt Fraction and drawn by Salvador Larroca. This series ran for sixty issues alongside the character's standalone film appearances, ending shortly before was set to be released. The series reverted to the original numbering in 2011, when the overall 500th issue was published as Iron Man #500. Iron Man was then one of several characters whose series was relaunched at issue #1 with the Marvel Now! branding following the 2012 Avengers vs. X-Men event. The 2014 AXIS event led into the Superior Iron Man series, featuring an amoral Iron Man.

Iron Man was again a leader of one faction during the 2016 Civil War II event by Brian Michael Bendis. As part of a broader trend by Marvel Comics to substitute its main characters with a diverse cast of original characters in the 2010s, Iron Man was then temporarily replaced by Ironheart, an African-American teenage girl who reverse engineered the Iron Man armor. At the same time, the series Infamous Iron Man was created with Dr. Doom becoming Iron Man. Invincible Iron Man was renumbered to #593 with the 2017 Marvel Legacy branding, and this issue reintroduced Tony Stark.

The series Tony Stark: Iron Man premiered in 2018 with the Fresh Start branding, written by Dan Slott and drawn by Valerio Schiti. In 2020, Iron Man was relaunched in a new series, written by Christopher Cantwell and illustrated by CAFU, following the Iron Man 2020 event. This series was written as a "back to basics" project that reverted the character to a more traditional superhero following the developments of previous series. The character was relaunched again in 2022 with Invincible Iron Man, written by Gerry Duggan and illustrated by Juan Frigeri.

Characterization

Fictional character biography

Tony Stark inherited his family's business, Stark Industries, after his parents were killed in a car crash. Developing equipment for the U.S. military, he travels to a war zone to conduct a weapons test when he triggers a booby trap. His heart is critically injured by shrapnel, and he is captured by the communist Wong-Chu, who demands that Stark build him a weapon. Stark instead builds a suit of armor that sustains his heart, becoming Iron Man. The war zone that Stark visits has been changed multiple times by different writers to correspond with the character's age, which is explained by a "sliding scale of continuity" in which the timing of significant events in the world of Marvel may change. For the first decades of Iron Man's publication history, the conflict is the Vietnam War. This was changed retroactively in the 1990s to an unnamed Southeast Asian country, and a conflict in the fictional country of Siancong was eventually established to justify the inconsistency.

Iron Man returns to the United States and becomes a superhero, convincing the public that Iron Man is Tony Stark's bodyguard. When he is called to stop Hulk and learns that Loki is behind Hulk's attack, he joins forces with Hulk, Thor, Ant-Man, and Wasp to defeat Loki, and they agree to form a superhero team, the Avengers. At the same time, he helps found the intelligence agency S.H.I.E.L.D., providing the organization with equipment. As Iron Man comes to regret his involvement in weapons manufacturing, Stark Industries is changed to Stark International, an electronics company that emphasizes environmentalism and ending world hunger. S.H.I.E.L.D. attempts to take over the business and revert it back to weapons manufacturing. At the same time, Iron Man is framed for murder. These stresses cause him to begin drinking heavily, and he develops alcoholism. Though he gets sober, he later relapses back into alcoholism as part of a plot by Obadiah Stane. Iron Man briefly loses his company to Stane, passes the mantle of Iron Man to his ally James Rhodes, and becomes homeless. After he recovers, Stane adopts an armored suit and becomes the Iron Monger before being defeated. Iron Man then founds a space technology company, Stark Enterprises. When Iron Man learns that Justin Hammer had acquired the Iron Man armor's technology, he seeks out all of the other armors. The resulting fights leave Iron Man a fugitive, leading him to fake his death and then describe himself as a new Iron Man.

Iron Man had previously undergone surgery to replace the damaged portions of his heart, eliminating the need for his prosthetic chest plate. But when he is shot in the spine and paralyzed, he develops a new prosthesis that grants him mobility. This prosthesis is hacked and controlled remotely, causing neurological damage that appears for a time to kill him. During this time, James Rhodes takes the Iron Man armor. After returning, Iron Man falls under the control of Immortus, turning him evil. The Avengers bring an alternate Tony Stark from another reality to help defeat him. Iron Man is killed, and the alternate Tony Stark becomes the new Iron Man. The original Iron Man and the alternate Iron Man are merged into a single being by Franklin Richards when he rewrites reality. His company had been bought out, so he starts a consulting firm, Stark Solutions. His secret identity is revealed to the public shortly afterward. He is then appointed Secretary of Defense until Scarlet Witch alters his mind, causing him to embarrass himself and leave in disgrace. When Mallen becomes a threat through the Extremis project, Iron Man has himself injected with the Extremis virus, giving him a biological armor that he can control with his mind.

Iron Man serves as the enforcer of the Superhero Registration Act upon its enactment, creating a schism between superheroes, with Iron Man leading proponents of registration against a group of resistors led by Captain America. At the end of the conflict, Iron Man is appointed head of S.H.I.E.L.D. When the Earth is invaded by Skrulls, S.H.I.E.L.D. is dismantled, but Iron Man refuses to turn over the list of registered heroes to its corrupt successor agency H.A.M.M.E.R. This is eventually dismantled as well, and Iron Man organizes the Avengers to replace these intelligence agencies. He founds a clean energy company, Stark Resilient, and he fakes his death so his enemies would not threaten it. He joins the Guardians of the Galaxy for a time, and upon returning to Earth, he discovers that he had actually been adopted by the Starks so their real son could be hidden. When a man is discovered who can see the future, the superhero community undergoes another schism, and Iron Man leads a team of heroes opposed to a system of predetermined justice using his ability. The battle ends with Iron Man in a coma. A reformed Victor von Doom becomes Iron Man, while an artificial intelligence backup of Stark's mind guides a new armored superhero, Ironheart, until the technology in Stark's body allows him to heal.

Personality and motivations

We really thought about how we needed to give him a weakness. It wasn't hip to have him running out of energy and looking for a light socket every few pages, or having a heart attack every time Ultimo was fighting him. So we discussed it and we thought that we would give him the corporate man's disease [alcoholism]. Something that would always haunt him.

Iron Man is a businessman and an entrepreneur who constantly seeks to innovate and improve his technology. Stan Lee modeled Iron Man after businessman Howard Hughes. The character shares many traits with Hughes, including a similar business, his reputation as an arrogant playboy, and a physical resemblance. As a businessman, Tony Stark is motivated to create and develop technology both for personal benefit and for the benefit of society. His belief in progress sometimes manifests as opposition to the press and politicians, whose attempts to keep him accountable hamper his efforts as a superhero. Iron Man was created at a time when comic book characters were first depicted struggling with real life problems, and his heart injury was an early example of a superhero with a physical disability. This injury was prominent in his early characterization, making him misanthropic so as not to reveal the nature of his injury or his secret identity, thereby threatening his autonomy and his masculinity. As real world medical technology made heart injuries less fatal, Iron Man's physical maladies extended to neurological damage. Iron Man was given a mental illness as well when he was written as an alcoholic.

When his stories frequently invoked the Cold War during his first years of publication, Iron Man stood for liberal capitalism, fighting against communism in the name of democracy and capitalism. In the early 1970s, Iron Man became more self-doubting, questioning when the use of force is justified against communism, and he responded by becoming a philanthropist. The 1990s saw Iron Man reject broader ideology in favor of individualism, and his allegiance to American democracy was replaced by his own personal values. He remains anti-communist, however, reiterating his support for democracy and refusing to do business in China following the Tiannamen Square Massacre. Iron Man is portrayed as an archetype of how masculinity is seen in the United States, with his success in business and his playboy characterization allowing the character to symbolize a masculine image of the country during the Cold War. This characterization also manifests in negative traits that were prominent in early Iron Man stories, including belligerence, negligence, and misogyny.

Iron Man prefers machines to humans, believing that machines can be more easily controlled and repaired. Writer Dennis O'Neil described the Iron Man armor as "a psychological crutch preventing him from dealing with his own inner demons". He identifies with the Iron Man armor as an extension of himself. He believes that the image it presents is his own image, and he considers himself responsible any time someone uses the technology. In the 2008 story The Five Nightmares, Iron Man narrates his five greatest fears: relapse into alcoholism, reproduction of the Iron Man technology, other people becoming Iron Man, the technology becoming disposable, and that someone else would be distributing this technology. Besides the danger that such scenarios pose, they all represent fear of Iron Man losing power over himself or his technology.

Themes and motifs

Iron Man was more overtly political than other Marvel characters of the Silver Age. Stan Lee wished to create the "quintessential capitalist", developing him as an industrialist that manufactures weapons to fight communism. From 1963 to 1968, Iron Man represented capitalism and the United States in allegories for the Cold War, particularly in reference to the Vietnam War. Though anti-communist sentiments were present throughout Marvel Comics, they appeared most prominently in Iron Man stories. This dynamic allowed Iron Man to examine the perspectives of both the individual inventor and of the bureaucracy of governments and corporations. After Marvel shifted away from addressing foreign conflicts, Iron Man was portrayed as a liberal who was skeptical of the U.S. government while also opposing radicalism associated with the counterculture of the 1960s. By 1975, Iron Man was an opponent of the Vietnam War. John Bryne's run revisited communism at the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s, but it was shown as less threatening. The absence of Cold War politics was not immediately replaced by another theme, and post-Cold War Iron Man stories often visited different ideas regarding technology for a short time before moving on. When terrorism became more prominent in the public mind, Iron Man became a symbol of anti-terrorism rather than anti-communism.

Iron Man was one of the two main characters of the 2006 Civil War event, an allegory for the Patriot Act and government surveillance. While Captain America represented liberal opposition to government surveillance in the name of individualism, Iron Man represented conservative support for government surveillance in the name of security. In this story, Iron Man represented an attempt to define what a superhero was in the 21st century following the September 11 attacks, implicitly likening the fear of terrorism to the fear of unregulated super-powered beings. While Marvel was neutral between the characters, readers overwhelmingly saw Iron Man as the villain, being the stronger force that the underdog had to overcome. A second Civil War event in 2016 portrayed Iron Man as an advocate of free will against Captain Marvel's determinism.

Technology

Technology and its influence on society is a common theme in Iron Man stories, and Iron Man has been emphasized as a technological marvel since his earliest appearances. Depictions of technology in Iron Man stories have often endorsed the use of technology to alter the natural world. This is in contrast with other Marvel superheroes of the time, when scientific advances-and radiation in particular-are portrayed as having unintended effects. Iron Man's business, Stark Industries, is depicted as a force for good that advances scientific knowledge through capitalist innovation. Reflecting his characterization as a businessman, Iron Man stories often invoke themes of economic competition, seeing him face characters that try to develop better versions of the Iron Man armor. Likewise, many of Iron Man's challenges involve corrupt business rivals and corporate espionage. The technological nature of the character means that he may also be seen as something that could possibly exist in the real world. Iron Man's position within the suit allow for discussion regarding automation versus human oversight of technology. These technological themes are explored through a modern lens during the Extremis story arc, which incorporates the idea of human enhancement through biotechnology.

The Bleeding Edge Armor, like the Extremis Armor before it, is stored in Stark's bones, and can be assembled and controlled by his thoughts.

In most depictions, Iron Man does not have any superhuman abilities. He instead derives his strength from powered armor of his own design. In addition to protecting the wearer with its durability, it allows the wearer to fly. As of 2010, Marvel Comics described Iron Man's armor as being able to lift 100 tons and to fly at Mach 8. The armor is also equipped with various weapons, which typically include particle beam "repulsor rays" in each palm that project energy as well as a stronger "unibeam" on his chest. From its first appearance, the armor is linked to the brainwaves of the wearer to allow movement. It must be calibrated to the user, and Iron Man has to design the armor specifically for who will be using it, whether it be himself or an ally. It typically has some method of being shrunk down or made more portable when not being used.

When it was first developed, the armor was described as using transistors to function. This was replaced with integrated circuits as real world technology advanced. Its primary function was to produce a magnetic field that protected his heart from the shrapnel in his body, and his efforts to keep it charged and to keep it secret sometimes drove the story's plot in early years. A contrast is made between the armor's strength and the vulnerability of the human inside it. The armor protects Iron Man externally from attacks, but it also protects him internally as it keeps his heart beating. This point is emphasized by the form-fitting design of many Iron Man armors, which incorporates a clear human-like element in an otherwise robotic-looking character.

The armor was gray in its first appearance, but Iron Man gave it gold plating in the subsequent issue, and a few issues thereafter it was replaced by the red and gold look that the character became identified with. The character constantly seeks to develop newer, more advanced variations on the armor, and he frequently designs specialized models for specific purposes. These include the space armor, the stealth armor, and the deep sea armor, as well as the Hulkbuster armor to engage in combat with the Hulk. Developments in the armor's design often reflect real world advances in technology as well as trends in science fiction. The use of a technological suit of armor has allowed artists to frequently make changes to the character's appearance without controversy.

During the Extremis story arc, Iron Man developed a biotechnological armor that was embedded in his DNA and stored in his bones, allowing him to summon the armor from within his body and control it with his mind, effectively giving him superhuman abilities. This reduced the input lag between him and his armor, allowed him to mentally interface with technology, and gave him the focus to engage in several unrelated tasks at once. The Extremis technology also converted Iron Man's mind into a digital storage device: this allowed him to create a back up of his memories. He uses this back up after wiping his mind to destroy any record of the superhero registry, but he loses access to the Extremis armor in the process. He then develops the similar Bleeding Edge armor based on nanotechnology, but he gives this up as well after being unfit to pilot it during a period of alcoholism. He has subsequently used other armors that incorporate nanotechnology.

Supporting characters

Pepper Potts is an employee of Stark Industries that Tony Stark promoted to his executive assistant. As he had little interest in running the business, much of the management was handled by her. When Stark became Iron Man and began taking responsibility for his company, she taught him how to manage the business. When Potts is injured by an explosion and receives a heart injury similar to Iron Man's, he installs the arc reactor technology in her. She eventually becomes the CEO of Stark Industries. Iron Man built her a set of armor in secret, and after finding it she became the superhero Rescue.

James Rhodes is an employee of Tony Stark's that became the superhero War Machine. He first appeared in 1979 and was developed as a supporting character in 1981. He briefly took on the role of Iron Man while Tony Stark was relapsing on alcoholism. Later on, when Stark was near death, he gave Rhodes his corporation and the War Machine Armor. After Stark returned, he had Rhodes keep the armor. Rhodes' dependency on Iron Man for his armor often constrains him as a supporting character to Stark, even in solo War Machine stories.

Happy Hogan was hired as Tony Stark's chauffeur after saving his life, and Hogan later deduced that Tony Stark was Iron Man. Edwin Jarvis is the butler for the Stark family and for the Avengers. Through Iron Man's membership in the Avengers, he has worked extensively with many of his fellow heroes, including Captain America and Thor, among others. His association with S.H.I.E.L.D. sees him working with its agents and leadership, including Nick Fury and Maria Hill. He has also taken on other heroes as sidekicks, including Spider-Man and Jack of Hearts.

Iron Man has had many romantic interests, most of which only last a short time. In Iron Man's original Tales of Suspense run, a love triangle was established in which Tony Stark and Happy Hogan both had romantic interest in Pepper Potts. Hogan eventually married Potts. Roxie Gilbert, the sister of the villain Firebrand, was introduced as a romantic interest in the early 1970s. She was a foil for both Iron Man and Firebrand, representing non-violent activism. Whitney Frost was Iron Man's romantic interest later in the decade until she turned against him as the villain Madame Masque. She was replaced by Bethany Cabe as part of an overhaul of Iron Man's supporting cast, and Cabe was Iron Man's romantic interest during his alcoholism. She left Iron Man after he saved her husband, who had been presumed dead. Iron Man later partnered with Rumiko Fujikawa, the daughter of a businessman who took over Stark Enterprises. He eventually began a relationship with his long time ally Janet van Dyne. A story arc in September 2023 saw Iron Man married to X-Men member Emma Frost.

Iron Man's earliest villains were often affiliated with the Soviet government or otherwise associated with communism. In the first three years after Iron Man was created, one-third of his villains were communists. Some of these enemies were Soviet counterparts of Iron Man, such as Titanium Man and Crimson Dynamo, while others were leadership of communist states, such as the Red Barbarian and the real-life Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev, like most communists in the series, was drawn in caricature style as a brute who only sought power. Multiple communist villains, such as Crimson Dynamo, were reformed and became heroes loyal to the United States to present Iron Man and liberal capitalism as more appealing and morally superior. Two prominent Marvel heroes, Soviet spy Black Widow and American street criminal Hawkeye, were introduced as Iron Man villains before reforming as heroes.

The Mandarin was introduced as a Chinese villain, initially incorporating racist Yellow Peril themes and stereotypes regarding China. Though he is also an allegory for autocracy, the Mandarin was not created as another communist villain. Instead, any work he does with the Chinese government is purely in self-interest. Later on, the Mandarin was retroactively established as the man behind the kidnapping of Tony Stark that created Iron Man. The Mandarin contrasts with Iron Man in that he is associated with magic and mysticism rather than science and technology, and in that he was born into nobility unlike Iron Man, who is a self-made man in line with American ideals.

Beginning in the 1970s, Iron Man faced villains that represented social conflict and unrest, such as the anarchist Firebrand and the corrupt businessman Guardsman. Villains representing concerns about technology emerged at the same time, including Ultimo. The business aspect of Iron Man's character has invited several supervillains who oppose Stark Industries rather than just Iron Man. These villains became prominent in the 1980s, and they were amplified by the backlash to the decade's consumerism that emerged in the 1990s. Some of these villains wish to compete with the corporation and steal trade secrets, such as Spymaster, Whiplash, and Beetle. Others oppose the corporation on ideological grounds, such as Atom-Smasher. Other such villains include Obadiah Stane, Justin Hammer, Shockwave, the Controller, the Mauler, and Stilt-Man. A focus on terrorism brought villains such as Zeke Stane, who carried out terrorist attacks using suicide bombers.

Alternate versions

Other characters in the Marvel Universe have taken on the role of Iron Man besides Tony Stark, including James Rhodes, Victor von Doom, and Arno Stark.

Several other versions of Iron Man exist in other universes as part of Marvel's multiverse.

In the Ultimate Universe, an alternate version of Iron Man exists as a member of the Ultimates, the universe's counterpart of the Avengers.

Cultural impact and legacy

Iron Man's appearances in the 1960s saw mixed reception from readers, many of whom criticized the character for his association with the United States military and the controversial Vietnam War. In response, Marvel rewrote the character to moderate his image and to have him directly reflect on his culpability in the harms caused by war. Iron Man became widely popular following the success of the film , which made him one of Marvel's most recognizable characters, and Iron Man is credited with redefining the superhero film genre. The relatively realistic nature of the character and the fact that he had no history of poor adaptations are factors in Iron Man's capacity to renew the interest of general audiences in superhero fiction. Since then, many publishers have listed Iron Man in the top ten in best Marvel character and best superhero lists. Iron Man's portrayal of futuristic technology has affected public image of how these technologies may develop. Heavy use of augmented reality interfaces by Iron Man, in his helmet's heads-up display and elsewhere, has informed public awareness of the technology. In 2019, a statue representing the character in his Iron Man armor was erected in Forte dei Marmi, Italy.

In other media

Iron Man was portrayed by Robert Downey Jr. in the Marvel Cinematic Universe

In 2008, a film adaptation titled was released, starring Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark and directed by Jon Favreau. Iron Man was met with positive reviews from film critics, grossing $318 million domestically and $585 million worldwide, and became the first in the long-running Marvel Cinematic Universe. Downey's casting was praised, as was his portrayal of the character; Downey's own recovery from substance abuse was seen as creating a personal connection with the character. Downey reprises his role in (2010), Marvel's The Avengers (2012), (2013), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Spider-Man: Homecoming (2017), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Avengers: Endgame (2019). Downey's character was retired following his appearance in Avengers: Endgame, but Iron Man supporting characters continue in their own Marvel Cinematic Universe titles, Ironheart and Armor Wars.

Iron Man's first animated appearance was in a seven-minute segment of the 1966 series The Marvel Super Heroes, and has since been featured in the animated series Iron Man (1994-1996) and Iron Man: Armored Adventures (2009-2012). He has also made many appearances in other Marvel animated programs, particularly those featuring the Avengers, and there have been multiple Iron Man direct-to-video releases.

Iron Man has featured in several video games, including Iron Man (2008) and Iron Man 2 (2010), which were released as adaptations of his Marvel Cinematic Universe films. He also featured in the PlayStation VR game (2020). An Iron Man action-adventure game was announced in 2022 to be developed by Motive Studio. Iron Man has also appeared in many other Marvel video games, such as those featuring the Avengers.

References

Alaniz, José. "'Does Khrushchev Tell Kennedy?'". In Darowski (2015).

Chambliss, Julian C. "War Machine". In Darowski (2015).

Cooley, Will; Rogers, Mark C. "Ike's Nightmare". In Darowski (2015).

Darowski, John. "'I would be the bad guy'". In Darowski (2015).

Darowski, Joseph J. "Cold Warrior at the End of the Cold War". In Darowski (2015).

Henebry, Charles. "Socking It to Shell-Head". In Darowski (2015).

Iadonisi, Richard A. "Fu Manchu Meets Maklu". In Darowski (2015).

Michálek, Jason. "Feminizing the Iron". In Darowski (2015).

Mulligan, Rikk. "Iron Icarus". In Darowski (2015).

Patton, Brian. "'The Iron-Clad American'". In Darowski (2015).

Sacks, Jason. "'Demon in a Bottle and Feet of Clay'". In Darowski (2015).

This, Craig. "Tony Stark: Disabled Vietnam Veteran?". In Darowski (2015).

Vohlidka, John M. "Countdown to #100". In Darowski (2015).

Zanco, Jean-Philippe. "From Armor Wars to Iron Man 2.0". In Darowski (2015).

Genter, Robert (2007). "'With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility:' Cold War Culture and the Birth of Marvel Comics". The Journal of Popular Culture. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. 40 (6): 953-978 and 965-969. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2007.00480.x.

Hogan, Jon (2009). "The Comic Book as Symbolic Environment: The Case of Iron Man". ETC: A Review of General Semantics. 66 (2): 199-214. ISSN 0014-164X. JSTOR 42578930.

Hoskin, Michael (2010). Iron Man Iron Manual Mark 3. Marvel Comics.

O'Sullivan, Mike, ed. (2015). Secret Wars: Official Guide to the Marvel Multiverse. Marvel Comics.

Minett, Mark; Schauer, Bradley. "Reforming the 'Justice' System". In Yockey (2017).

Overpeck, Deron. "Breaking Brand". In Yockey (2017).

Further reading

External links

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Iron Man is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Co-created by writer and editor Stan Lee, developed by scripter Larry Lieber, and designed by artists Don Heck and Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in Tales of Suspense #39 in 1963, and received his own title with #1 in 1968.

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The X-Men are a superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer/editer Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby, the team first appeared in The X-Men #1 (September 1963). Although initially cancelled in 1970 due to low sales, following its 1975 revival and subsequent direction under writer Chris Claremont, it became one of Marvel's most recognizable and successful franchises. They have appeared in numerous books, television shows, 20th Century Studios's X-Men films, and video games. The X-Men title may refer to the superhero team itself, the eponymous comic series, or the broader franchise including various solo titles and team books such as the New Mutants, Excalibur, and X-Force.

In the Marvel Universe, mutants are humans who are born with a genetic trait called the X-gene which grants them natural superhuman abilities, generally manifesting during puberty. Due to their differences from the majority of humanity, mutants are subject to prejudice and discrimination; many X-Men stories feature social commentary on bigotry, justice, and other political themes. The X-Men have fought against a variety of enemies, including villainous mutants, human bigots, supervillains, mystical threats, extraterrestrials, and malevolent artificial intelligence. In most iterations of the team, they are led by their founder Charles "Professor X" Xavier, a powerful telepath who runs a school for mutant children out of his mansion in Westchester, New York, which secretly is also the headquarters of the X-Men. Their stories have frequently involved Magneto, a powerful mutant with control over magnetic fields, who is depicted as an old friend of and foil to Xavier, variously acting as an adversary or as an ally.

In 1963, with the success of Spider-Man, the Hulk, Thor, Iron Man, and the Fantastic Four, co-creator Stan Lee wanted to create another group of superheroes but did not want to have to explain how they got their powers. In 2004, Lee recalled, "I couldn't have everybody bitten by a radioactive spider or exposed to a gamma ray explosion. And I took the cowardly way out. I said to myself, 'Why don't I just say they're mutants? They are born that way.'"

In a 1987 interview, Kirby said:

The X-Men, I did the natural thing there. What would you do with mutants who were just plain boys and girls and certainly not dangerous? You school them. You develop their skills. So I gave them a teacher, Professor X. Of course, it was the natural thing to do, instead of disorienting or alienating people who were different from us, I made the X-Men part of the human race, which they were. Possibly, radiation, if it is beneficial, may create mutants that'll save us instead of doing us harm. I felt that if we train the mutants our way, they'll help us - and not only help us, but achieve a measure of growth in their own sense. And so, we could all live together.

Lee devised the series title after Marvel publisher Martin Goodman turned down the initial name, "The Mutants," stating that readers would not know what a "mutant" was.

Within the Marvel Universe, the X-Men are widely regarded to have been named after Professor Xavier himself. The original explanation for the name, as provided by Xavier in The X-Men #1 (1963), is that mutants "possess an extra power ... one which ordinary humans do not!! That is why I call my students ... X-Men, for EX-tra power!"

DC Comics's Doom Patrol, which debuted several months before X-Men, was suspected by its creator Arnold Drake and its fans of having had the basic concept copied to a great degree - including a wheel-chair using leader - by Marvel Comics to create the X-Men. Other fans also speculate that Doom Patrol share similarities with another Marvel superhero team that preceded them, the Fantastic Four.

The original X-Men members that were created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, showing their original design

Early X-Men issues introduced the original team composed of Cyclops, Marvel Girl, Beast, Angel, and Iceman, along with their archenemy Magneto and his Brotherhood of Evil Mutants featuring Mastermind, Quicksilver, Scarlet Witch, and Toad. The comic focused on a common human theme of good versus evil and later included storylines and themes about prejudice and racism, all of which have persisted throughout the series in one form or another. The evil side in the fight was shown in human form and under some sympathetic beginnings via Magneto, a character who was later revealed to have survived Nazi concentration camps only to pursue a hatred for normal humanity. His key followers, Quicksilver and the Scarlet Witch, were Romani. Only one new member of the X-Men was added, Mimic/Calvin Rankin, but soon left due to his temporary loss of power.

The title lagged in sales behind Marvel's other comic franchises. In 1969, writer Roy Thomas and illustrator Neal Adams rejuvenated the comic book and gave regular roles to two recently introduced characters: Alex " Havok" Summers (Cyclops' brother, who had been introduced by Roy Thomas before Adams began work on the comic) and Lorna Dane, later called Polaris (created by Arnold Drake and Jim Steranko). However, these later X-Men issues failed to attract sales and Marvel stopped producing new stories with issue #66 (March 1970), later reprinting a number of the older comics as issues #67-93.

Giant-Size X-Men #1 (May 1975). Cover art by Gil Kane and Dave Cockrum.

In Giant-Size X-Men #1 (1975), writer Len Wein and artist Dave Cockrum introduced a new team that starred in a revival of The X-Men, beginning with issue #94. This new team replaced the previous members with the exception of Cyclops, who remained. This team differed greatly from the original. Unlike in the early issues of the original series, the new team was not made up of teenagers and they also had a more diverse background. Marvel's corporate owners, Cadence Industries, had suggested the new team should be international, feeling it needed characters with "foreign appeal". So each character was from a different country with varying cultural and philosophical beliefs, and all were already well-versed in using their mutant powers, several being experienced in combat.

The "all-new, all-different X-Men" were led by Cyclops, from the original team, and consisted of the newly created Colossus (from the Soviet Union/Russia), Nightcrawler (from West Germany/Germany), Storm (from Kenya), and Thunderbird (a Native American of Apache descent), and three previously introduced characters: Banshee (from Ireland), Sunfire (from Japan), and Wolverine (from Canada). Wolverine eventually became the breakout character on the team and, in terms of comic sales and appearances, the most popular X-Men character, even getting his own solo title. However, this team would not remain whole for long; Sunfire, who never really accepted the other members, quit shortly after their first mission, and Thunderbird died on the next. Filling in the vacancy, a revamped Jean Grey soon rejoined the X-Men under her new persona of "Phoenix". Angel, Beast, Iceman, Havok, and Polaris also made significant guest appearances.

The revived series was illustrated by Cockrum, and later by John Byrne, and written by Chris Claremont. Claremont became the series' longest-running contributor. The run met with critical acclaim and produced such landmark storylines as the death of Thunderbird, the emergence of Phoenix, the saga of the Starjammers and the M'Kraan Crystal, the introduction of Alpha Flight and the Proteus saga. Other characters introduced during this time include Amanda Sefton, Mystique, and Moira MacTaggert, with her genetic research facility on Muir Island.

The 1980s began with the comic's best-known story arc, the Dark Phoenix Saga, which saw Phoenix manipulated by the illusionist Mastermind and becoming corrupted with an overwhelming lust for power and destruction as the evil Dark Phoenix. Other important storylines included Days of Future Past, the saga of Deathbird and the Brood, the discovery of the Morlocks, the invasion of the Dire Wraiths and The Trial of Magneto!, as well as X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills, the partial inspiration for 20th Century Fox's movie X2: X-Men United, which was released on May 2, 2003.

Uncanny X-Men #227 (March 1988) by Chris Claremont and Marc Silvestri

By the early 1980s, X-Men was Marvel's top-selling comic title. Its sales were such that distributors and retailers began using an "X-Men index", rating each comic book publication by how many orders it garnered compared to that month's issue of X-Men. The growing popularity of Uncanny X-Men and the rise of comic book specialty stores led to the introduction of a number of ongoing spin-off series nicknamed "X-Books." The first of these was The New Mutants, soon followed by Alpha Flight, , , and a solo title. When Claremont conceived a story arc, the Mutant Massacre, which was too long to run in the monthly X-Men, editor Louise Simonson decided to have it overlap into several X-Books. The story was a major financial success, and when the later Fall of the Mutants was similarly successful, the marketing department declared that the X-Men lineup would hold such crossovers annually.

Throughout the decade, Uncanny X-Men was written solely by Chris Claremont, and illustrated for long runs by John Byrne, Dave Cockrum, Paul Smith, John Romita Jr., and Marc Silvestri. Additions to the X-Men during this time were Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat, Rogue, Jean Grey/Phoenix, Psylocke, Dazzler, Longshot, Jubilee, Forge and Gambit. In a controversial move, Professor X relocated to outer space to be with Lilandra Neramani, Majestrix of the Shi'ar Empire, in 1986. Magneto then joined the X-Men in Xavier's place and became the director of the New Mutants. This period also included the emergence of the Hellfire Club, the arrival of the mysterious Madelyne Pryor, and the villains Apocalypse, Mister Sinister, Mojo, and Sabretooth.

X-Men

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 1 (flagship) - a team of young mutants with superhuman abilities led and taught by Professor X (1963-1970); the team expanded when Xavier recruited mutants from around the world (1975-1985); a reformed Magneto became the headmaster after Xavier had left Earth (1985-1988); the team later relocated to the Australian Outback after the events of The Fall of the Mutants (1988-1989); after the X-Men is disassembled, the team reformed to fight the mutant-rights abuse of Genosha (1991).

X-Factor, vol. 1 - the Original Five set up a business advertised as mutant-hunters for hire, and secretly trained the captured mutants to control their powers and reintegrate them into society (1986-1991).

Excalibur, vol. 1 - Nightcrawler, Shadowcat and Rachel Grey teamed up with Captain Britain and Meggan to form a group of mutants based in Europe after the apparent death of the X-Men during The Fall of the Mutants (1988-1992).

X-Men in Training
New Mutants, vol. 1 - a group of teenaged students of the School for Gifted Youngsters gathered by Professor X

Other Teams
Alpha Flight, vol. 1 - Canada's premiere team of super-heroes organized under the auspices of the Canadian government's Department H.

Artist Jim Lee signing a hardcover collected edition of his work on X-Men (Vol 2) at Midtown Comics in Manhattan

In 1991, Marvel revised the entire lineup of X-Men comic book titles, centered on the launch of a second X-Men series, simply titled . With the return of Xavier and the original X-Men to the team, the roster was split into two strike forces: Cyclops's "Blue Team" (chronicled in X-Men) and Storm's "Gold Team" (in The Uncanny X-Men).

The first issues of the second X-Men series were written by Claremont and drawn and co-plotted by Jim Lee. Retailers pre-ordered over 8.1 million copies of issue #1, generating and selling nearly $7 million (though retailers probably sold closer to 3 million copies), making it, according to Guinness Book of World Records, the best-selling comic book of all-time. Guinness presented honors to Claremont at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con.

Another new X-book released at the time was , featuring the characters from The New Mutants, led by Cable; it was written by Rob Liefeld and Fabian Nicieza. Internal friction soon split the X-books' creative teams. In a controversial move, X-Men editor Bob Harras sided with Lee (and Uncanny X-Men artist Whilce Portacio) over Claremont in a dispute over plotting. Claremont left after only three issues of X-Men, ending his 16-year run as X-Men writer. Marvel replaced Claremont briefly with John Byrne, who scripted both books for a few issues. Byrne was then replaced by Nicieza and Scott Lobdell, who would take over the majority of writing duties for the X-Men until Lee's own departure months later when he and several other popular artists (including former X-title artists Liefeld, Portacio, and Marc Silvestri) would leave Marvel to form Image Comics. Jim Lee's X-Men designs would be the basis for much of the animated series and action figure line as well as several Capcom video games.

The 1990s saw an even greater number of X-books with numerous ongoing series and miniseries running concurrently. X-book crossovers continued to run annually, with " The X-Tinction Agenda" in 1990, " The Muir Island Saga" in 1991, " X-Cutioner's Song" in 1992, " Fatal Attractions" in 1993, " Phalanx Covenant" in 1994, " Legion Quest"/" Age of Apocalypse" in 1995, " Onslaught" in 1996, " Operation: Zero Tolerance" in 1997, " Hunt for Xavier" in 1998, "The Magneto War" in 1999, " Apocalypse: The Twelve" / " Ages of Apocalypse" in 2000 and "Eve of Destruction" in 2001. Though the frequent crossovers were criticized by fans as well as editorial and creative staff for being artificially regular, disruptive to the direction of the individual series, and having far less lasting impact than promised, they continued to be financially successful.

There were many additions to the X-Men in the 1990s, including Gambit, Cable, and Bishop. Gambit became one of the most popular X-Men, rivaling even Wolverine in size of fanbase after his debut in Uncanny X-Men #266 (Aug. 1990). Many of the later additions to the team came and went, such as Joseph, Maggott, Marrow, Cecilia Reyes, and a new Thunderbird. Xavier's New Mutants grew up and became , and the next generation of students began with Generation X, featuring Jubilee and other teenage mutants led and schooled by Banshee and ex-villainess Emma Frost at her Massachusetts Academy. In 1998, and ended and the latter was replaced with , starring Havok stranded in a parallel universe. Marvel launched a number of solo series, including , , , , , Maverick, Rogue, Storm, Magneto, Beast, Domino, Warlock, Magik, Iceman and Sabretooth, but few of the series would survive the decade.

X-Men

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 1 (flagship) - initially featured the Gold Team strike force led by Storm (1991-1995); later featured a team of X-Men recruited by Gladiator to defend the Shi'ar Empire against the Phalanx (1997); the Gold and Blue strike force merged to face new threats including Onslaught, Dark Beast, Shadow King and Magneto (1997-2000); later featured a squad led by Gambit during the Revolution revamp (2000-2001). The title is replaced by Astonishing X-Men during the Age of Apocalypse event.

vol. 2 - initially featured the Blue Team strike force led by Cyclops (1991-1995); later featured a new core group consisting of Cannonball, Cyclops, Jean Grey, Storm and Wolverine took on Sebastian Shaw and Bastion during the events of Operation: Zero Tolerance (1997); members of the Excalibur team joined the combined Gold and Blue strike force (1997-2000); later featured a squad led by Rogue during the Revolution revamp (2000-2001). The title is replaced by Amazing X-Men during the Age of Apocalypse event.

X-Force, vol. 1 - Cable re-organized the New Mutants into the para-military mutant strike team (1991-1995); the team move in with the X-Men at the X-Mansion and effectively become the X-Men's junior team (1995-1997); the team later move to San Francisco to set up a new headquarter (1997-2001); the team becomes a covert ops superhero team under the leadership of Pete Wisdom during the Revolution revamp (2001). The title is replaced by Gambit & the X-Ternals during the Age of Apocalypse event.

X-Men in Training
Generation X, vol. 1 - students at the Massachusetts Academy mentored by Banshee and the former villain White Queen (1994-2001). The title is replaced by Generation Next during the Age of Apocalypse event.

Other Teams

X-Factor, vol. 1 - the new team worked for the Pentagon replacing Freedom Force as the government-sponsored team (1991-1997); Forge later leads the mutant team as an underground government strike force (1997-1998). The title is replaced by Factor X during the Age of Apocalypse event.

Excalibur, vol. 1 - the British team expanded and stays with Moira, making Muir Island their new base (1992-1998). The title is replaced by X-Calibre during the Age of Apocalypse event.

Alpha Flight, vol. 2 - A new team formed by the reinstated Department H which is involved in clandestine and criminal activities.

In 2000, Claremont returned to Marvel and was put back on the primary X-Men titles during the Revolution revamp. He was later removed from the titles in 2001 and created his spin-off series, X-Treme X-Men. X-Men had its title changed to and writer Grant Morrison took over. The book is often referred to as the Morrison-era, due to the drastic changes they made, beginning with " E Is For Extinction", where a new villain, Cassandra Nova, destroys Genosha, killing sixteen million mutants. Morrison also brought reformed ex-villain Emma Frost into the primary X-Men team, and opened the doors of the school by having Xavier "out" himself to the public about being a mutant. The bright spandex costumes that had become iconic over the previous decades were replaced by black leather street clothes reminiscent of the uniforms of the films. Morrison also introduced Xorn, who would figure prominently in the climax of his run. Ultimate X-Men set in Marvel's revised imprint was also launched, while Chuck Austen began his controversial run on Uncanny X-Men.

Several short-lived spin-offs and miniseries started featuring several X-Men in solo series, such as Emma Frost, Mystique, Cyclops, Iceman, Blink, Chamber, Mekanix (featuring Kitty Pryde), and Nightcrawler. Many of the second-tier X-books were relaunched with new titles: Cable became Soldier X and Deadpool became Agent X.

A new series titled spawns from and replaces X-Force; it is a series that explores the crossroads between heroism and being a celebrity, and how being a mutant is only acceptable as a medium of disposable entertainment. It was known best for being a series that killed most of the introduced cast and having one of the highest team turnover rates for a superhero comic. The most prominent member to come out of X-Statix was Doop who is a green glob reminiscent of Slimer from Ghost Busters.

Another series, started at the same time and concluded in December 2007 which led to in January 2008 written by Claremont.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Emma Frost, Danielle Moonstar, Husk and Northstar while former villain Juggernaut became member of the X-Men. Notable story arcs of this era are " E Is For Extinction" (2001), " Planet X" and " Here Comes Tomorrow".

X-Men

New X-Men, vol. 1 (flagship) - The X-Men took in dozens of students expanding the school from a training center to a legitimate school (2001-2004).

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 1 - Nightcrawler and Angel co-lead the X-Men's primary field team to face new threat (2001-2004).

X-Treme X-Men, vol. 1 - Storm formed a globe-trotting team to hunt down missing copies of the Destiny's Diaries (2001-2004).

X-Men in Training
New Mutants, vol. 2 - features a new group of teenage mutants attending the Xavier Institute.

Other Teams

Exiles, vol. 1 - a revolving team roster from different realities, which have been removed from time and space, employed by the Timebroker to fix broken realities.

X-Statix - featured a group of young mutants marketed to be media superstars.

NYX - featured a group of teenage mutants as they attempt to survive on the streets of New York City.

Weapon X, vol. 2 - featured The Underground, a group assembled by Cable to oppose the activities of the third installment of the Weapon X Project.

X-Men ReLoad was the name given by Marvel Comics to their May 2004 revamp of the X-Men titles, including new visual designs for the characters.[citation needed ] The revamp was prompted by Grant Morrison's departure from New X-Men. As a result of the revamp, Chris Claremont moved from writing X-Treme X-Men to writing Uncanny X-Men, with Alan Davis doing the art. Chuck Austen moved from writing Uncanny X-Men to New X-Men, which returned to its old name of simply X-Men, with Salvador Larroca, who had been working with him on Uncanny X-Men doing the art. Finally, Joss Whedon entered as the writer of the new title Astonishing X-Men, with John Cassaday as artist. X-Treme X-Men was cancelled. ended in October 2004. Also, the X-Men returned to more traditional (if not slightly revised) costumes, as opposed to the black leather uniforms from the movies. New X-Men: Academy X was also launched focusing on the lives of the new young mutants at the institute. This period included the resurrections of Colossus and Psylocke, a new death for Jean Grey, who later returned temporarily in the X-Men: Phoenix - Endsong, as well as Emma Frost becoming the new headmistress of the institute. The institute, formerly run as a school (until the depowering of 98% of the mutant population), served as a safe haven to mutants who are still powered.[citation needed ]

Several short-lived spin-offs and miniseries started featuring several X-Men in solo series, such as Nightcrawler, Jubilee, Madrox, , Gambit and Rogue. Cable and 's books were merged into one book, Cable & Deadpool.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Armor, Pixie and Warpath, while former villains such as Lady Mastermind, Mystique, and Sabretooth became members of the X-Men. Notable story arcs of this decade are " Gifted" (2004), " House of M" (2005), " Deadly Genesis" (2005-2006), " Decimation" (2006) and " Endangered Species" (2007). The X-Men were also involved in the " Civil War" and " World War Hulk" storylines.

X-Men

Astonishing X-Men, vol. 3 (flagship) - Cyclops leads the team of X-Men and they start presenting themselves as superheroes again.

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 1 - Storm and her team continued operating as officially sanctioned mutant law enforcers (2004-2006); post Deadly Genesis, it featured Xavier taking a team to space to hunt Vulcan when he seeks vengeance on the Shi'ar Empire (2006-2007); the team returned to Earth to fight a group of rogue Morlocks (2007).

X-Men, vol. 2 - Havok led a new field team consisting of Polaris, Iceman, Rogue, Gambit, Wolverine and Juggernaut (2004-2006); later featured Rogue assembling a rapid response team featuring the most dangerous X-Men former villains (2006-2007).

X-Men in Training
New X-Men: Academy X - the school is rebuilt after Xorn's attack and Emma Frost and Cyclops are named headmasters, organizing the student body into different squad who train together.
, vol. 2 - After House of M and Decimation, Emma Frost disbanded all former training squads and integrated those students she deemed capable of combat to a new team.

Other Teams

Excalibur, vol. 3 - Professor X and Magneto formed a team to rebuild the devastated mutant nation of Genosha.

X-Factor, vol. 3 - a mutant detective agency founded by Madrox based on Mutant Town.

New Excalibur - After Decimation, Captain Britain brings together a new team of Excalibur as the British government decided to become more pro-active with metahuman affairs.

District X - Bishop is assigned to the Mutant Town to investigate rising crime rates.

X-Force, vol. 2 - Cable re-assembles the team in order to stop an immortal creature called Skornn.

Weapon X, vol. 2 - featured Wolverine, Fantomex and Agent Zero quest to find the recently revived John Sublime.

Exiles, vol. 1 - the team learned the true nature of the Timebroker and later traveled through different realities to chase Proteus.

Alpha Flight, vol. 3 - Sasquatch recruits novice Canadian heroes to rescue the members kidnapped by the Plodex.

In 2007, the " Messiah Complex" storyline saw the destruction of the Xavier Institute and the disbanding of the X-Men. It spun the new volumes of , following the team led by Wolverine, and Cable, following Cable's attempts at protecting Hope Summers. X-Men was renamed into X-Men: Legacy which focused on Professor X, Rogue and Gambit. Under Cyclops's leadership, the X-Men later reformed in Uncanny X-Men #500, with their new base located in San Francisco.

In 2009, " Messiah War," written by Craig Kyle and Chris Yost to serve as the second part in the trilogy that began with "Messiah Complex," was released. , written by Matt Fraction, was a crossover of Dark Avengers and Uncanny X-Men that served as a part of the " Dark Reign" storyline. A new New Mutants volume written by Zeb Wells, which featured the more prominent members of the original team reunited, was launched. Magneto joined the X-Men during the Nation X storyline to the dismay of other members of the X-Men, such as Beast, who left the team. Magneto began to work with Namor to transform Utopia into a homeland for both mutants and Atlanteans. After the conclusion of Utopia, Rogue became the main character of X-Men: Legacy. In 2010, " Second Coming" concluded the plot threads on Messiah Complex and Messiah War.

Several short-lived miniseries started featuring several X-Men in solo series, such as Daken, Cable, Psylocke, Namor: The First Mutant and X-23.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Pixie, Karma, Sunspot, Magma, Magik, Namor, Domino, Boom Boom, Fantomex and X-23. Other notable story arcs of this era are " Divided We Stand" (2008), " Manifest Destiny" (2008-2009), " X-Infernus", " Utopia" (2009), " Nation X" (2009-2010), " Necrosha" (2009), " Curse of the Mutants" (2010-2011), and " Age of X" (2011). The X-Men were also involved in the " Secret Invasion", " War of Kings", " Siege", " Chaos War" and " Fear Itself" storylines.

X-Men

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 1 (flagship) - The X-Men open their new base in San Francisco and invite the world's mutant to join them (2008-2009); Cyclops later decided to move the mutant population to Utopia and off U.S. soil to avoid further persecution by the government (2009-2011).

X-Men Legacy, vol. 1 - featured Professor X's road to recovery as well as the encounters he faced during Messiah CompleX (2008-2009); later featured Rogue as mentor to the younger mutants under the protection of the X-Men on Utopia (2009-2011).

New Mutants, vol. 3 - the original team is reunited to form a new field team for the X-Men.

Astonishing X-Men, vol. 3 - the X-Men serve as protectors of San Francisco City.

X-Men, vol. 3 - featured team-ups between characters of X-Men and other superheroes such as Blade, Spider-Man, Ghost Rider and the Future Foundation.

Other Teams

X-Force, vol. 3 - Wolverine leads a more militaristic black-ops branch of the X-Men.

X-Factor, vol. 3 - the agency briefly moved to Detroit, Michigan and expanded to include several new partners.

Dark X-Men - Norman Osborn formed his own group of X-Men during the riots at San Francisco.

Alpha Flight, vol. 4 - the Canadian team provides rescue efforts for the victims during the events of Fear Itself.

Exiles, vol. 2 - a new team of heroes are brought together by Morph, acting as the new Timebroker.

"Schism" through "Regenesis"

In 2011, the aftermath of the " X-Men: Schism" storyline led to the fallout between Wolverine and Cyclops. During the " Regenesis" storyline, Wolverine's team was featured in a new flagship series titled Wolverine and the X-Men, Wolverine rebuilt the original X-Mansion and named it the Jean Grey School for Higher Learning. Meanwhile, Uncanny X-Men relaunched for the first time ever and served as the flagship title for Cyclops' Team. In 2012 " Avengers vs. X-Men" served as a closure to the "House of M" and "Decimation" storylines. It featured the death of Professor X and the reappearance of new mutants after the return of the Phoenix Force.

Several short-lived miniseries started featuring several X-Men in solo series, such as Storm, Gambit and Magneto: Not a Hero (featuring Magneto and Joseph).

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Warbird and Blink. The " Avengers vs. X-Men" storyline also took place during this period.

Cyclops' X-Men

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 2 - the flagship of the Cyclops' team with the Extinction Team dealing with potential threats to mutantkind's survival.

Generation Hope - a rapid response team locating new lights as they manifested with Rogue and later Shadowcat serving as liaison

Wolverine's X-Men

X-Men in Training
Wolverine and the X-Men (also served as the flagship title)

Other Teams

Uncanny X-Force, vol. 1 - a black ops team led by Wolverine with members from the previous strike force.

X-Factor, vol. 3 - Havok stepped back in to co-lead with Polaris after the disappearance of Madrox.

X-Treme X-Men, vol. 2 - a group of heroes from alternate dimensions led by Dazzler to defeat the Ten Evil Xaviers.

- the X-Men's Science Team dealing with the mutant birth crisis and the effects of M-Day.

Age of Apocalypse - featured the X-Terminated, human resistance fighters banded together to save the human race by taking out Weapon X and his new mutant regime.

In 2012, as part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch, all X-Men titles (except Astonishing X-Men & Wolverine and the X-Men) were canceled, including Uncanny X-Men, X-Men: Legacy, and New Mutants. New flagship title All-New X-Men was launched which featured the original five X-Men members who were brought to the present day by Beast and were made a separate team led eventually by Kitty. The relaunched Uncanny X-Men featured Cyclops, his team and the new mutants, taking up residency in the Weapon X facility, which they have rebuilt into a school - the New Charles Xavier School for Mutants. An all female book titled simply X-Men was also launched. During All-New Marvel Now!, Astonishing X-Men was cancelled and in its place another flagship title Amazing X-Men was launched which featured the return of Nightcrawler and became the flagship title of Wolverine's team. Also, Wolverine and the X-Men was relaunched and turned into mutants-in-training book. In 2013, for the 50th anniversary of the X-Men, " Battle of the Atom" was published which involved members of both X-Men schools trying to decide what to do about the time-displaced original X-Men, culminating in a confrontation with a version of the Brotherhood and the X-Men from an unspecified future date. In 2014, Wolverine was killed off in the " Death of Wolverine" story arc, as the conclusion of a storyline that saw him lose his healing factor after he was infected by an intelligent virus.

Several short-lived miniseries started featuring several X-Men in solo series, such as X-Men Legacy (featuring Legion), Cyclops, Magneto, Nightcrawler, Storm and All-New Doop.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Firestar and M. Notable story arcs of this era are " Battle of the Atom" (2013), " X-Termination" (2013), " Death of Wolverine" (2014), " AXIS" (2014) and " The Black Vortex" (2015).

Other Teams

Cable and X-Force - a fugitive team led by Cable to face the threats that he saw in his visions.

Uncanny X-Force, vol. 2 - a proactive team of misfit X-Men led by Psylocke.

All-New X-Factor - a corporate-sponsored X-Factor team hired by Serval Industries.

X-Force, vol. 4 - the remnants of Cable's X-Force and Psylocke's X-Force merge to form a superhuman black ops.

Wolverines - a group of mutants with healing factor are captured by the Paradise escapees to help them find the adamantium-petrified body of Wolverine.

Variant cover of Extraordinary X-Men #17, Dec. 2016 (flagship series of this era) during the "Inhumans vs. X-Men" story arc. Art by Jorge Molina.

In 2015, as part of " All-New, All-Different Marvel", three team books were launched: the second volume of All-New X-Men, the fourth volume of Uncanny X-Men and Extraordinary X-Men. X-23 took on the mantle of Wolverine and got a new solo series and Old Man Logan also received a new ongoing series when the character found himself in (from his perspective) an alternate past. During this period, the mutants dealt with the threat of the Terrigen cloud that circulated the world and appeared to be toxic to them, placing the X-Men at odds with the Inhumans. The X-Men also dealt with Apocalypse resurfacing, and the truth of what happened between Cyclops and the Inhumans that led to his death. Storm's team resided in Limbo and worked to bring mutants to safety away from the Terrigen. Magneto's team took on a more militant approach. Beast worked alongside the Inhumans to attempt to find a way to alter the state of the Terrigen, but later discovered that it couldn't be altered and would have rendered Earth toxic for mutants. This revelation caused the X-Men to declare war against the Inhumans, but this conflict ended when the Inhumans learned what was happening, with Medusa sacrificing the Terrigen cloud to save the mutants.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Old Man Logan and Cerebra. Notable story arcs of this era are "Apocalypse Wars" (2016), " Death of X" (2016) and " Inhumans vs. X-Men" (2016-2017). The X-Men were also involved in the " Civil War II" and " Monsters Unleashed" storylines.

X-Men

Extraordinary X-Men - the flagship of the X-titles with X-Men relocated to Limbo following the release of the Terrigen Mists.

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 4 - Magneto leads a team of deadly mutants to deal with threats to mutantkind.

All-New X-Men, vol. 2 - the time-displaced original X-Men embarking on a roadtrip in an attempt to live normal lives.

In 2017, the ResurrXion lineup was launched with X-Men: Prime. It introduced new titles; , , , new volumes of Astonishing X-Men and Generation X, new solo series for Cable, Jean Grey, and Iceman, and continuation of the Old Man Logan and All-New Wolverine run. With the Terrigen gone, the X-Men vacated Limbo and moved to Central Park where they returned to their heroic roots instead of constantly living in fear for their survival. Other notable changes include Kitty Pryde as the new leader of the X-Men, the time-displaced X-Men working with Magneto, Old Man Logan turning Weapon X into a black ops team, and mutant characters crossing over from Earth-1610 to the Earth-616 universe. Early 2018 saw the Phoenix Force returning to earth and mysteriously resurrecting the original Jean Grey. A new series featuring the original Jean leading a team of X-Men called was released later that same month. Rogue and Gambit's relationship became a focal point during the Rogue & Gambit miniseries and again in the Till Death Do Us Part story arc in X-Men Gold, which saw the two finally tie the knot, and once more during the Mr. & Mrs. X miniseries, which saw the new couple attempt to take their honeymoon but end up involved in an intergalactic conspiracy. Other noteworthy plot points included Wolverine's return coinciding with the arrival of a mysterious new villain named Persephone, Psylocke's return to her original body, Magneto's steady return to villainy, and the time-displaced X-Men facing the consequences of their presence in the 616 timeline, and the return of Cyclops. 2019 saw a new volume of Uncanny X-Men released beginning with a 10-part weekly story arc. Several solo series were launched, including Legion, Multiple Man, Domino, Shatterstar and X-23, before the revamp of the entire X-Men lineup.

Mainly Charles Xavier, Cyclops, Wolverine and Jean were resurrected and time-displaced X-Men returned to their original timeline during the Extermination event.

Notable additions to the X-Men have been Pyro, Gentle, Scout, Trinary, Wolfsbane and Multiple Man. Notable story arcs of this decade are "Weapons of Mutant Destruction" (2017), "Phoenix Resurrection: The Return of Jean Grey" (2017-2018), "Poison X" (2018), "Extermination" (2018), " Hunt for Wolverine" (2018), " Return of Wolverine" (2018-2019), "X-Men: Disassembled" (2018-2019) and " Age of X-Man" (2019). The X-Men were also involved in the "Venomized", " Secret Empire" and " War of the Realms" storylines.

X-Men

X-Men Gold - the flagship of the X-titles with Kitty Pryde leading the X-Men at the new location at Central Park; an ad hoc team is led by Iceman while Kitty Pryde and her team are in prison.

X-Men Blue - the time-displaced original X-Men mentored by Magneto; an ad hoc team is led by Polaris while the Original Five is lost in space.

Astonishing X-Men, vol 4 - an ad hoc team of X-Men members reunited in London to fight the Shadow King; later featured a ragtag team of X-Men co-led by Havok and Beast against the threat of the Reavers.

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 5 - Jean Grey leads the remnants of the Gold and Red team after Nate Grey resurfaces proclaiming himself the mutant messiah and reshaping the world in his own view; Cyclops and Wolverine reformed the team following the dissolution of the X-Men after fighting X-Man.

X-Men in Training
Generation X, vol. 2 - Jubilee's group of students at the rechristened Xavier Institute.

Other Teams

Weapon X, vol. 3 - a black ops team of heroes and villains working together to take down a new Weapon X program.

New Mutants: Dead Soul - a team of former New Mutants and X-Factor members founded by Karma to investigate paranormal occurring.

X-Force, vol. 5 - original X-Force members Domino, Shatterstar, Cannonball, and Warpath are on the hunt for Kid Cable.

Exiles, vol. 3 - The Unseen recruits champions from alternate universes to save the multiverse from the Time Eaters.

On May 14, 2019, Marvel announced they would cancel all the X-Men titles and relaunch the entire lineup. Jonathan Hickman will have full creative control and will start with two rotating bi-weekly six-issue limited series called House of X and Powers of X. After the 12 issues are released, Hickman will pen the flagship title and several new and traditional titles will be released. It was subsequently announced in July 2019 at San Diego Comic-Con that there would be six new X-titles as part of Marvel's campaign. Following the end of the crossover, the sequel relaunch will encompass a new era in the X-titles. Destiny of X featured the Second Krakoan Age of X-Men after the events of Inferno and X Lives of Wolverine/X Deaths of Wolverine. Mutantkind's unparalleled growth and prosperity on the island nation Krakoa was threatened during the by the human supremicist organization Orchis. Marvel teased the X-Men's final battle for Krakoa's future in the two interconnected titles Fall of the House of X and Rise of the Powers of X.

Several miniseries and one-shots started featuring several X-Men in team-up and solo series such as Giant-Size X-Men (featuring Jean Grey, Emma Frost, Magneto, Nightcrawler, Fantomex, Storm and Thunderbird), Wolverine, Cable, Juggernaut, Sabretooth, Rogue and Gambit, Astonishing Iceman, Children of the Vault (featuring Cable and Bishop), Uncanny Spider-Man (featuring Nightcrawler), Jean Grey, Ms. Marvel: The New Mutant and Ms. Marvel: Mutant Menace.

Notable addition to the X-Men have been Synch, Ms. Marvel (Kamala Khan), and Rasputin IV. Notable story arcs of this era are " X of Swords" (2020), " Hellfire Gala" (2021), " Trial of Magneto" (2021)," Inferno" (2021), " X Lives of Wolverine/X Deaths of Wolverine" (2022), " Judgment Day" (2022), " Dark Web" (2022-2023), " Sins of Sinister" (2023) and "Weapons of Vengeance" (2023). The X-Men were also involved in the " Empyre", "The Last Annihilation", " King in Black", " Devil's Reign", " Contest of Chaos" storylines.

Flagship Teams

Immortal X-Men - one of the flagship titles launched during Destiny of X focusing on the politics within the Quiet Council of Krakoa. The title is replaced by Immoral X-Men during the Sins of Sinister event. The storyline is concluded in the limited series X-Men Forever.

vol. 2 - one of the flagship titles launched during Destiny of X featuring the Planet Arakko under the guidance of the conflicting factions of Storm's Brotherhood and Brand's X-Men Red, and later with Genesis' Great Ring. The title is replaced by Storm & the Brotherhood of Mutants during the Sins of Sinister event. The storyline is concluded in the limited series Resurrection of Magneto.

Other Teams

Dawn of X

Marauders, vol. 1 - Captain Kate Pryde led a pirate team traveling the world for the supply and trade of the Krakoan drugs and smuggling of mutants into and out of nations hostile to Krakoa.

vol. 4 - Betsy Braddock (as Captain Britain) and her team explore the connection between mutant powers and magic in the Otherworld. The storyline is continued in the series Knights of X.

New Mutants, vol. 4 - Magik led a spacefaring team of classic New Mutants and Generation X members, and later acts as mentor to younger mutants in Krakoa; a second team of outreach party seek young mutants who have chosen not to come to Krakoa. The resident New Mutants' adventure continued in New Mutants: Lethal Legion.

Fallen Angels, vol. 2 - Kwannon (as Psylocke) recruits Cable and X-23 for a personal mission which could jeapordize all of mutantkind.

X-Force, vol. 6 - the mutant black-ops team dealing with the security of Krakoa.

Hellions - a team of mutant troublemakers given an outlet for their gene-given desires.

X-Factor, vol. 4 - a team investigating and enforcing the Resurrection Protocols. The storyline in continued in the series X-Men: Trial of Magneto.

Reign of X

S.W.O.R.D., vol. 2 - the mutant nation's forefront representatives to the outer universe.

Children of the Atom - a group of young vigilantes operating in New York City posing as mutants.

- Nightcrawler assembled a team focused on the path of answers for mutantkind's spirituality. The title is concluded in the one-shot X-Men: The Onslaught Revelation.

- a corporate team headed by CXOs Warren and Monet staffed with some of the brightest and most deviant minds in mutantkind.

Destiny of X

vol. 2 - Captain Pryde leads a new crew for rescuing mutants.

Knights of X - Captain Britain leads a team of ten knights into Otherworld in a quest to search the Siege Perilous. The title concluded in the series Betsy Braddock: Captain Britain.

Legion of X - the mutant police force formed by Nightcrawler and Legion. During the Sins of Sinister event, the title is replaced by Nightcrawlers featuring Sinister's private army of chimera assassins.

X-Terminators, vol. 2 - a limited series featuring Wolverine, Dazzler, Jubilee and Boom-Boom battling armies of vampires.

Sabretooth & the Exiles - the mutants exiled in The Pit are in pursuit of an escaped Sabretooth. The title is a continuation of the Sabretooth solo series and is concluded in the Sabretooth War arc of the Wolverine series.

Bishop: War College - Bishop training young mutants as War Captains in training for Krakoa.

Fall of X

Uncanny Avengers, vol. 4 - a new lineup of the Unity Squad formed to foster the unity between humanity and the mutant nation of Krakoa.

Dark X-Men, vol. 2 - Madelyne Pryror formed a team based out of Limbo to fill the void left by the X-Men.

Realm of X - a team of mutantkind's fiercest warriors sent on a mystical mission in Vanaheim to fight the White Witch.

Alpha Flight, vol. 5 - two Alpha Flight squads, split between human and mutant members, are secretly working together to transport mutants to Chandilar.

Dead X-Men - the fallen heroes murdered in the Hellfire Gala are guided by Askani on a sacred mutant mission to find for an intact biological Moira mind in one of Sinister's close-engine timelines.

During the panel at SXSW 2024, a new era of mutant mythos is announced with the X-Men scattered across the planet as they attempt to rebuild themselves in the wake of the acclaimed Krakoan Age.

Flagship Teams

X-Men, vol. 7 - Scott Summers is leading a team from their base in Alaska using Cerebra to secure mutantkind's future.

Uncanny X-Men, vol. 6 - Rogue leads a team of outlaw heroes from their new base of operations in New Orleans.

Exceptional X-Men - Emma Frost and Kate Pryde mentor an all-new team of young mutants in Chicago.

Other Teams

X-Force, vol. 7 - Forge leads a mutant team in off-the-books missions to solve the increasing threats across the planet.

NYX, vol. 2 - a group of young mutants navigating New York City free from the X-Men's guidance and Krakoa's protection.

X-Factor, vol. 5 - Angel and Havok co-lead a government-sanctioned team for mutant propaganda.

The X-Men team lineup has varied throughout the years and splintered into several other newer teams.

The original team lineup introduced Cyclops, Jean Grey, Beast, Angel, and Iceman as well as Professor X. Later issues brought fan favorites and frequent members Wolverine, Storm, Colossus, Nightcrawler, Havok, Polaris etc.

The X-Men have a rogues gallery of enemies they fight on a regular basis, the most well-known being Magneto, the mutant Master of Magnetism and Professor X's former friend.

Other popular enemies include the shapeshifting Mystique, the ancient mutant Apocalypse, the mad scientist Mister Sinister, the mutant-hunting Sentinel robots, villain teams such as the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants and the Hellfire Club, and the constant racism and discrimination from humans.

The X-Men use many recurring plot-devices and motifs for their various story arcs over the years that have become commonplace within the X-Men canon.

The conflict between mutants and normal humans is often compared to real-world conflicts experienced by minority groups in America such as African Americans, various religious or non-religious groups, ( ethnic minorities, autistic individuals, the LGBTQ community, etc.) It has been remarked that attitudes towards mutants do not make sense in the context of the Marvel Universe, since non-mutants with similar powers are rarely regarded with fear; X-Men editor Ann Nocenti remarked that "I think that's literary, really - because there is no difference between Colossus and the Torch. If a guy comes into my office in flames, or a guy comes into my office and turns to steel, I'm going to have the same reaction. It doesn't really matter that I know their origins. ... as a book, The X-Men has always represented something different - their powers arrive at puberty, making them analogous to the changes you go through at adolescence - whether they're special, or out of control, or setting you apart - the misfit identity theme." Also on an individual level, a number of X-Men serve a metaphorical function as their powers illustrate points about the nature of the outsider.

The X-Men are hated, feared and despised collectively by humanity for no other reason than that they are mutants. So what we have here, intended or not, is a book that is about racism, bigotry and prejudice.

-Uncanny X-Men writer Chris Claremont, 1981

1980s storylines involving the fictional island nation of Genosha, where mutants are segregated and enslaved by an apartheid state, are widely interpreted as a reference to the contemporary situation of apartheid in South Africa. (2002) explicitly cites the Norman Rockwell painting The Problem We All Live With. The miniseries portrays using the mutant context affirmative action, National Guard troops escorting a new student, sympathetic and antagonistic majority members, and majority-supremacist terrorism. Some mutants avoid confrontation and seek integration, while more militant mutants play the race card, reject their human-given names, and denounce those who do not as Stepin Fetchit and Uncle Tom.

Antisemitism: Explicitly referenced in recent decades is the comparison between antimutant sentiment and antisemitism. Magneto, a Holocaust survivor, sees the situation of mutants as similar to those of Jews in Nazi Germany. At one point he even utters the words "never again" in a 1992 episode of the X-Men animated series. The mutant slave labor camps on the island of Genosha, in which numbers were burned into mutant's foreheads, show much in common with Nazi concentration camps, as do the internment camps of the classic "Days of Future Past" storyline. In the third X-Men film, when asked by Callisto: "If you're so proud of being a mutant, then where's your mark?" Magneto shows his concentration camp tattoo, while mentioning that he will never let another needle touch his skin. In the prequel film X-Men: First Class, a fourteen-year-old Magneto suffers Nazi human experimentation during his time in the camps and witnesses his mother's death by gunshot.

Diversity: Characters within the X-Men mythos hail from a wide variety of nationalities. These characters also reflect religious, ethnic or sexual minorities. Examples include Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat, Magneto and Sabra who are of Jewish descent. Dust, Ms. Marvel, and M who are Muslim, Nightcrawler who is a devout Catholic. Neal Shaara/Thunderbird who is Hindu. Jubilee is Chinese American, Gambit is born to Cajun parents from New Orleans, Louisiana and Rogue is from Caledecott County, Mississippi both of whom are Southerners. Warpath along with his deceased brother the first Thunderbird are Native Americans of Apache descent. Storm represents two aspects of the African diaspora as her father was African American and her mother was Kenyan. Karma was portrayed as a devout Catholic from Vietnam, who regularly attended Mass and confession when she was introduced as a founding member of the New Mutants. This team also included Wolfsbane (a devout Scottish Presbyterian), Danielle Moonstar (a Native American of Cheyenne descent), Cannonball, and was later joined by Magma (a devout Greco-Roman classical religionist). Different nationalities included Wolverine, Aurora, Northstar, Deadpool and Transonic from Canada; Colossus and Magik from Russia; Banshee and Siryn from Ireland; Dust from Afghanistan; Psylocke, Wolfsbane and Chamber from the United Kingdom; Sunfire, Armor, Surge and Zero from Japan; Sunspot from Brazil; M from Monaco; Nightcrawler from Germany; Sabra from Israel; Omega Sentinel, Neal Shaara, Kavita Rao and Indra from India; Velocidad from Mexico; Oya from Nigeria; Primal from Ukraine; etc.

LGBT themes: Some commentators have noted the similarities between the struggles of mutants and the LGBT community, noting the onset of special powers around puberty and the parallels between being closeted and the mutants' concealment of their powers. In the comics series, gay and bisexual characters include Anole, Bling!, Destiny, Karma, Mystique, Psylocke, Courier, Northstar (whose marriage was depicted in the comics in 2012), Graymalkin, Rictor, Shatterstar, Shade, the Ultimate version of Colossus and later Iceman after revealing that he is a mutant; the comics version of the character was then revealed to be gay in 2015. Transgender issues also come up with shapechangers like Mystique, Copycat, and Courier who can change gender at will. It has been said that the comic books and the X-Men animated series delved into the AIDS epidemic with a long-running plot line about the Legacy Virus, a seemingly incurable disease thought at first to attack only mutants (similar to the AIDS virus which at first was spread through the gay community). In the film X-Men: First Class, Hank McCoy is asked by his CIA boss why he never disclosed his mutant identity, and his response was "you didn't ask, I didn't tell".

Communism and socialism: Occasionally, undercurrents of the real-life "Red Scare" are present or the events of the Red Scare in history are alluded to. Senator Robert Kelly's proposal of a Mutant Registration Act is similar to the efforts of United States Congress to try to ban communism in the United States. In the 2000 film, Kelly exclaims, "We must know who these mutants are and what they can do," even brandishing a "list" of known mutants (a reference to Senator Joseph McCarthy's list of Communist Party USA members who were working in the government).

Religion: Religion is an integral part of several X-Men storylines. It is presented as both a positive and negative force, sometimes in the same story. The comics explore religious fundamentalism through the person of William Stryker and his Purifiers, an antimutant group that emerged in the 1982 graphic novel God Loves, Man Kills. The Purifiers believe that mutants are not human beings but children of the devil, and have attempted to exterminate them several times, most recently in the "Childhood's End" storyline. By contrast, religion is also central to the lives of several X-Men, such as Nightcrawler, a devout Catholic, and Dust, a devout Sunni Muslim who wears an Islamic niqāb.

Subculture: In some cases, the mutants of the X-Men universe sought to create a subculture of the typical mutant society portrayed. The Morlocks, though mutants like those attending Xavier's school, hide away from society within the tunnels of New York. These Morlock tunnels serve as the backdrop for several X-Men stories, most notably The Mutant Massacre crossover. This band of mutants illustrates another dimension to the comic, that of a group that further needs to isolate itself because society won't accept it. In Grant Morrison's stories of the early 2000s, mutants are portrayed as a distinct subculture with "mutant bands," mutant use of code-names as their primary form of self-identity (rather than their given birth names), and a popular mutant fashion designer who created outfits tailored to mutant physiology. The series takes place in an area of New York City called "Mutant Town." These instances can also serve as analogies for the way that minority groups establish subcultures and neighborhoods of their own that distinguish them from the broader general culture. Director Bryan Singer has remarked that the X-Men franchise has served as a metaphor for acceptance of all people for their special and unique gifts. The mutant condition that is often kept secret from the world can be analogous to feelings of difference and fear usually developed in everyone during adolescence.[citation needed ]

Genocide: Genocide and its psychological aftereffects, primarily survivor guilt, are recurring elements in some of the most significant X-Men story arcs. Magneto was a survivor of The Holocaust and witnessed the genocide of his people, severely scarring him emotionally and leaving him with a strong distrust of humanity. Because of this he constantly toes the line between ally and enemy of the X-Men. The iconic Days of Future Past story line saw an alternate future where Sentinels committed genocide on most of the world's mutants. In Rachel Summers' original timeline, she was captured by humans and turned into a 'hound' used to hunt down other mutants in order to capture and kill them, leaving her extremely traumatized by the experience and knowledge that she unwittingly assisted in the genocide of her own people. Bishop's childhood consisted of him being trapped in a mutant concentration camp, leaving him so emotionally scarred as an adult that upon returning to the past he was prepared to kill a baby who might have caused his future. When Cassandra Nova committed genocide on Genosha, the event left both Emma Frost and Polaris traumatized by survivor's guilt as they were amongst the limited few survivors. While taking some time off in Germany, Nightcrawler witnessed the genocide of numerous mutants. The event left him as an emotional shell of who he used to be because of the trauma of what he witnessed until he had psychic therapy with Jean to help him cope. Other characters who have either committed or have survived genocide include Mystique, Callisto, Apocalypse, Onslaught, Bastion, Mister Sinister, Hope Summers, Cable, and the Phoenix Force.

Many of the X-Men's stories delve into time travel either in the sense of the team traveling through time on a mission, villains traveling through time to alter history, or certain characters traveling from the past or future in order to join the present team. Story arcs and spin-offs that are notable for using this plot device include Days of Future Past, Messiah Complex, All-New X-Men, Messiah War, and Battle of the Atom. Characters who are related to time travel include: Apocalypse, Bishop, Cable, Old Man Logan, Prestige, Hope Summers, Tempus, and Stryfe. A major notable period in the X-Men's history began in 2012s All-New X-Men when Beast used time-travel to bring the original five 1960s X-Men into the present. These time-displaced characters subsequently starred in their own title before returning to their original timeline in 2018s Extermination event.

One of the most recurring plot devices used in the X-Men franchise is death and resurrection, mostly in the sense of Jean Grey and her bond with the Phoenix. Though not as iconic as Jean and the Phoenix, many other X-Men characters have died and come back to life on occasion. Death and resurrection has become such a common occurrence in the X-books that the characters have mentioned on numerous occasions that they are not strangers to death or have made comments that death doesn't always have a lasting effect on them (for example, "In mutant heaven, there are no pearly gates, only revolving doors"). X-Necrosha is a particular story arc that sees Selene temporarily reanimate many of the X-Men's dead allies and enemies in order for her to achieve godhood. In the Krakoan era, the characters invent a method of resurrecting mutants who have died; becoming a significant story element across the various x-men books.

Many of the characters deal with the topic of fate. In particular, Destiny's abilities of precognition have affected certain plot points in the X-Men's history long after she was killed off due to both the X-Men and their enemies constantly searching for her missing diaries that foretell certain futures. The topic of fate takes center stage yet again in a story arc called "The Extremists" involving attacks against the Morlocks due to one of them seeing a dark future for their people. Some characters believe they already know their own fates, such as Apocalypse believing he is fated to rule the mutants or Magneto believing he is fated to lead the mutants to rise up against humans. Other characters such as Jean, Prestige, Evan Sabanur, Hope Summers, and Warren Worthington III have all been wary of their fates and have all taken measures to alter their futures.

Space travel has been a common staple in the X-Men books beginning with the Phoenix and Dark Phoenix sagas. Since then space has been involved in many stories involving the X-Men's allies and occasional rivals the Shi'ar along with stories involving the Phoenix Force. Space has been the setting for many stories involving the likes of The Brood, such as the story arc where the villainous species was first introduced. Through space noteworthy characters like The Starjammers and Vulcan (lost brother of Cyclops and Havok) were introduced. Space Travel played a major role in Joss Whedon's run on Astonishing X-Men via the introduction of S.W.O.R.D. and especially in one of the final story arcs under his authorship called "Unstoppable". Other notable story arcs involving space included " X-Men: The End", "Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire", " X-Men: Kingbreaker", " War of Kings", and " The Black Vortex".

The topic of sanity has been addressed in many of the major heroes and villains of X-Men. Most famously this is addressed in Jean Grey when she gains near omnipotence through the Phoenix and Professor Xavier after he violently uses his powers against Magneto, unintentionally creating Onslaught. Mystique's sanity wavers throughout the franchise as her constant transformations causes more and more of her mind to fracture. Ever since swapping bodies with Revanche, Psylocke has occasionally struggled to maintain her sanity due to her more aggressive nature and new powers. The character Deadpool is famous for his blatant lack of sanity. After Magneto stripped Wolverine of his metal bones, Wolverine began to become increasingly feral throughout most of the mid to late 1990s X-Men comics. The nature of Rogue's powers affecting her sanity due to her retaining the memories of others has been a central plot device on many occasions, most famously retaining Ms. Marvel's psyche throughout most of the 1980s. Most recently Emma Frost's sanity has become fractured ever since Cyclops died in her arms, causing her to declare war against Inhumans. Other characters who have had issues with sanity include Cyclops, Sabretooth, Magik, Quentin Quire, X-23, and Prestige.

In the Marvel Universe, mutant rights is one of the hot controversial political topics and is something that is addressed numerous times in the X-books as a plot device. While some politicians like Valerie Cooper have legitimately tried to help the X-Men, most have made it their mission to discredit the X-Men in order to eliminate mutants once and for all. Senator Robert Kelly began his platform on a strong outspoken anti-mutant sentiment until he changed his mind after being rescued by mutants later on in his career. When Sabretooth's human son Graydon Creed ran for office, the X-Men sent in Cannonball and Iceman to discreetly join his campaign team and find anything on his anti-mutant agenda. This continued until it boiled to a head when his assassination led to " Operation: Zero Tolerance." Some of the issues presented in the comics serve as allegory to modern issues in the real world, such as Lydia Nance suggesting mass mutant deportation.

Characters in the X-Men franchise espouse a variety of political ideologies, and these differences are a frequent catalyst for conflict. The most prominent ideological clash in the X-Men franchise is that between Xavier and Magneto; despite later interpretations of the two as analogues for Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, writer Chris Claremont (who originated Magneto's backstory and history with Xavier) saw them as more comparable to David Ben-Gurion and Menachem Begin. Xavier's ideology has drawn comparisons to assimilationism and model minority politics, while Magneto, originally depicted as a mutant supremacist, is later portrayed as a liberationist advocating self-determination through mutually assured destruction. Callisto is a separatist, who seeks to protect the Morlocks through isolationism. Emma Frost is portrayed as rejecting social movements, opting to use the capitalist system for her personal benefit, or for that of individual mutants in her care. Apocalypse is characterized as a social darwinist who believes that mutants can only survive through the rule of might. The Mutant Liberation Front commits acts of terrorism to liberate mutants wrongly incarcerated by the government. Even when individual characters expressing conflicting ideologies are portrayed as either misguided or villainous, their motives and beliefs are often treated by the X-Men with nuance, sympathy, and respect; for example, during Secret Wars, when The Avengers take issue with Magneto's placement among the heroic team by The Beyonder, the X-Men defend him as an ally, despite disagreeing with his methods. Pulitzer-winning national security journalist Spencer Ackerman has stated that "the importance of the X-Men as a universe of stories, as a mythos, is that we should always be debating who is right."

The character of Mojo, an extraterrestrial being and media mogul from the Mojoverse, serves as a satirical embodiment of the pervasive influence of media on society. Created by Nocenti and Art Adams, Mojo's grotesque appearance and obsession with television ratings are a direct commentary on the often exploitative nature of entertainment media.

Mojo's realm, where citizens are addicted to his gladiator-like television programs, mirrors the real world's fixation with reality TV and the spectacle of media. It raises questions about the ethical boundaries of entertainment and the societal impact of media consumption. The character's creation was influenced by Nocenti's readings of media critics such as Marshall McLuhan, Noam Chomsky, and Walter Lippmann, reflecting concerns about how media shapes public perception and discourse.

The X-Men's encounters with Mojo often highlight the dangers of media manipulation and the commodification of individuals. These narratives underscore the importance of critical thinking and media literacy as tools to combat the potential indoctrination by mass media. The character's storylines serve as allegories for the real-world implications of media control over information and the shaping of societal norms.

In the broader context of the X-Men universe, Mojo's machinations can be seen as a metaphor for the media's role in perpetuating social issues. His control over the Mojoverse parallels the control media conglomerates have over public opinion and the dissemination of information. The X-Men's resistance against Mojo's tyranny is symbolic of the struggle against the monopolization of media and the fight for a free and independent press.

The X-Men exist in the Marvel Universe along with other characters featured in Marvel Comics series and often interact with them. The X-Men/mutant corner of the Marvel Universe has been informally called "X-Universe"[citation needed ]. For instance, Wolverine was an antagonist to the Hulk before joining the X-Men and has ties to other heroes such as Captain America, Black Widow, the Thing, Captain Marvel (Carol Danvers), Elektra and Spider-Man. Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch are former Brotherhood of Mutants members who joined the Avengers, as have other X-Men characters such as Beast. Rogue got her powers via absorbing Carol Danvers (then called Ms. Marvel) who has also interacted with the X-Men. Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat has been part of the Guardians of the Galaxy and dated Star-Lord, she also served as a mentor to Franklin Richards the mutant son of Mister Fantastic and Invisible Woman of the Fantastic Four. Storm was once the Queen of Wakanda and the wife of Black Panther, as well as a temporary member of the Fantastic Four. Rachel Summers was the girlfriend of Franklin Richards. Iceman and Angel have also joined the original Champions alongside Black Widow, Ghost Rider and Hercules as well as having frequent partnerships with Firestar and Spider-Man as "The Amazing Friends". Sabretooth was an Iron Fist villain before becoming Wolverine's archenemesis. After a conflict over the Phoenix Force, Captain America admitted to a remorseful but unrepentant Cyclops that the Avengers should have done more to help mutants, and not allowed the world to hate them. As a result, he formed a team called Uncanny Avengers (aka Avengers Unity Division) of both X-Men and Avengers members in hopes of unifying mutant and humankind. The global nature of the mutant concept means the scale of stories can be highly varied. The X-Men's enemies range from mutant thieves to galactic threats.

Historically, the X-Men have been based in the Xavier Institute of Gifted Youngsters/X-Mansion located in Salem Center, Westchester County, New York, and are often portrayed as a family. The Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters/X-Mansion is often depicted with three floors and two underground levels. To the outside world, it acted as a higher learning institute until the 2000s, when Xavier was publicly exposed as a mutant at which point it became a known mutant boarding school. Xavier funds a corporation aimed at reaching mutants worldwide, though it ceased to exist following the 2005 "Decimation" storyline. The X-Men benefit from advanced technology such as Xavier tracking down mutants with a device called Cerebro which amplifies his powers; the X-Men train within the Danger Room, first depicted as a room full of weapons and booby traps, now as generating holographic simulations; and the X-Men travel in their Blackbird jet.

The X-Men introduced several fictional locations which are regarded as important within the shared universe in which Marvel Comics characters exist:

Asteroid M, an asteroid made by Magneto, a mutant utopia and training facility off of the Earth's surface.

Avalon, Magneto's space station that served as the primary base for him and his Acolytes to create a mutants-only safe haven after Magneto drastically reverted to his villainous ways. Originally created by Cable.

, an island near Madagascar and a longtime apartheid regime against mutants. The U.N. gave control to Magneto until the E Is for Extinction story saw Genosha destroyed via mass genocide.

Krakoa, a living island which is currently home to the X-Men and other mutants. It is an official country.

, a hellish dimension heavily populated by demons. Whoever possesses the Soulsword bears control over and can draw power from Limbo. In Extraordinary X-Men, the X-Men made a sanctuary in Limbo called X-Haven their home after Terrigen started making earth uninhabitable for mutants.

, an island in South East Asia, near Singapore. Its location is shown to be in the southern portion of the Strait of Malacca, south west of Singapore.

Mojoverse, an alternate dimension ruled by the tyrant Mojo focused on creating violent reality entertainment usually featuring captive mutants

Murderworld, fictional twisted amusement park designed by the Marvel supervillain known as Arcade.

Muir Island, a remote island off the coast of Scotland. This is primarily known in the X-Men universe as the home of Moira MacTaggert's laboratory.

Mutant Town (also known as "District X"), an area in Alphabet City, Manhattan, populated largely by mutants and beset by poverty and crime.

New Tien, a mutant-run region on the west coast of the United States where mutants outnumber humans. It was created after Hydra took over the United States. Emma Frost secretly leads New Tien by telepathically possessing New Tien's puppet ruler Xorn.

Savage Land, a preserved location in Antarctica which is home to a number of extinct species, most notably dinosaurs, and strange tribes.

Shi'ar throneworld Chandilar, the home world of the X-Men's occasional extraterrestrial allies The Shi'ar.

, Cyclops had Asteroid M raised from the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the San Francisco as a response to the rise of anti-mutant sentiment to form a mutant nation.

Abraham Riesman of included the X-Men in their "12 Teams That Defined Superhero Storytelling" list. Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair included the X-Men in their "Stan Lee's Most Iconic Characters" list. Comic Book Resources ranked the X-Men 1st in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Teams" list, 2nd in their "Every Marvel Superhero Team" list, and 2nd in their "Marvel: The 10 Strongest Superhero Teams" list. Michael Doran of ranked the X-Men 3rd in their "Best superhero teams of all time" list. Chris Isaac of Screen Rant ranked the X-Men 3rd in their "15 Best Superhero Teams Of All Time" list. Jason Serafino of ranked the X-Men 4th in their "10 Best Superhero Teams In Comics" list. Geoff Boucher of ranked the X-Men 4th in their "Stan Lee's Legacy: Ranking The Hollywood Heroes Co-Created By The Marvel Comics Icon" list.

The insecurity and anxieties in Marvel's early 1960s comic books such as The Fantastic Four, The Amazing Spider-Man, The Incredible Hulk, and X-Men ushered in a new type of superhero, very different from the certain and all-powerful superheroes before them, and changed the public's perception of superheroes.

The superhero team has been described as an allegory to real-life struggles experienced by people rejected by society.

Ramzi Fawaz argues that X-Men presents a feminist revision of the idea of a superhero team: "As a corollary to its critique of normative identity, The X-Men shifted the traditional locus of affective and political identification in mainstream superhero comics from white male heroes to powerful and racially diverse female superheroes whose emotional strength anchored mutant kinships and whose superpowers granted them unprecedented ability to reshape the material world."

Age of Apocalypse - In a world where Professor X is killed by his son David/Legion before he can form the X-Men, Magneto leads the X-Men in a dystopian world ruled by Apocalypse. Created and reverted via time travel.

Age of X - a world in which anti-mutant sentiment became even worse due to a series of events and thus led to the United States government hunting down mutants with Sentinels and leading to "The Decimation" which severely reduced the mutant population and Magneto leads the mutants who are based in Fortress X.

Days of Future Past - Sentinels have either killed or placed into concentration camps almost all mutants. Prevented by the time-traveling Kate Pryde/Widget (the adult Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat).

- Reality is altered by Scarlet Witch, with her father Magneto as the ruler of Genosha and in which mutants are the dominant group with humans as second-class citizens. 2005's crossover event, it concludes with a reversion to the normal Marvel Universe, albeit with most mutants depowered.

Marvel 1602 - Mutants are known as the "Witchbreed" in this alternate reality set during the time of The Inquisition. Carlos Javier creates a "school for the children of gentlefolk" to serve as a safe haven and training ground for which he calls mutantur (or changing ones) and normal humans (the mondani). The roster consists of the original 5 members and analogues of Sunspot, Pietro and Wanda Maximoff.

Marvel 2099 - Set in a dystopian world with new characters looking to the original X-Men as history, becoming X-Men 2099 and X-Nation 2099.

Marvel Noir - The X-Men of this reality are a group of delinquent teenagers led by Charles Xavier who believes that sociopathy is the next step in human evolution.

- Set in a world where Scott Summers was captured along with his parents by the Shi'ar and only Alex escaped, allowing him to be the eventual leader of this Universe's X-Men ("The Six"). The Mutant X universe reimagines Mr. Fantastic, Nick Fury, and Professor X as villains and Doctor Doom and Apocalypse as heroes.

- In this alternate future, Jubilee forms the X-People in response to anti-mutant sentiment.[volume & issue needed ] Members include Angry Eagle, Simian, Spanner, Torque, Push, Bluestreak, J2, and Wild Thing.[volume & issue needed ]

Time-displaced X-Men - The time-displaced team was introduced as such in All-New X-Men vol. 1 #1, by Brian Michael Bendis and Stuart Immonen, and brought to the present with time travel. They were kept as regular characters, as Bendis intended to explore their reactions to the fate of their adult selves. The team was the main focus of the Battle of the Atom crossover, some months later. Bendis also used them for crossovers with the Guardians of the Galaxy and Miles Morales, that he also wrote. This was one of the few crossovers between the Marvel Universe and the Ultimate Marvel universe; Bendis preferred to write them sparingly. All-New X-Men has a vol. 2 in 2015, by Dennis Hopeless and Mark Bagley. The comic was cancelled after the end of the Inhumans vs. X-Men crossover, and the team was now published in the comic. The teenager Jean also got a solo series after the end of ResurrXion, by Hopeless and Victor Ibanez, that explored her relation with the Phoenix Force. The teenager Cyclops joins the Champions, a comic book focused on teenager heroes but unrelated to the X-Men mythos. They guest-starred in the comic, in the "Poison-X" arc. The story took the villains from the Venomverse arc and led to the Venomized crossover. The team were featured in the Extermination crossover, where they went back to their original timeline.

- Although the actual X-Men don't appear, alternate versions of its members and villains are shown to have suffered under horrific circumstances. Charles Xavier is a tyrannical President of the United States, Jean Grey is a prostitute, Magneto and Mystique die, Wolverine suffers from poisoning from his adamantium skeleton, Emma Frost heads the Church of the Next Generation and forces children of her followers to undergo surgery, Cyclops as well as Nightcrawler and Kitty Pryde are imprisoned at a Texas jail and Sabretooth is part of a fascist cannibalistic militia based in Oklahoma alongside Bucky Barnes and Jack Monroe.

Ultimate X-Men - Set in the reimagined Ultimate Marvel universe. The X-Men are younger, wear black and gold uniforms and supernatural/cosmic elements are downplayed. Additionally Colossus is gay unlike his main universe counterpart, Magneto is not a Holocaust survivor and is more villainous, mutants were created by the Super-Soldier Serum, Cable is Wolverine and Kitty Pryde/Shadowcat dated Spider-Man.

X-Men Forever - An alternate continuity diverging from X-Men, vol. 2 #3, continuing as though writer Chris Claremont had never left writing the series.

X-Men Noir - Set in the 1930s, with the X-Men as a mysterious criminal gang and the Brotherhood as a secret society of corrupt cops.

X-Men: The End - A possible ending to the X-Men's early 2005 status quo.

- Follows "Secret Wars", the X-Men of the 1992 TV Series, received their own comic book series.

The X-Men team has featured in multiple forms of media including the 20th Century Fox live-action film series, multiple animated shows, live-action shows, multiple video games, numerous novels, motion comics, soundtracks, action figures, and clothing.

1. ^ Conversations With The Comic Book Creators by Leonard Pitts, 1987; also published on The Kirby Effect: The Journal of the Kirby Museum website as "1986/7 Jack Kirby Interview", 6 August 2012.

2. ^ Lee, Stan; Jack Kirby (August 2005). Son of Origins of Marvel Comics. Vol. 1. John Buscema, Don Heck, Bill Everett, Gene Colan. Marvel Comics. p. 448. ISBN 0-671-22166-3.

3. ^ Robb, Brian J. (May 15, 2014). A Brief History of Superheroes: From Superman to the Avengers, the Evolution of Comic Book Legends. Little, Brown Book. ISBN 9781472110701.

4. ^ Nickerson, Al (August 2008). "Claremont and Byrne: The Team that Made the X-Men Uncanny". (29). Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing: 3-12.

5. ^ O'Neill, Patrick Daniel (August 1993). "Hitting the Right Chord". Wizard: X-Men Turn Thirty. pp. 84-85.

6. ^ Grant, Paul J. (August 1993). "Poor Dead Doug, and Other Mutant Memories". Wizard: X-Men Turn Thirty. pp. 66-69.

7. O'Neill, Patrick Daniel (August 1993). "The Future is Now". Wizard: X-Men Turn Thirty. pp. 12-25.

8. ^ "My Monthly Curse by Phill Hall No. 9 - Taking Apart a Guinness World Record". Bleeding Cool. May 9, 2011.

9. Morse, Ben (August 10, 2010). ^ "SDCC 2010: Marvel Breaks World Record" Archived August 18, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, Marvel.com.

10. Johnson, Rich. ^ "X-Men #1 The Guinness World Record Best Selling Comic Of All Time?". Bleeding Cool. July 22, 2010

11. Cantor, Michael (Producer); ^ Schreiber, Liev (Narrator) Superheroes: A Never-Ending Battle. PBS. October 15, 2013.

12. ^ Wheeler, Andrew (July 1, 2015). "All New, All Different Marvel: Your Guide to the X-Books". Archived from the original on May 23, 2016.

13. ^ Hall, Kelley J.; Lucal, Betsy (January 1999). "Tapping into parallel universes: using superhero comic books in sociology courses". Teaching Sociology. 27 (1): 60-66. doi:10.2307/1319247. JSTOR 1319247.

14. ^ O'Neill, Patrick Daniel (October 1986). "Ann Nocenti". Comics Interview. No. 39. Fictioneer Books. pp. 58-59.

15. Baron, Lawrence (2003). "X-Men as J Men: The Jewish Subtext of a Comic Book Movie". Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. 22 (1). University of Nebraska Press: 44-52. doi:10.1353/sho.2003.0075. S2CID 143511281.

16. Vaughan, Brian K. (^ w), Ferguson, Lee (p), Rapmund, Norm (i), Villarruiba, Jose (col), Sharpe, Dave (let), Raicht, Mike; Quesada, Joe (ed). "The Hollow Man: Chapter One" Chamber, vol. 1, no. 1 (October 2002). Marvel Comics.

17. Housel, Rebecca; Wisnewski, Jeremy (2009). X-Men and philosophy: astonishing insight and uncanny argument in the mutant ... John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-41340-1.

18. ^ Trushell, John M. (August 2004). "American Dreams of Mutants: The X-Men-"Pulp" Fiction, Science Fiction, and Superheroes". The Journal of Popular Culture. 38 (1). John Wiley & Sons: 149-168. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2004.00104.x.

19. ^ Wenz, John (June 5, 2006). "Lesbian Batwoman in danger of becoming stereotype". Daily Nebraskan. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011.

20. ^ "X-Men 3: The Last Stand (2006) Movie Review - 3.0 out of 4.0 stars". The Movie Insider. Archived from the original on May 27, 2012.

21. ^ Shooter, Jim; Zeck, Michael (May 1984). Marvel Superheroes: Secret Wars #1. Marvel Comics.

22. Keller, Katherine (November 2, 2007). ^ "Writer, Creator, Journalist, and Uppity Woman: Ann Nocenti". Sequential Tart.

23. ^ Ash, Roger (August 2008). "Ann Nocenti and Arthur Adams Bet on a Longshot". (#29). Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing: 26-31.

24. ^ Fingeroth, Danny (2005). "Review of Superman on the Couch: What Superheroes Really Tell Us About Ourselves and Our Society". ImageText. University of Florida. ISSN 1549-6732.

25. Truitt, Brian (September 8, 2013). ^ "Sunday Geekersation: Bendis takes pride in his X-Men". .

26. ^ Polo, Susana (March 13, 2015). "Marvel's X-Men: '92 #1 will bring the '90s cartoon X-Men to modern comics". Polygon.

Fecteau, Lydia (July 12, 2004). "Mutant and Cyborg Images of the Disabled Body in the Landscape of Science Fiction". Archived from the original (DOC) on September 30, 2005.

Morrison, Grant (August 10, 2000). "The Geek Shall Inherit the Earth". The Evening Standard. Archived from the original on February 19, 2006.

Weinstein, Simcha (2006). Up, Up, and Oy Vey: How Jewish History, Culture and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero. Baltimore: Leviathan. Note: Contains a chapter on the X-Men, with special emphasis on Jewish characters Magneto and Shadowcat.

Montgomery, Mitch (October 21, 2006). "X-traordinary People: Mary Tyler Moore and the Mutants Explore Pop Psychology". Silver Bullet Comics. Archived from the original on October 26, 2006.

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The X-Men are a superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer/editer Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby, the team first appeared in The X-Men #1 (September 1963). Although initially cancelled in 1970 due to low sales, following its 1975 revival and subsequent direction under writer Chris Claremont, it became one of Marvel's most recognizable and successful franchises.

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En 1991 paraît un autre comics (parfois mis dans la catégorie roman graphique) sur la seconde guerre mondiale. Loin du très connu Capitaine América, Maus de Art Spiegelman relate l'histoire de ses parents dans les camps de concentration. Sans doute le comics le plus populaire hors héros, cet oeuvre à marquer les esprits et s'est retrouvé décoré d'un prix Pulitzer.

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Maus, often published with the subtitle A Survivor's Tale, is a graphic novel by American cartoonist Art Spiegelman, serialized from 1980 to 1991. It depicts Spiegelman interviewing his father about his experiences as a Polish Jew and Holocaust survivor. The work employs postmodern techniques, and represents Jews as mice and other Germans and Poles as cats and pigs. Critics have classified Maus as memoir, biography, history, fiction, autobiography, or a mix of genres. In 1992 it became the first graphic novel to win a Pulitzer Prize.

In the frame-tale timeline in the narrative present that begins in 1978 in New York City, Spiegelman talks with his father Vladek about his Holocaust experiences, gathering material and information for the Maus project he is preparing. In the narrative past, Spiegelman depicts these experiences, from the years leading up to World War II to his parents' liberation from the Nazi concentration camps. Much of the story revolves around Spiegelman's troubled relationship with his father and the absence of his mother, who died by suicide when he was 20. Her grief-stricken husband destroyed her written accounts of Auschwitz. The book uses a minimalist drawing style and displays innovation in its pacing, structure, and page layouts.

A three-page strip also called "Maus" that he made in 1972 gave Spiegelman an opportunity to interview his father about his life during World War II. The recorded interviews became the basis for the book, which Spiegelman began in 1978. He serialized Maus from 1980 until 1991 as an insert in , an avant-garde comics and graphics magazine published by Spiegelman and his wife, Françoise Mouly, who also appears in Maus. A collected volume of the first six chapters that appeared in 1986, Maus I: My Father Bleeds History, brought the book mainstream attention; a second volume, Maus II: And Here My Troubles Began, collected the remaining chapters in 1991. Maus was one of the first books in graphic novel format to receive significant academic attention in the English-speaking world.

Most of the book weaves in and out of two timelines. In the frame tale of the narrative present, Spiegelman interviews his father Vladek in the Rego Park neighborhood of Queens in New York City in 1978-79. The story that Vladek tells unfolds in the narrative past, which begins in the mid-1930s, and continues until the end of the Holocaust in 1945.

In Rego Park in 1958, a young Art Spiegelman is skating with his friends when he falls down and hurts himself, but his friends keep going. When he returns home, he finds his father Vladek, who asks him why he is upset, and Art proceeds to tell him that his friends left him behind. His father responds in broken English, "Friends? Your friends? If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week, then you could see what it is, friends!"

As an adult, Art visits his father, from whom he has become estranged. Vladek has remarried to a woman called Mala since the suicide of Art's mother Anja in 1968. Art asks Vladek to recount his Holocaust experiences. Vladek tells of his time in the Polish city of Częstochowa and how he came to marry into Anja's wealthy family in 1937 and move to Sosnowiec to become a manufacturer. Vladek begs Art not to include this in the book and Art reluctantly agrees. Anja suffers a breakdown due to postpartum depression after giving birth to their first son Richieu, and the couple go to a sanitarium in Nazi-occupied Czechoslovakia for her to recover. After they return, political and anti-Semitic tensions build until Vladek is drafted just before the Nazi invasion of Poland. Vladek is captured at the front and forced to work as a prisoner of war. After his release, he finds Germany has annexed Sosnowiec, and he is dropped off on the other side of the border in the German protectorate. He sneaks across the border and reunites with his family.

During one of Art's visits, he finds that a friend of Mala's has sent the couple one of the underground comix magazines Art contributed to. Mala had tried to hide it, but Vladek finds and reads it. In "Prisoner on the Hell Planet", Art is traumatized by his mother's suicide three months after his release from the mental hospital, and in the end depicts himself behind bars saying, "You murdered me, Mommy, and left me here to take the rap!" Though it brings back painful memories, Vladek admits that dealing with the issue in such a way was for the best.

In 1943, the Nazis move the Jews of the Sosnowiec Ghetto to Srodula and march them back to Sosnowiec to work. The family splits up-Vladek and Anja send Richieu to Zawiercie to stay with an aunt for safety. As more Jews are sent from the ghettos to Auschwitz, the aunt poisons herself, her children and Richieu to death to escape the Gestapo and not die in the gas chamber. In Srodula, many Jews build bunkers to hide from the Germans. Vladek's bunker is discovered and he is placed into a "ghetto inside the ghetto" surrounded by barbed wire. The remnants of Vladek and Anja's family are taken away. Srodula is cleared of its Jews, except for a group Vladek hides with in another bunker. When the Germans depart, the group splits up and leaves the ghetto.

In Sosnowiec, Vladek and Anja move from one hiding place to the next, making occasional contact with other Jews in hiding. Vladek disguises himself as an ethnic Pole and hunts for provisions. The couple arrange with smugglers to escape to Hungary, but it is a trick-the Gestapo arrest them on the train (as Hungary is invaded) and take them to Auschwitz, where they are separated until after the war.

Art asks after Anja's diaries, which Vladek tells him were her account of her Holocaust experiences and the only record of what happened to her after her separation from Vladek at Auschwitz and which Vladek says she had wanted Art to read. Vladek comes to admit that he burned them after she killed herself. Art is enraged and calls Vladek a "murderer".

The story jumps to 1986, after the first six chapters of Maus have appeared in a collected edition. Art is overcome with the unexpected attention the book receives and finds himself "totally blocked". Art talks about the book with his psychiatrist Paul Pavel, a Czech Holocaust survivor. Pavel suggests that, as those who perished in the camps can never tell their stories, "maybe it's better not to have any more stories". Art replies with a quote from Samuel Beckett: "Every word is like an unnecessary stain on silence and nothingness", but then realizes, "on the other hand, he said it".

Vladek tells of his hardship in the camps, of starvation and abuse, of his resourcefulness, of avoiding the selektionen-the process by which prisoners were selected for further labor or execution. Despite the danger, Anja and Vladek exchange occasional messages. As the war progresses and the German front is pushed back, the prisoners are marched from Auschwitz in occupied Poland to Gross-Rosen within the Reich and then to Dachau, where the hardships only increase and Vladek catches typhus.

The war ends, the camp survivors are freed and Vladek and Anja reunite. The book closes with Vladek turning over in his bed as he finishes his story and telling Art, "I'm tired from talking, Richieu, and it's enough stories for now". The final image is of Vladek and Anja's tombstone-Vladek died in 1982, before the book was completed.

Art Spiegelman

Art (born 1948) is a cartoonist and an intellectual. Art is presented as angry and full of self-pity. He deals with his own traumas and those inherited from his parents by seeking psychiatric help, which continued after the book was completed. He has a strained relationship with his father, Vladek, by whom he feels dominated. At first, he displays little sympathy for his father's hardships, but he shows more as the narrative unfolds.

Vladek Spiegelman

Vladek (1906-1982) is a Polish Jew who survived the Holocaust and then moved to the U.S. in the early 1950s. Speaking broken English, he is presented as intelligent and resourceful, pious and moral, but also egocentric, insensitive, neurotic, stubborn and sometimes absurdly miserly-traits that greatly annoy his family. He displays racist attitudes, as when Françoise picks up an African-American hitchhiker, whom he fears will rob them. He shows little insight into his own racist comments about others in comparison to his treatment during the Holocaust.

Mala Spiegelman

Mala (1917-2007) is Vladek's second wife. Vladek makes her feel that she can never live up to Anja. Though she too is a survivor and speaks with Art throughout the book, Art makes no attempt to learn of her Holocaust experience.

Anja Spiegelman

Also a Polish Jew who has survived the Holocaust, Anja (1912-1968) is Art's mother and Vladek's first wife. Nervous, compliant and clinging, she has her first nervous breakdown after giving birth to her first son. She sometimes told Art about the Holocaust while he was growing up, although his father did not want him to know about it. She killed herself by slitting her wrists in a bathtub in May 1968 and left no suicide note.

Richieu Spiegelman

Richieu Spiegelman (1937-1943) is Vladek and Anja's first-born son. During the war, Vladek and Anja sent him away to live with an aunt, somewhere they believed he would be safer than he was with them. He did not survive. Richieu is portrayed as an ideal child whom Art can never hope to live up to.[citation needed ]

Françoise Mouly

Françoise (born 1955) is married to Art. She is French and converted to Judaism to please Art's father. Spiegelman struggles with whether he should present her as a Jewish mouse, a French frog, or some other animal-in the end, he uses a mouse.

Art Spiegelman was born on February 15, 1948, in Sweden to Polish Jews and Holocaust survivors Vladek and Anja Spiegelman. An aunt poisoned his parents' first son Richieu to avoid capture by the Nazis, four years before Spiegelman's birth. He and his parents emigrated to the United States in 1951. During his youth his mother occasionally talked about Auschwitz, but his father did not want him to know about it.

Spiegelman developed an interest in comics early and began drawing professionally at 16. He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital in 1968 after a nervous breakdown. Shortly after he got out, his mother died by suicide. Spiegelman's father was not happy with his son's involvement in the hippie subculture. Spiegelman said that when he bought himself a German Volkswagen it damaged their already-strained relationship "beyond repair". Around this time, Spiegelman read in fanzines about such graphic artists as Frans Masereel who had made wordless novels. The discussions in those fanzines about making the Great American Novel in comics inspired him.

Spiegelman became a key figure in the underground comix movement of the 1970s, both as cartoonist and editor. In 1972 Justin Green produced the semi-autobiographical comic book Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary, which inspired other underground cartoonists to produce more personal and revealing work. The same year, Green asked Spiegelman to contribute a three-page strip for the first issue of Funny Aminals [], which Green edited. Spiegelman wanted to do a strip about racism, and at first considered focusing on African Americans, with cats as Ku Klux Klan members chasing African-American mice. Instead, he turned to the Holocaust and depicted Nazi cats persecuting Jewish mice in a strip he titled "Maus". The tale was narrated to a mouse named " Mickey". After finishing the strip, Spiegelman visited his father to show him the finished work, which he had based in part on an anecdote he had heard about his father's Auschwitz experience. His father gave him further background information, which piqued Spiegelman's interest. Spiegelman recorded a series of interviews over four days with his father, which was to provide the basis of the longer Maus. Spiegelman followed up with extensive research, reading survivors' accounts and talking to friends and family who had also survived. He got detailed information about Sosnowiec from a series of Polish pamphlets published after the war which detailed what happened to the Jews by region.

In 1973, Spiegelman produced a strip for Short Order Comix #1 about his mother's suicide called "Prisoner on the Hell Planet". The same year, he edited a pornographic, psychedelic book of quotations, and dedicated it to his mother. He spent the rest of the 1970s building his reputation making short avant-garde comics. He moved back to New York from San Francisco in 1975, which he admitted to his father only in 1977, by which time he had decided to work on a "very long comic book". He began another series of interviews with his father in 1978, and visited Auschwitz in 1979. He serialized the story in a comics and graphics magazine he and his wife Mouly began in 1980 called Raw.

American comic books were big business with a diversity of genres in the 1940s and 1950s, but had reached a low ebb by the late 1970s. By the time Maus began serialization, the "Big Two" comics publishers, Marvel and DC Comics, dominated the industry with mostly superhero titles. The underground comix movement that had flourished in the late 1960s and early 1970s also seemed moribund. The public perception of comic books was as adolescent power fantasies, inherently incapable of mature artistic or literary expression. Most discussion focused on comics as a genre rather than as a medium.

Maus came to prominence when the term " graphic novel" was beginning to gain currency. Will Eisner popularized the term with the publication in 1978 of A Contract with God. The term was used partly to rise above the low cultural status that comics had in the English-speaking world, and partly because the term "comic book" was being used to refer to short-form periodicals, leaving no accepted vocabulary with which to talk about book-form comics.

The first chapter of Maus appeared in December 1980 in the second issue of Raw as a small insert; a new chapter appeared in each issue until the magazine came to an end in 1991. Every chapter but the last appeared in Raw.

Spiegelman struggled to find a publisher for a book edition of Maus, but after a rave New York Times review of the serial in August 1986, Pantheon Books published the first six chapters in a volume called Maus: A Survivor's Tale and subtitled My Father Bleeds History. Spiegelman was relieved that the book's publication preceded the theatrical release of the animated film An American Tail by three months, as he believed that the film, produced by Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment, was inspired by Maus and wished to avoid comparisons with it.

The book found a large audience, partly because of its distribution through bookstores rather than the direct market comic shops where comic books were normally sold. Maus was difficult for critics and reviewers to classify, and also for booksellers, who needed to know on which shelves to place it. Though Pantheon pushed for the term "graphic novel", Spiegelman was not comfortable with this, as many book-length comics were being referred to as "graphic novels" whether or not they had novelistic qualities. He suspected the term's use was an attempt to validate the comics form, rather than to describe the content of the books. Spiegelman later came to accept the term, and with Drawn & Quarterly publisher Chris Oliveros successfully lobbied the Book Industry Study Group in the early 2000s to include "graphic novel" as a category in bookstores.

Pantheon collected the last five chapters in 1991 in a second volume subtitled And Here My Troubles Began. Pantheon later collected the two volumes into soft- and hardcover two-volume boxed sets and single-volume editions. In 1994 the Voyager Company released The Complete Maus on CD-ROM, a collection which contained the original comics, Vladek's taped transcripts, filmed interviews, sketches, and other background material. The CD-ROM was based on HyperCard, a Macintosh and Apple IIGS application that has since become obsolete. In 2011 Pantheon Books published a companion to The Complete Maus entitled , with further background material, including filmed footage of Vladek. The centerpiece of the book is a Spiegelman interview conducted by Hillary Chute. It also has interviews with Spiegelman's wife and children, sketches, photographs, family trees, assorted artwork, and a DVD with video, audio, photos, and an interactive version of Maus.

Spiegelman dedicated Maus to his brother Richieu and his first daughter Nadja. The book's epigraph is a quote from Adolf Hitler: "The Jews are undoubtedly a race, but they are not human".

Penguin Books obtained the rights to publish the initial volume in the Commonwealth in 1986. In support of the African National Congress's cultural boycott in opposition to apartheid, Spiegelman refused to "compromise with fascism" by allowing publication of his work in South Africa.

By 2011, Maus had been translated into about 30 languages. Three translations were particularly important to Spiegelman: French, as his wife was French, and because of his respect for the sophisticated Franco-Belgian comics tradition; German, given the book's background; and Polish. Poland was the setting for most of the book, and Polish was the language of his parents and his own mother tongue. The publishers of the German edition had to convince the German culture ministry of the work's serious intent to have the swastika appear on the cover, per laws prohibiting the display of Nazi symbolism. Reception in Germany was positive- Maus was a best-seller and was taught in schools. The Polish translation encountered difficulties; as early as 1987, when Spiegelman planned a research visit to Poland, the Polish consulate official who approved his visa questioned him about the Poles' depiction as pigs, and pointed out how serious an insult it was. Publishers and commentators refused to deal with the book for fear of protests and boycotts. Piotr Bikont, a journalist for Gazeta Wyborcza, set up his own publishing house to publish Maus in Polish in 2001. Demonstrators protested Maus's publication and burned the book in front of Gazeta's offices. Bikont's response was to don a pig mask and wave to the protesters from the office windows. The magazine-sized Japanese translation was the only authorized edition with larger pages. Long-standing plans for an Arabic translation have yet to come to fruition. A Russian law passed in December 2014 prohibiting the display of Nazi propaganda led to the removal of Maus from Russian bookstores leading up to Victory Day due to the swastika appearing on the book's cover.

A few panels were changed for the Hebrew edition of Maus. Based on Vladek's memory, Spiegelman portrayed one of the minor characters as a member of the Nazi-installed Jewish Police. An Israeli descendant objected and threatened to sue for libel. Spiegelman redrew the character with a fedora in place of his original police hat, but appended a note to the volume voicing his objection to this "intrusion". This version of the first volume appeared in 1990 from the publishing house Zmora Bitan. It had an indifferent or negative reception, and the publisher did not release the second volume. Another Israeli publisher put out both volumes, with a new translation by poet Yehuda Vizan that included Vladek's broken language, which Zmora Bitan had refused to do. Marilyn Reizbaum saw this as highlighting a difference between the self-image of the Israeli Jew as a fearless defender of the homeland, and that of the American Jew as a feeble victim, something that one Israeli writer disparaged as "the diaspora sickness".

Spiegelman, like many of his critics, has expressed concern that "[r]eality is too much for comics ... so much has to be left out or distorted", admitting that his presentation of the story may not be accurate. He takes a postmodern approach; Maus "feeds on itself", telling the story of how the story was made. It examines the choices Spiegelman made in the retelling of his father's memories, and the artistic choices he had to make. For example, when his French wife converts to Judaism, Spiegelman's character frets over whether to depict her as a frog, a mouse, or another animal.

The book portrays humans with the heads and tails of different species of animals; Jews are drawn as mice and other Germans and Poles as cats and pigs, among others. Spiegelman took advantage of the way Nazi propaganda films depicted Jews as vermin, though he was first struck by the metaphor after attending a presentation where Ken Jacobs showed films of minstrel shows along with early American animated films, abundant with racial caricatures. Spiegelman derived the mouse as symbol for the Jew from Nazi propaganda, emphasized in a quote from a German newspaper in the 1930s that prefaces the second volume: "Mickey Mouse is the most miserable idea ever revealed ... Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filth-covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, cannot be the ideal type of animal ... Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear the Swastika Cross!"

Jewish characters try to pass themselves off as ethnic Poles by tying pig masks to their faces, with the strings showing at the back. Vladek's disguise was more convincing than Anja's-"you could see she was more Jewish", Vladek says. Spiegelman shows this Jewishness by having her tail hang out of her disguise. This literalization of the genocidal stereotypes that drove the Nazis to their Final Solution may risk reinforcing racist labels, but Spiegelman uses the idea to create anonymity for the characters. According to art historian Andrea Liss, this may paradoxically enable the reader to identify with the characters as human, preventing the reader from observing racial characteristics based on facial traits, while reminding readers that racist classification is ever present.

In making people of each ethnicity look alike, Spiegelman hoped to show the absurdity of dividing people along such lines. Spiegelman has stated that "these metaphors ... are meant to self-destruct" and "reveal the inanity of the notion itself". Animals signified the characters' roles in the story rather than their races-the gentile Françoise is a mouse because of her identification with her husband, who identifies with the Holocaust victims. When asked what animal he would make Israeli Jews, Spiegelman suggests porcupines. When Art visits his psychiatrist, the two wear mouse masks. Spiegelman's perceptions of the animal metaphor seem to have evolved over the book's making-in the original publication of the first volume, his self-portrait showed a mouse head on a human body, but by the time the second volume arrived, his self-portrait had become that of a man wearing a mouse mask. In Maus, the characters seem to be mice and cats only in their predator/prey relationship. In every respect other than their heads and tails, they act and speak as ordinary humans. Further complicating the animal metaphor, Anja is ironically shown to be afraid of mice, while other characters appear with pet dogs and cats, and the Nazis with attack dogs.

To Marianne Hirsch, Spiegelman's life is "dominated by memories that are not his own". His work is one not of memory but of postmemory, a term she coined after encountering Maus. This describes the relation of the children of survivors with the survivors themselves. While these children have not had their parents' experiences, they grow up with their parents' memories-the memory of another's memory-until the stories become so powerful that for these children they become memories in their own right. The children's proximity creates a "deep personal connection" with the memory, though separated from it by "generational distance". In the field of psychology, this is called transgenerational trauma or generational trauma.

Art tried to keep his father's story chronological, because otherwise he would "never keep it straight". His mother Anja's memories are conspicuously absent from the narrative, given her suicide and Vladek's destruction of her diaries. Hirsch sees Maus in part as an attempt to reconstruct her memory. Vladek keeps her memory alive with the pictures on his desk, "like a shrine", according to Mala.

Spiegelman displays his sense of guilt in many ways. He suffers anguish over his dead brother, Richieu, who perished in the Holocaust, and whom he feels he can never live up to. The eighth chapter, made after the publication and unexpected success of the first volume, opens with a guilt-ridden Spiegelman (now in human form, with a strapped-on mouse mask) atop a pile of corpses-the corpses of the six million Jews upon whom Maus' success was built. He is told by his psychiatrist that his father feels guilt for having survived and for outliving his first son, and that some of Art's guilt may spring from painting his father in such an unflattering way. As he had not lived in the camps himself, he finds it difficult to understand or visualize this "separate universe", and feels inadequate in portraying it.

Spiegelman parodies the Nazis' vision of racial divisions; Vladek's racism is also put on display when he becomes upset that Françoise would pick up a black hitchhiker, a " schwartser" as he says. When she berates him, a victim of antisemitism, for his attitude, he replies, "It's not even to compare, the schwartsers and the Jews!" Spiegelman gradually deconstructs the animal metaphor throughout the book, especially in the second volume, showing where the lines cannot be drawn between races of humans.

The Germans are depicted with little difference between them, but there is great variety among the Poles and Jews who dominate the story. Sometimes Jews and the Jewish councils are shown complying with the occupiers; some trick other Jews into capture, while others act as police for the Nazis.

Spiegelman shows numerous instances of Poles who risked themselves to aid Jews, and also shows antisemitism as being rife among them. The kapos who run the camps are Poles, and Anja and Vladek are tricked by Polish smugglers into the hands of the Nazis. Anja and Vladek hear stories that Poles continue to drive off and even kill returning Jews after the war.

Vladek's English is broken in contrast with that of Art's more fluent therapist, Paul Pavel, who is also an immigrant and Holocaust survivor. Vladek's knowledge of the language helps him several times during the story, as when he uses it to meet Anja. He also uses it to befriend a Frenchman, and continues to correspond with him in English after the war. His recounting of the Holocaust, first to American soldiers, then to his son, is never in his mother tongue, and English becomes his daily language when he moves to America. His difficulty with his second language is revealed as Art writes his dialogue in broken English; when Vladek is imprisoned he tells Art, "[E]very day we prayed ... I was very religious, and it wasn't else to do". Late in the book, Vladek talks of Dachau, saying, "And here ... my troubles began", though clearly his troubles had begun long before Dachau. This unidiomatic expression was used as the subtitle of the second volume.

The German word Maus is cognate to the English word "mouse", and also reminiscent of the German verb mauscheln, which means "to speak like a Jew" and refers to the way Jews from Eastern Europe spoke German-a word etymologically related not to Maus but, distantly, to .

Spiegelman's perceived audacity in using the Holocaust as his subject was compounded by his telling the story in comics. The prevailing view in the English-speaking world held comics as inherently trivial, thus degrading Spiegelman's subject matter, especially as he used animal heads in place of recognizably human ones. Talking animals have been a staple of comics, and while they have a traditional reputation as children's fare, the underground had long made use of them in adult stories, for example in Robert Crumb's Fritz the Cat, which comics critic Joseph Witek asserts shows that the genre could "open up the way to a paradoxical narrative realism" that Maus exploited.

Ostensibly about the Holocaust, the story entwines with the frame tale of Art interviewing and interacting with his father. Art's "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" is also encompassed by the frame, and stands in visual and thematic contrast with the rest of the book as the characters are in human form in a surreal, German Expressionist woodcut style inspired by Lynd Ward.

Spiegelman blurs the line between the frame and the world, such as when neurotically trying to deal with what Maus is becoming for him, he says to his wife: "In real life you'd never have let me talk this long without interrupting". When a prisoner whom the Nazis believe to be a Jew claims to be German, Spiegelman has difficulty deciding whether to present this character as a cat or a mouse. Throughout the book, Spiegelman incorporates and highlights banal details from his father's tales, sometimes humorous or ironic, giving a lightness and humanity to the story which "helps carry the weight of the unbearable historical realities".

Spiegelman started taking down his interviews with Vladek on paper, but quickly switched to a tape recorder, face-to-face or over the phone. Spiegelman often condensed Vladek's words, and occasionally added to the dialogue or synthesized multiple retellings into a single portrayal.

Spiegelman worried about the effect that his organizing of Vladek's story would have on its authenticity. In the end, he eschewed a Joycean approach and settled on a linear narrative he thought would be better at "getting things across". He strove to present how the book was recorded and organized as an integral part of the book itself, expressing the "sense of an interview shaped by a relationship".

The story is text-driven, with few wordless panels among its 1,500 black-and-white panels. The art has high contrast, with heavy black areas and thick black borders balanced against areas of white and wide white margins. There is little gray in the shading. In the narrative present, the pages are arranged in eight-panel grids; in the narrative past, Spiegelman found himself "violating the grid constantly" with his page layouts.

Spiegelman rendered the original three-page "Maus" and "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" in highly detailed, expressive styles. Spiegelman planned to draw Maus in such a manner, but after initial sketches he decided to use a pared-down style, one little removed from his pencil sketches, which he found more direct and immediate. Characters are rendered in a minimalist way: animal heads with dots for eyes and slashes for eyebrows and mouths, sitting on humanoid bodies. Spiegelman wanted to get away from the rendering of the characters in the original "Maus", in which oversized cats towered over the Jewish mice, an approach which Spiegelman says, "tells you how to feel, tells you how to think". He preferred to let the reader make independent moral judgments. He drew the cat-Nazis the same size as the mouse-Jews, and dropped the stereotypical villainous expressions.

Spiegelman wanted the artwork to have a diary feel to it, and so drew the pages on stationery with a fountain pen and typewriter correction fluid. It was reproduced at the same size it was drawn, unlike his other work, which was usually drawn larger and shrunk down, which hides defects in the art.

Spiegelman has published articles promoting a greater knowledge of his medium's history. Chief among his early influences were Harvey Kurtzman, Will Eisner, and Bernard Krigstein's " Master Race". Though he acknowledged Eisner's early work as an influence, he denied that Eisner's first graphic novel, A Contract with God (1978), had any impact on Maus. He cited Harold Gray's comic strip Little Orphan Annie as having "influenced Maus fairly directly", and praised Gray's work for using a cartoon-based storytelling vocabulary, rather than an illustration-based one. Justin Green's Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary (1972) inspired Spiegelman to include autobiographical elements in his comics. Spiegelman stated, "without Binky Brown, there would be no Maus". Among the graphic artists who influenced Maus, Spiegelman cited Frans Masereel, who had made early wordless novels in woodcuts such as Passionate Journey (1919).

Spiegelman's work as cartoonist and editor had long been known and respected in the comics community, but the media attention after the first volume's publication in 1986 was unexpected. Hundreds of overwhelmingly positive reviews appeared, and Maus became the center of new attention focused on comics. It was considered one of the "Big Three" book-form comics from around 1986-87, along with and The Dark Knight Returns, that are said to have brought the term "graphic novel" and the idea of comics for adults into mainstream consciousness. It was credited with changing the public's perception of what comics could be at a time when, in the English-speaking world, they were considered to be for children, and strongly associated with superheroes. Initially, critics of Maus showed a reluctance to include comics in literary discourse. The New York Times intended praise when saying of the book, "Art Spiegelman doesn't draw comic books". After its Pulitzer Prize win, it won greater acceptance and interest among academics. The Museum of Modern Art staged an exhibition on the making of Maus in 1991-92.

Maus proved difficult to classify to a genre, and has been called biography, fiction, autobiography, history, and memoir. Spiegelman petitioned The New York Times to move it from "fiction" to "non-fiction" on the newspaper's bestseller list, saying, "I shudder to think how David Duke ... would respond to seeing a carefully researched work based closely on my father's memories of life in Hitler's Europe and in the death camps classified as fiction". An editor responded, "Let's go out to Spiegelman's house and if a giant mouse answers the door, we'll move it to the nonfiction side of the list!" The Times eventually acquiesced. The Pulitzer committee sidestepped the issue by giving the completed Maus a Special Award in Letters in 1992.

Maus ranked highly on comics and literature lists. The Comics Journal called it the fourth greatest comics work of the 20th century, and placed it first on their list of 100 Greatest Graphic Novels. Entertainment Weekly listed Maus at seventh place on their list of "The New Classics: Books - The 100 Best Reads from 1983 to 2008", and put Maus at seventh place on their list of best non-fiction books from between 1923 and 2005, and fourth on their list of top graphic novels. Praise for the book also came from contemporaries such as Jules Feiffer and literary writers such as Umberto Eco. Spiegelman turned down numerous offers to have Maus adapted for film or television.

Early installments of Maus that appeared in Raw inspired the young Chris Ware to "try to do comics that had a 'serious' tone to them". Maus is cited as a primary influence on graphic novels such as Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis and Alison Bechdel's .

In 1999, cartoonist Ted Rall had an article published in The Village Voice criticizing Spiegelman's prominence and influence in the New York cartooning community. Entitled "King Maus: Art Spiegelman Rules the World of Comix With Favors and Fear", it accused the Pulitzer board of opportunism in selecting Maus, which Rall deemed unworthy. Cartoonist Danny Hellman responded to the piece with a series of emails in which Hellman impersonated Rall to his editors and colleagues. Hellman followed up by posting fake responses from New York magazine editors and art directors. Rall launched a lawsuit seeking damages of $1.5 million for libel, breach of privacy, and causing emotional distress. To raise funds, in 2001 Hellman had the Legal Action Comics anthology published, which included a back cover by Spiegelman in which he endorsed Hellman's actions, depicting Rall as a urinal.

In 2022, the board of trustees for McMinn County Schools in east Tennessee voted unanimously to remove Maus from the curriculum over concerns including profanity, violence, and nudity. The decision led to a backlash and attracted attention the day before Holocaust Remembrance Day, and was covered by media in the United States, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Spiegelman called the decision baffling, " Orwellian", and "daffily myopic". The ban led to Amazon sales of Maus rising to No. 1. On January 30, 2022, it was the No. 1 overall for books. On January 31, Maus held the No. 1 and No. 2 ranks on Amazon at different times during the day, and also appeared as a best seller on Barnes & Noble's top 100 list and Bookshop's index of best-selling books.

A cottage industry of academic research has built up around Maus, and schools have frequently used it as course material in a range of fields, including history, dysfunctional family psychology, language arts, and social studies. The volume of academic work published on Maus far surpasses that of any other work of comics. One of the earliest such works was Joshua Brown's 1988 "Of Mice and Memory" from the Oral History Review, which deals with the problems Spiegelman faced in presenting his father's story. Marianne Hirsch wrote an influential essay on post-memory entitled "Family Pictures: Maus, Mourning, and Post-Memory", later expanded into a book called Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory. Academics far outside the field of comics such as Dominick LaCapra, Linda Hutcheon, and Terrence Des Pres took part in the discourse. Few approached Maus who were familiar with comics, largely because of the lack of an academic comics tradition- Maus tended to be approached as Holocaust history or from a film or literary perspective. In 2003, Deborah Geis edited a collection of essays on Maus called Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's Tale" of the Holocaust. Maus is considered an important work of Holocaust literature, and studies of it have made significant contributions to Holocaust studies.

According to writer Arie Kaplan, some Holocaust survivors objected to Spiegelman making a comic book out of their tragedy. Literary critics such as Hillel Halkin objected that the animal metaphor was "doubly dehumanizing", reinforcing the Nazi belief that the atrocities were perpetrated by one species on another, when they were actually done by humans against humans. Comics writer and critic Harvey Pekar and others saw Spiegelman's use of animals as potentially reinforcing stereotypes. Pekar was also disdainful of Spiegelman's overwhelmingly negative portrayal of his father, calling him disingenuous and hypocritical for such a portrayal in a book that presents itself as objective. Comics critic R. C. Harvey argued that Spiegelman's animal metaphor threatened "to erode [ Maus's] moral underpinnings", and played "directly into [the Nazis'] racist vision".

Commentators such as Peter Obst and Lawrence Weschler expressed concern over the Poles' depiction as pigs, which reviewer Marek Kohn saw as an ethnic slur and The Norton Anthology of American Literature called "a calculated insult". Jewish culture views pigs and pork as non- kosher, or unclean, a point of which the Jewish Spiegelman was unlikely to be ignorant. Critics such as Obst and Pekar have said that the portrayal of Poles is unbalanced-that, while some Poles are seen as helping Jews, they are often shown doing so for self-serving reasons. In the late 1990s, an objector to Maus's depiction of Poles interrupted a presentation by Spiegelman at Montreal's McGill University with persistent abuse and was removed from the auditorium.

Literary critic Walter Ben Michaels found Spiegelman's racial divisions "counterfactual". Spiegelman depicts Europeans as different animal species based on Nazi conceptions of race, but all Americans, both black and white, as dogs-with the exception of the Jews, who remain unassimilated mice. To Michaels, Maus seems to gloss over the racial inequality that has plagued the history of the U.S.

Scholar Bart Beaty disagrees with claims from other critics that Maus presents a fatalistic perspective. Rather, he argues that Maus problematizes the essentialistic understanding of the relationship between the German "cats" and Jewish "mice," or the notion that there is something natural about Germans killing Jewish people.

Scholar Paul Buhle asserted: "More than a few readers have described [ Maus] as the most compelling of any [Holocaust] depiction, perhaps because only the caricatured quality of comic art is equal to the seeming unreality of an experience beyond all reason". Michael Rothberg opined: "By situating a nonfictional story in a highly mediated, unreal, 'comic' space, Spiegelman captures the hyperintensity of Auschwitz".

Belgian publisher La Cinquième Couch anonymously produced a book entitled Katz, a remix of Spiegelman's book but with all animal heads replaced with cat heads. The book reproduced every page and line of dialogue from the French translation of Maus. The French publisher of the book, Flammarion, had the Belgian publisher destroy all copies under charges of copyright violation.

1. ^ Guzman, Francisco (January 27, 2022). "What we know about the removal of Holocaust book 'Maus' by a Tennessee school board". The Tennessean. Nashville.

2. Chris Boyette (January 28, 2022). "A Tennessee school board removed the graphic novel 'Maus', about the Holocaust, from curriculum due to language and nudity concerns". CNN.

3. Gorman, Steve (January 28, 2022). "Tennessee school board bans Holocaust-themed graphic novel 'Maus'". Reuters.

4. ^ Wegner, Rachel (January 27, 2022). "Tennessee school board's removal of Holocaust book 'Maus' draws international attention". The Tennessean. Nashville.

5. ^ AFP, Sudouest fr avec (January 28, 2022). "États-Unis: jugé "vulgaire et inapproprié", "Maus", le roman graphique sur l'Holocauste, banni d'une école" - via Sud Ouest.

6. ^ Wegner, Rachel (January 27, 2022). "Tennessee school board's removal of Holocaust book 'Maus' draws international attention". The Tennessean.

7. ^ Mangan, Dan (January 26, 2022). "Tennessee school board bans Holocaust graphic novel 'Maus' - author Art Spiegelman condemns the move as 'Orwellian'". CNBC.

8. ^ "Sales soar for 'Maus' after its banning in Tennessee". Fox 44 Waco. Associated Press. January 28, 2022.

9. ^ Andrew, Scottie (January 31, 2022). "'Maus' is back on best seller lists after its ban from a Tennessee school district". CNN.

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Maus , often published with the subtitle A Survivor's Tale , is a graphic novel by American cartoonist Art Spiegelman, serialized from 1980 to 1991. It depicts Spiegelman interviewing his father about his experiences as a Polish Jew and Holocaust survivor.

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Plusieurs personnes peuvent participer à la conception d'un comics, de l'auteur au dessinateur, et de l'éditeur au vendeur, tous sont importants!

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Plusieurs personnes peuvent participer à la conception d'un comics, de l'auteur au dessinateur, et de l'éditeur au vendeur, tous sont importants!

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L'auteur se caractérise avant tout par son statut juridique, qui le protège par le code de la propriété intellectuelle, et par son activité professionnelle, dont les spécificités et la rémunération varient suivant le type de publication (à compte d'éditeur, à compte d'auteur ou dans le cadre de l'autopublication).

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Un libraire est un commerçant qui vend des livres. Travaillant le plus souvent dans une librairie, il conseille et renseigne le client pour qu'il trouve le livre qu'il cherche tout en lui faisant découvrir de nouveaux auteurs et ouvrages.

Au Moyen Âge, les livres sont écrits dans les couvents par des moines.

Au , la création des universités, dans les grandes villes, permet la création d'ateliers laïcs dans lesquels sont vendus des manuscrits réalisés par des copistes. En 1275, Philippe Le Bel émet une ordonnance réglementant les libraires et chargeant l'Université de les surveiller, en particulier à Paris, ceux-ci n'ayant pas le droit de publier un livre sans accord royal.

L'invention de l'imprimerie par Gutenberg permet l'augmentation de la production de livres et leur diffusion. Les libraires deviennent alors, marchands, éditeurs, imprimeurs, relieurs... Le livre devenu le principal vecteur d'idées s'il est utilisé par le pouvoir est également considéré comme une menace. Ainsi la profession de libraire est alors réglementée, en 1744, par le " Code de la librairie et imprimerie de Paris " qui interdit le colportage et instaure le brevet de libraire.

Avant la Révolution, les libraires devaient tous demeurer dans les quartiers de l'Université et ils ne pouvaient occuper qu'un seul magasin, fermé le dimanche. Ils ne pouvaient éditer qu'après en avoir obtenu la permission du lieutenant général de police, l'approbation des censeurs et les lettres du grand sceau.

Les libraires étaient forcés, sous peine d'amende, que partageait l'imprimeur, de mettre sur les ouvrages qu'ils éditaient leur nom et leur demeure. Cinq exemplaires devaient être déposés par eux, deux à la bibliothèque du roi, un au cabinet du Louvre, un au garde des sceaux et un au censeur qui lisait l'ouvrage. Les libraires seuls avaient la faculté de décrire les livres et de faire les ventes de bibliothèques, mais sans publicité par voie d'affiche. Une librairie ne pouvait être transmise sans la permission du lieutenant de police.

La Révolution établit la liberté entière pour l'exercice de la profession de libraire. Ceux-ci ne furent plus soumis qu'à la condition d'avoir une patente. La Convention, par décret du , maintint les droits des auteurs, mais n'apporta aucune restriction à l'exercice du commerce de la librairie. Le 18 ventôse an II, elle décréta la prohibition de la sortie des livres précieux et des manuscrits que les étrangers essayaient de s'approprier.

Jusqu'au début du siècle, les libraires étaient également éditeurs, achetant les manuscrits aux auteurs, les faisant imprimer et les débitant dans leur boutique. Ce n'est qu'au siècle que la division des tâches imposera la séparation entre les professions de " libraire " et d'" éditeur ".
La librairie continua de s'exercer librement jusqu'en 1810, époque à laquelle un décret impérial vint la réglementer et imposer à ceux qui l'exerçaient des obligations qui n'étaient guère qu'un renouvellement de celles de l' Ancien Régime.

Les libraires sont, d'abord, principalement conccurencés par les bouquinistes et les colporteurs puis après la Guerre par la vente par correspondance, la vente en ligne, les grandes enseignes culturelles, les supermarchés... faisant disparaitre un grand nombre de librairies. Afin de freiner la disparition de la profession, la loi relative au prix du livre est instaurée en 1981.

Selon le Guinness Book des Records, la plus ancienne librairie au monde est la Livraria Bertrand à Lisbonne. Fondée en 1732, elle est toujours en activité au même endroit depuis 1773 (rua Garret 73-75).

La plus vieille librairie de France encore en activité est la Librairie Nouvelle d'Orléans et elle est plus ancienne encore. Souvent rachetée, jamais fermée, déménagée quatre fois, elle appartenait en 1545 à Étienne Rouzeau et était située rue de l'Écrivinerie (aujourd'hui rue Pothier), face à ce qui était alors la salle des thèses de l'université. Elle appartient aujourd'hui à l'éditeur Albin Michel.

Le métier de libraire

Le libraire se tient au courant des parutions à venir (environ quatre à cinq mille nouveautés par mois) :

par les canaux d'information professionnels que constituent, entre autres, la revue Livres-Hebdo et la base de données Électre ;

en recevant les représentants des maisons d'édition, qui lui présentent les livres et prennent note de ses commandes, ou à défaut en travaillant à partir de documents de présentation.

Ces commandes concernant les nouveautés s'appellent l' office, qui constitue l'un des modes d'approvisionnement de la librairie. Le libraire choisit aussi de remettre ou non en commande les livres vendus, cela s'appelle le réassort. Il décide avec les représentants de mettre en place des opérations promotionnelles, généralement autour d'une collection. Enfin, il travaille son fonds pour proposer un choix de livres moins récents adapté à sa clientèle et qui correspondent plus spécifiquement au projet de la librairie.

Les retours sont les invendus des nouveautés. Ils sont choisis, retirés des rayons, saisis et mis en colis pour être renvoyés au fournisseur.

Réception et mise en place des livres

Le libraire catalogue les nouveautés (en créant des fiches correspondantes dans le logiciel de gestion du magasin), reçoit les livres (en mettant le stock à jour) et leur attribue une place dans le magasin (présentation sur table, vitrines, mises en avant).

La vente revêt plusieurs aspects :

la mise en avant consiste à présenter les livres de façon ordonnée et attractive. Les éditeurs fournissent parfois du matériel (affiches, présentoirs, etc.) dit de publicité sur le lieu de vente ;

le conseil : le libraire aide le client à choisir un livre, en le questionnant pour formuler sa demande de manière précise et en le renseignant sur les livres susceptibles de répondre à son attente ;

la vente, généralement combinée avec le conseil, consiste à convaincre le client d'acheter un ou plusieurs livres, en mettant en avant les raisons pour lesquelles ils répondent à ses attentes, ou plus simplement en les lui proposant ;

l'encaissement est la vente proprement dite ; le système informatique retire les livres vendus du stock tout en faisant office de caisse enregistreuse. Le libraire propose au client un sac pour transporter ses achats et si nécessaire un emballage cadeau.

Qualités nécessaires

Le libraire doit tout d'abord aimer lire, pour connaître ses produits, et par conséquent conseiller ses clients. Il doit suivre l'actualité littéraire pour présenter les nouveautés.

Outre l'aspect littéraire important dans ce métier, un libraire doit avant tout être un bon gestionnaire. En effet, il est amené à gérer un stock à la fois au niveau de sa quantité mais aussi et surtout au niveau de sa qualité.

Une donnée importante du métier de libraire est aussi d'être un animateur culturel. Ce métier nécessite également des capacités physiques (les livres arrivent dans des cartons), relationnelles (le libraire s'occupe de clients tout autant que de livres) et que les hauts salaires ne sont pas répandus dans la profession [réf. nécessaire].

Il existe de nombreuses filières pour devenir libraire :

l'Institut National de Formation de la Librairie permet de préparer :

un CAP de vendeur spécialisé option Presse Librairie Papeterie, le recrutement s'effectuant en général à un niveau .

un Brevet professionnel de libraire, le recrutement s'effectuant en général à un niveau Bac.

une Licence professionnelle dont le recrutement s'effectue après un BP ou un DUT/DEUG.

l'UCO Laval, permet de préparer une licence libraire en 2 ans accessible après une première année de licence ou tout bac+2 validé.

le Centre de formation Profile en Basse-Normandie (14) vous accueille pour le CAP de vendeur spécialisé Librairie Papeterie Presse ainsi que le BP spécialisé en librairie.

Une filière universitaire, plus généraliste, débouche sur un " DUT Information Communication, option Métiers du Livre et du patrimoine ".

Une nouvelle branche universitaire, accessible après un BP ou un DUT, permet de déboucher depuis 2004 sur une Licence Professionnelle et forme des cadres en librairie.

Un " Master Professionnel Information et Communication, option Métiers du Livre " est accessible après une licence.

Des formations courtes comme celle proposée par la CCI de Lyon. Le diplôme délivré est un " Certificat de Qualification Vendeur en librairie " niveau IV.

l'UCO Laval propose également une licence d'Histoire option Métiers du Livre.

Par ailleurs, l' Institut National de Formation de la Librairie organise des sessions de formation permanente et continue aux métiers de la librairie préparant notamment à la création et à la reprise de librairies indépendantes.

En Belgique ( Région wallonne), l' IFAPME organise des formations en alternance au métier de libraire. L'acquisition des compétences nécessaires à l'exercice de cette activité peut se faire dès 18 ans par la formation de chef d'entreprise.

En Suisse, un apprentissage de 3 ans, combinant travail dans une librairie et jours de cours, permet d'obtenir un CFC ( certificat fédéral de capacité) de libraire.

Pierre Roffet, libraire et relieur du siècle ;

André Le Breton, libraire-éditeur à l'origine de l'Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers de Diderot et d'Alembert ;

Jacques Lacombe, libraire et avocat du siècle ;

André-Charles Cailleau, libraire-éditeur du siècle ;

Charles-Joseph Panckoucke, libraire-éditeur du siècle ;

Pierre-François Ladvocat, libraire-éditeur du siècle, éditeur du livre des Cent et un ;

Auguste Poulet-Malassis, libraire-imprimeur du siècle, éditeur des Fleurs du mal ;

Adrienne Monnier tenait rue de l'Odéon à Paris, La Maison des Amis des Livres ;

Le , le libraire de Nuremberg, Johann Philipp Palm a été exécuté à Braunau sur Inn parce qu'il avait propagé l'écrit Deutschland in seiner tiefen Erniedrigung (L'Allemagne dans son humiliation profonde) ;

Paul Ruat (1862-1936), établi à Marseille, il fut parmi les fondateurs de la Chambre syndicale des libraires de France et fut un témoin de l'histoire de la librairie au tournant du siècle.

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :

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Un libraire est un commerçant qui vend des livres. Travaillant le plus souvent dans une librairie, il conseille et renseigne le client pour qu'il trouve le livre qu'il cherche tout en lui faisant découvrir de nouveaux auteurs et ouvrages. Au Moyen Âge, les livres sont écrits dans les couvents par des moines.

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Qu'est-ce qu'un diffuseur? Qu'est-ce qu'un distributeur?

Le secteur de la diffusion/distribution est moins connu du grand public que, par exemple, ceux de
l'édition et de la librairie. Il n'en demeure pas moins que les diffuseurs-distributeurs jouent un rôle central
au sein de l'écosystème du livre. De quel rôle s'agit-il?

Le diffuseur

Le diffuseur s'occupe des aspects commerciaux. Il a la responsabilité de la sollicitation des clients et de la représentation, de la détermination des remises accordées, de la promotion et de la publicité et, dans certains cas (pour les livres importés), de l'établissement du prix de vente suggéré.

Le distributeur

Le distributeur s'occupe des aspects logistiques. Il est responsable de la réception et de l'entreposage des livres, de l'exécution des commandes, de la facturation et de la perception des comptes d'un ou de plusieurs fonds pour un ou plusieurs éditeurs diffusés.

À géométrie variable

Au sein de l'ADELF, certains membres sont diffuseurs, d'autres sont distributeurs, et d'autres encore sont à la fois diffuseurs et distributeurs.

Où trouver des statistiques ?

La Société de gestion de la BTLF offre un service d'information sur les ventes (SIV) nommé Gaspard. Celui-ci recueille et diffuse des données hebdomadaires sur les ventes de livres. Ces données proviennent directement des commerçants

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ADELF | Qu'est-ce que la diffusion et la distribution

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Le secteur de la diffusion/distribution est moins connu du grand public que, par exemple, ceux de l'édition et de la librairie. Il n'en demeure pas moins que les diffuseurs-distributeurs jouent un rôle central au sein de l'écosystème du livre. De quel rôle s'agit-il? Le diffuseur s'occupe des aspects commerciaux.

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Un phylactère, également appelé bulle ou ballon, est un élément graphique permettant de placer le texte d'un dialogue ou d'un monologue qu'un personnage prononce ou pense dans une case de bande dessinée. C'est un moyen graphique utilisé en illustration puis en bande dessinée pour attribuer des paroles ou des pensées aux personnages. Il est habituellement constitué d'une forme ovale ou rectangulaire avec des coins plus ou moins arrondis. Le lien entre la bulle et le personnage se fait à l'aide d'une extension tracée d'un trait continu et pointue dirigée de la bulle vers le personnage lorsqu'il s'agit de paroles ou à l'aide de plusieurs cercles de grandeur décroissante dont l'ensemble pointe vers le personnage lorsque le personnage réfléchit (dans ce dernier cas, les cercles peuvent être remplacés par des formes de nuages). Les phylactères peuvent être utilisés pour placer du texte, mais aussi des symboles (tête de mort, bûche et scie, etc.).

Quand c'est la voix du narrateur qui est placée dans un espace d'une case, on parle plutôt de récitatif.

Il est difficile de dater les premiers phylactères. Certaines peintures et tapisseries datant du moyen-âge contiennent des formes dont la fonction est comparable,.

On peut trouver des phylactères, utilisés de la même manière que dans la bande dessinée contemporaine, chez les caricaturistes anglais du siècle.

L'usage régulier des phylactères dans des récits en images est souvent daté de la fin du siècle, même s'il existe des exemples antérieurs, comme l'usage qui en est fait par le Britannique James Gillray dans ses caricatures gravées, en 1791, ou encore par le Britannique Thomas Rowlandson qui, également dans des caricatures, compose une sorte de séquence en 1809.

Des bulles apparaissent dans la série américaine Hogan's Alley (alias The Yellow Kid), créée en 1894 par Richard Felton Outcault ; c'est cependant une autre série américaine, The Katzenjammers Kids (Pim Pam Poum), créée en 1897 par Rudolph Dirks, qui systématise leur utilisation. L'usage se répand ensuite aux États-Unis autour de 1900. Certaines bandes dessinées américaines créées par la suite, comme Prince Vaillant ou les premiers comic strips , continuent cependant de privilégier une narration sans phylactères.

La première apparition de phylactères dans une publication en français remonte à la série Les Aventures de Timothée créée par Albéric Bourgeois et publiée de 1904 à 1909 dans le journal canadien . Les bulles mettent plus de temps à être adoptées par les Européens : ainsi, elles n'apparaissent que très rarement dans les séries d'un auteur français comme Christophe, contemporain de Dirks, et ne sont jamais utilisées dans (créée en 1905). C'est en 1908 que paraît , la première bande dessinée française dont les personnages s'expriment régulièrement à l'aide de phylactères. Les Pieds nickelés, créés la même année, ne les emploient alors que de façon irrégulière, l'essentiel du texte continuant d'apparaître en dessous de l'image.

Les phylactères s'imposent progressivement en Europe durant l' entre-deux-guerres, sous l'influence des séries américaines importées. Le Français Alain Saint-Ogan les utilise systématiquement dans la série (créée en 1925), dont le grand succès à l'époque contribue à généraliser l'utilisation des phylactères dans les pays francophones. L'œuvre de Saint-Ogan influence notamment le Belge Hergé, qui emploie lui aussi les bulles dans Les Aventures de Tintin ( 1929). Mais, toujours dans les années 1930, on observe, dans les premières éditions françaises de bandes dessinées Disney , un recul des phylactères au profit d'une narration sous l'image. En Italie, l'usage des bulles se répand également à la même époque. Cependant, durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le régime fasciste interdit par antiaméricanisme aux auteurs italiens de bande dessinées d'utiliser les bulles, celles-ci étant considérées comme un élément culturel américain : les phylactères sont à nouveau autorisés après-guerre en Italie, en même temps qu'ils deviennent la norme dans toute l'Europe. La bulle de texte achève de s'imposer en bande dessinée dans les années 1950.

Ce n'est qu'en 1968 que le terme " bulle " a été popularisé par Jacques Sadoul et Jean-Jacques Pauvert (on ne parlait alors en français que de " ballons "), à l'occasion de la publication de l'ouvrage L'Enfer des bulles, à propos des bandes dessinées mises à l' index. Le titre L'Enfer des ballons ne convenait pas, et ce terme semblait plus approprié. Il connut immédiatement un grand succès et s'est imposé depuis lors.

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :

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Un phylactère, également appelé bulle ou ballon, est un élément graphique permettant de placer le texte d'un dialogue ou d'un monologue qu'un personnage prononce ou pense dans une case de bande dessinée. C'est un moyen graphique utilisé en illustration puis en bande dessinée pour attribuer des paroles ou des pensées aux personnages.

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On remarque ainsi quelques différences avec celles des BD!

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Dessinateur de talent de chez Star Wars avant de rejoindre l'équipe de Marvel Comics. Il est particulièrement connu pour ses dessins de Spider Man, mais aussi pour une application qu'il développa avec son frère. Cet application sert à apprendre à dessiner des comics, à différent niveau, de débutant à expert.

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JT Comics #59 - L'appli pour apprendre à dessiner - Clowns & X-Men Marvel - Ennis & Dillon 26/10/16

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C'est homme était ans doute l'éditeur, producteur et scénariste de comics le plus connu du monde. Il a travaillé pendant plusieurs années avec Marvel et publiés plusieurs de ces comics écrit avec Jack Kirby. Ils sont les auteurs des quatre fantastiques, Hulk, Thor, X-men et Avengers. Tandis qu'avec les dessinateurs Steve Ditko, Bill Everett et Don Heck, il publiera Spider-Man, Iron-Man, Docteur Strange et Daredevil.

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Stan Lee en 2007.

Stanley Lieber, dit Stan Lee, né le à New York et mort le à Los Angeles, est un scénariste américain et éditeur de comics. Son nom est associé à Marvel Comics, pour lequel il a imaginé les super-héros les Avengers, les X-Men ainsi que bien d'autres personnages. Il se surnommait lui-même " Stan the Man ".

Lee est - avec des dessinateurs comme Jack Kirby et Steve Ditko - le co-créateur de plusieurs milliers de personnages qui sont le fondement de l' univers Marvel. À compter des années 1960, le succès de ses séries a permis l'ascension de Marvel Comics, passé avec le temps du rang de petite société d'édition à celui de groupe industriel multimédia. Il est aussi reconnu pour avoir contribué à ce que les comics américains s'émancipent d'un registre artistique à l'origine réservé à un lectorat pour la jeunesse, pour atteindre tous les publics.

Après son départ de Marvel, il crée, en , un nouveau studio nommé POW! Entertainment. Demeuré associé à Marvel en tant que symbole historique de l'entreprise, il est crédité comme producteur exécutif de la plupart des adaptations audiovisuelles des comics mettant en scène ses personnages. Dans les dernières années de sa vie, dès le début des années 2000, et principalement après la création de l' univers cinématographique Marvel, le rachat de Marvel par Disney en 2009, et le succès mondial des films alors produits, il fait des apparitions dans chacun d'entre eux, avec des caméos devenus " culte ".

Stanley Lieber, né en 1922 à New York, est un fils d'immigrants roumains juifs venus s'installer aux États-Unis. Il grandit dans le quartier de Washington Heights durant la Grande Dépression. D'origine très modeste, en parallèle de ses études à la DeWitt Clinton High School , une université du Bronx, il enchaîne les petits boulots pour aider sa famille.

Alors qu'il est encore mineur, Stan Lee commence à travailler dès 1940 comme assistant, homme à tout faire, puis rédacteur pour l'éditeur de bandes dessinées bon marché () Timely Comics, avec l'appui de son oncle Robbie Solomon. Le patron de Timely Comics, Martin Goodman, est un de ses cousins par alliance. D'un naturel bavard et persévérant, il se retrouve vite sous l'autorité de Joe Simon et Jack Kirby, les dessinateurs vedettes de Timely Comics. Il sert les cafés, apporte les sandwichs, mais effectue aussi de petits travaux sur les planches avant publication.

Sa première œuvre publiée est une page de texte datée de 1941 dans le comics Captain America. À l'époque, les comics comportaient deux pages rédigées, ce qui permettait de bénéficier d'un tarif postal préférentiel, et les auteurs n'avaient aucun problème à en déléguer la rédaction, puisqu'ils pensaient qu'elles n'étaient pas lues. Très vite, il utilise le pseudonyme " Stan Lee " (qui dérive de son vrai nom), ayant pour projet de réserver Stanley Martin Lieber pour le grand roman que je n'ai jamais écrit. Bien vite, il devient scénariste à part entière. Travailleur passionné, il rédige des scripts des séries dessinées à la chaîne, et sous différents pseudonymes, afin de laisser croire que Timely Comics emploie un grand nombre de scénaristes. Puis, à la suite du départ de Jack Kirby et Joe Simon (à cause d'un désaccord avec Martin Goodman sur leur rémunération), Lee devient le rédacteur en chef de Timely, à moins de 20 ans.

En , Stan Lee est appelé sous les drapeaux. Il est cantonné en Caroline du Nord puis dans l' Indiana, où il dessine des documents pédagogiques comme des posters pour prévenir la syphilis. Il est aussi l'un des neuf appelés américains à servir comme auteur dramatique.

Après la guerre, l'industrie des comics traverse une crise et Timely connaît différents échecs dans les années 1950. Les comics étant accusés de favoriser la délinquance juvénile, les ventes de comics de super-héros accusent une baisse notable. Timely Comics, devenu Atlas Comics en 1951, tente également d'affronter une crise concernant sa structure de distribution des numéros. Malgré les problèmes, Stan Lee reste fidèle au poste : il écrit des scénarios de comics dans tous les genres en vogue (romance, guerre, fantastique, western et science-fiction) en se consacrant aux titres les plus vendeurs, attendant un hypothétique retour en grâce. À la fin des années 1950, il devient las de son travail et songe à démissionner après vingt ans de bons et loyaux services. À l'époque, il est l'un des derniers salariés à travailler à plein temps pour Martin Goodman.

Au début des années 1960, l'éditeur concurrent DC Comics relance le genre des comics de super-héros, obtenant un grand succès avec la série Justice League of America qui narre les aventures d'une alliance emmenée par Wonder Woman et Flash. L'éditeur Martin Goodman, souhaitant profiter lui aussi de ce regain de popularité, enjoint Stan Lee à mettre au point leur propre équipe de " super vengeurs " pour Marvel Comics (le nouveau nom de l'éditeur succédant à Atlas Comics et Timely Comics).

En 1961, Stan Lee et Jack Kirby (que Lee a fait revenir en 1958) créent la série Les Quatre Fantastiques ( Fantastic Four) qui révolutionne les bandes dessinées de super-héros de l'époque ; la structure des récits est en effet plus adulte, en rupture avec les habitudes narratives classiques. Les personnages sont aux prises avec des problèmes personnels divers (sentimentaux, financiers), se chamaillent et usent éventuellement de l' argot. Le succès n'est pas immédiat, mais se consolide au fil du temps, Les Quatre Fantastiques devenant la plus longue série éditée par Marvel, jusqu'en 2011. Portée par l'imagination sans limite de Kirby et le sens du de Lee, Les Quatre Fantastiques deviendra " culte " et fera de Marvel l'un des leaders du marché.

Dans la foulée, Lee et Kirby multiplient les créations qui suivent souvent la même recette : (1962), (1962), (1963), Les Vengeurs ( Avengers, 1963). Avec les dessinateurs Steve Ditko, Don Heck ou encore Bill Everett, Lee donnera naissance à d'autres séries de super-héros qui connaîtront eux aussi le succès : (1962), (1963), Docteur Strange (1963) ou (1964), et qui symboliseront l' âge d'argent des comics.

Ces personnages humains, faillibles, sont parfois torturés et souvent craints par la population, ce qui tranche résolument avec les super-héros " positifs " de DC Comics ( Superman, Wonder Woman, etc.). Parmi ses héros, Stan Lee déclarera avoir une certaine faiblesse pour la Chose ( The Thing), un personnage rendu prisonnier de son corps de pierre et objet de beaucoup de questions existentielles. Certains personnages négatifs (les " super-vilains ") sont, eux aussi, en proie à des questions existentielles et des souffrances personnelles qui les rendent plus humains et faillibles, tel l' Homme-sable dont les mauvaises actions sont motivées par la nécessité de trouver de l'argent pour soigner sa petite fille malade.

Cocréateur de la majorité des personnages, Lee s'occupe aussi du courrier des lecteurs, des revues et du matériel rédactionnel. Entouré d'une équipe de dessinateurs de grand talent (principalement Jack Kirby et Steve Ditko, puis John Romita, Gene Colan, etc.), il leur délègue progressivement la construction des intrigues, se réservant l'écriture des dialogues. Cette méthode, qui fait des dessinateurs les coscénaristes des revues qu'ils dessinent, permet d'obtenir des récits dynamiques, axés sur le dessin et l'action. Le rôle de coscénariste des dessinateurs n'est cependant pas reconnu et tous les personnages qu'ils contribuent à créer demeurent la propriété de Marvel.

Dans les années 1980, Jack Kirby, en conflit avec son ancien éditeur au sujet de la propriété de ses planches originales, reproche vivement à Stan Lee ses méthodes de travail et le fait de s'être approprié certaines de ses idées.

Dans les années 1970, Stan Lee abandonne progressivement l'écriture de scénarios et la gestion éditoriale des revues. Confiant ses personnages à une équipe de jeunes auteurs qu'il a formés ( Roy Thomas, Gerry Conway, Len Wein...), il se consacre à la tournée des universités ou aux relations avec la presse, afin de faire connaître l' univers Marvel. Il se charge également d'initier et de superviser plusieurs adaptations télévisées de ses super-héros, telles que les séries ou L'Incroyable Hulk. Il intervient ainsi sur une quinzaine de projets de films, dessins animés, séries télévisées transposant les héros Marvel à l'écran, sans que ces projets se concrétisent à chaque fois.

À la fin des années 1990, le groupe Marvel traverse une grave crise financière et renégocie le contrat qui le lie à Stan Lee. À cette occasion, Lee perd l'exclusivité qui le liait à Marvel. S'il conserve un titre de producteur exécutif sur les films adaptés de ses personnages (, ...), il peut dès lors initier des projets pour d'autres éditeurs. Il coécrit ainsi la collection Just Imagine pour DC Comics, réinventant le temps d'un album les héros de l'éditeur concurrent principal de Marvel ( Superman, Batman ...).

En 1998, il fonde la Stan Lee Entertainment pour la création d'œuvres sur Internet mais la société fait faillite en . Il monte alors en 2001 la structure de production POW! Entertainment qui développe des projets pour la télévision ou le cinéma. En 2008, il crée même une nouvelle ligne de comics pour l'éditeur indépendant Boom Studios, créant et supervisant trois séries, animées ensuite par des auteurs comme Paul Cornell ou Mark Waid. Le , Disney et POW! Entertainment signent un contrat pour la production de trois films.

En 2009, il se lance dans le manga en créant Heroman - qui sera adapté en dessin animé - et il scénarise le manga avec Hiroyuki Takei.

Stan Lee demeure cependant lié à Marvel, pour qui il écrit ponctuellement des épisodes spéciaux, tels que Stan Lee Meets Spider-Man (nommé aux Eisner Awards 2007) ou Fantastic Four: The Lost Adventure, d'après des planches de Jack Kirby prévues pour Fantastic Four #102. Le , avec le rachat de Marvel Entertainment, Disney accroît son partenariat avec POW! Entertainment, le studio de Lee, et investit 2,5 millions de dollars dans le capital, soit 10 %.

En 2011, il monte un projet de série animée avec Arnold Schwarzenegger, intitulée The Governator mais, à cause du scandale lié aux infidélités conjugales de Schwarzenegger, les sociétés productrices se retirent du projet, celui-ci étant alors abandonné.

En dehors des comics et films Marvel, il participe au développement de la série télévisée britannique ( Stan Lee's Lucky Man), diffusée dès 2016.

Stan Lee se marie le avec la top-modèle et doubleuse britannique Joan Boocock Lee (née Boocock),. Celle-ci meurt le à 95 ans Bien que de multiples sources la citent comme ayant 93 ans au moment de sa mort, le General Register Office britannique montre qu'elle avait, en fait, 95 ans. Le couple a eu deux filles, Joan Celia " J. C. " Lee (née en 1950) et Jan Lee, qui est morte trois jours après sa naissance en 1953,. Affaibli dans ses dernières années et affecté par la mort de sa femme Joan, Stan Lee continuait cependant d'apparaître régulièrement en public.

Dans un documentaire de 2010 lui étant entièrement consacré, intitulé With Great Power : The Stan Lee Story, il affirme : Je ne rêvais pas de faire des comics étant enfant. Je voulais être acteur. Mon premier héros était Errol Flynn.

Stan Lee avait pris l'habitude de signer ses tribunes dans les comics avec l'expression " Excelsior ", une expression dont personne ne saurait ce qu'elle signifie, afin de se démarquer de ses concurrents qui reprenaient ses gimmicks. ( Que signifie "Excelsior" ? Plus haut et plus loin vers une gloire supérieure. C'est ce que je vous souhaite à chaque fois que je finis de tweeter. Excelsior !).

Stan Lee meurt le à Los Angeles à l'âge de 95 ans, des suites d'une insuffisance cardiaque et respiratoire,. Selon le site média TMZ, il souffrait également d'une pneumonie par aspiration que le médecin légiste a considéré comme une " affection importante contribuant au décès ".

À l'annonce de sa mort, les principaux acteurs ayant interprété ses personnages au cinéma lui rendent hommage sur les réseaux sociaux, saluant le génie créatif et le scénariste révolutionnaire, notamment les acteurs Robert Downey Jr., Hugh Jackman, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans ou Tom Holland, mais aussi le scénariste Frank Miller, l'acteur de la saga Mark Hamill, et même les éditions DC Comics, éternelles rivales de Marvel Comics, qui saluent notamment un homme qui a changé notre façon de voir les héros.

Stan Lee est le producteur exécutif de plusieurs films ; il en profite pour faire des caméos (apparitions-éclair à la Alfred Hitchcock) dans la plupart des adaptations cinématographiques Marvel, ainsi que dans des séries télévisées liées aux super-héros Marvel. Il apparaît dans tous les films de l' univers cinématographique Marvel et dans plusieurs de l' univers cinématographique des X-Men.

1982 : The Incredible Hulk : le narrateur

1983 : Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends : le narrateur

1989 : X-Men: Pryde of the X-Men : le narrateur

1989 : Le Procès de l'incroyable Hulk ; le juré Foreman

1963 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire courte pour " Origin of Spider-Man ", parue dans Amazing Fantasy #15 (avec Steve Ditko).

1964-1969 : prix Alley du meilleur éditeur et du meilleur scénariste.

1964 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire courte pour " The Human Torch Meets Captain America ", parue dans Strange Tales #144 (avec Jack Kirby).

1965 : prix Alley du meilleur roman pour " Captain America Joins the Avengers ", parue dans The Avengers #4 (avec Jack Kirby) ; prix de la meilleure nouveauté pour la série Captain America (avec Jack Kirby).

1966 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire courte pour " The Origin of Red Skull ", parue dans Tales of Suspense #66 (avec Jack Kirby).

1967 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire complète pour " How Green was my Goblin ", parue dans The Amazing Spider-Man #39 (avec John Romita, Sr.) ; prix de la meilleure série complémentaire pour " Tales of Asgard ", parue dans The Mighty Thor (avec Jack Kirby).

1968 : prix Alley de la meilleure série complémentaire pour " Tales of Asgard " et " Tales of the Inhumans ", parue dans The Mighty Thor (avec Jack Kirby).

1969 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire complète (ex-aequo) pour " Origin of the Silver Surfer ", parue dans The Silver Surfer #1 (avec John Buscema) ; prix de la meilleure histoire courte pour " Today Earth Died ", parue dans Strange Tales #168 (avec Jim Steranko) ; prix de la meilleure série complémentaire pour " Tales of the Inhumans ", parue dans The Mighty Thor (avec Jack Kirby) ; prix de la meilleure nouveauté pour la série Le Surfeur d'Argent.

1970 : prix Alley de la meilleure histoire complète pour " ...And Who Shall Mourn for Him? ", parue dans The Silver Surfer #5 (avec John et Sal Buscema).

1974 : prix Inkpot

1989 : prix Eisner de la meilleure mini-série pour Silver Surfer : Parabole (avec Moebius).

1992 : prix Adamson (Suède) pour l'ensemble de son œuvre.

1994 : Temple de la renommée Will Eisner

1995 : Temple de la renommée Jack Kirby

2000 : prix d'honneur du festival international du film pour enfant de Burbank

2002 : Saturn Award d'honneur (Life Career Award)

2008 : National Medal of Arts

2009 : prix Scream spécial Comic-Con Icon

2012 :

Prix d'honneur du festival du film de Savannah

Prix d'honneur de la Visual Effects Society

Prix Vanguard de la Producers Guild of America

2017 : Disney Legend

En France, Jean-Claude Montalban est la voix française régulière de Stan Lee.

En , une masseuse, Maria Carballo, porte plainte contre Stan Lee pour agression sexuelle, l'accusant notamment d'attouchements et réclamant au moins 50 000 dollars de dommages et intérêts. Les faits remonteraient à , quand Stan Lee se rendit à Chicago pour une convention de comic-books. L'avocat de Stan Lee dément cette version, affirmant à propos de son client C'est une personnalité connue et je pense que c'est de l'extorsion [...] Il a 95 ans, je ne pense pas qu'il ferait ça.

Dans l'épisode 16 de la saison 3 de la série télévisée The Big Bang Theory, une coïncidence amusante est soulevée par Rajesh Koothrappali : il remarque en effet que certains personnages créés par Stan Lee ont les initiales de leurs noms et prénoms (ou de leur nom de héros) identiques : Bruce Banner , Doctor Doom (le pseudonyme de Victor Von Doom, le Docteur Fatalis en VF), Otto Octavius (le Docteur Octopus), Peter Parker , Susan Storm (la Femme invisible), Matt Murdock , Reed Richards (Mr Fantastique), Scott Summers , Silver Surfer (le Surfer d'argent), Green Goblin (le Bouffon vert), Pepper Potts, Millie the Model, The Fantastic Four (Les Quatre Fantastiques), Happy Hogan , Curt Connors (voire trois initiales, comme John Jonah Jameson, The Invincible Iron Man, Dum Dum Dugan ou Fin Fang Foom), etc.

L'explication donnée par Stan Lee est simple : ayant créé un univers relativement vaste de personnages, il a inventé cette astuce mnémotechnique pour se souvenir des noms de ses créations.

Cependant, cet usage existe également avec de nombreux autres personnages de comics non inventés par Stan Lee, par exemple dans l' univers DC) ( Lex Luthor, Lois Lane, Wonder Woman, voire phonétiquement Clark Kent, etc. et plus généralement dans le dessin animé et la bande dessinée, notamment américains ou d'inspiration américaine ( Krazy Kat, Donald Duck, Mickey Mouse, Bugs Bunny et Daffy Duck, Lucky Luke et Jolly Jumper, etc.).

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :

source utilisée pour la rédaction de cet article

(en) Shirrel Rhoades, A Complete History of American Comic Books, Peter Lang, , 353 p. (ISBN 1433101076 , lire en ligne)

Jean-Marc Lainé, Stan Lee. Homère du XX e siècle, Les Moutons électriques, coll. " La Bibliothèque des miroirs ", 2013.

(en) Jordon Raphael et Tom Spurgeon, Stan Lee and the Rise and Fall of the American Comic Book, Chicago Review Press, 2003.

Pauline Croquet, " Comment Stan Lee a révolutionné l'industrie du comics ", Le Monde,‎ (lire en ligne) .

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Stan Lee en 2007. Stanley Lieber, dit Stan Lee, né le à New York et mort le à Los Angeles, est un scénariste américain et éditeur de comics. Son nom est associé à Marvel Comics, pour lequel il a imaginé les super-héros les Avengers, les X-Men ainsi que bien d'autres personnages.

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En plus d'être un excellant partenaire de Stan Lee, Jack Kirby est aussi le co-auteur, avec Joe Simon du grand et célèbre Capitaine América!

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Jack Kirby en 1992.

Jack Kirby, né Jacob Kurtzberg le dans le Lower East Side à New York et mort le à Thousand Oaks en Californie, est un dessinateur de bande dessinée et l'un des artistes les plus influents, célèbres et prolifiques de la bande dessinée américaine. Surnommé " the King of Comics " (" le Roi de la bande dessinée "), il est à l'origine de nombreuses séries qui marquent l'histoire des comics américains.

En 1940, il crée avec le scénariste Joe Simon la série ; en 1947, toujours avec Simon, il invente le genre des comics de romance ; dans les années 1960 avec Stan Lee, il crée de nombreux super-héros qui font la renommée de l'éditeur Marvel Comics, notamment les Quatre Fantastiques, L'Incroyable Hulk, le puissant Thor, les Vengeurs ou les X-Men ; enfin, dans les années 1970 pour l'éditeur DC Comics, il entreprend son œuvre la plus ambitieuse constituée de quatre comics reliés pour former une seule saga, Le Quatrième Monde. Par la suite, il poursuit une carrière moins marquée par la nouveauté mais toujours fructueuse, pour Marvel ou pour des éditeurs indépendants.

Kirby marque ainsi le monde des comics en produisant des œuvres qui connaissent un succès populaire et toujours admirées par ses pairs. Son goût pour le grotesque a valu à quelques-unes de ses œuvres de se faire censurer en France, y compris par ses éditeurs.

Malgré cette reconnaissance, Jack Kirby connaîtra des déboires avec ses éditeurs, surtout Marvel, qui ne reconnaît pas de droits d'auteur ; ce conflit, qui s'était achevé du vivant de Kirby, a depuis été repris car ses enfants en 2009, réclament à Marvel le retour des copyrights des séries créées dans les années 1960 ; la justice a rejeté le bien-fondé de cette demande, même si l'avocat des Kirby a fait appel. Si le nom de Jack Kirby est toujours connu dans l'univers des comics, c'est essentiellement grâce à la force de son art qui s'est parfaitement adapté au style épique des histoires de super-héros.

Biographie

Jacob Kurtzberg naît le dans une famille d'origine juive émigrée d' Autriche. Son père, Benjamin Kurtzberg, a dû fuir son pays natal pour échapper à un duel et il se retrouve dans le quartier new-yorkais du , travaillant comme tailleur dans une usine. La famille, composée de Benjamin, de sa femme Rose, de Jacob et de son frère David, vit pauvrement dans ce quartier difficile où le jeune Jacob est confronté très tôt à la violence. Les bagarres armées sont monnaie courante et il est arrivé plusieurs fois que Jacob reste inanimé dans la rue. Toutefois, Jacob se différencie des autres enfants qu'il côtoie par son intérêt pour les comic strips comme et les romans classiques d'aventure ( Alexandre Dumas, Jules Verne) ou les pulps.

Il reçoit une éducation religieuse dans une école juive. Dans cet environnement pauvre, la crise de 1929 frappe durement les familles : à l'âge de 14 ans, Jacob est accepté à l' Institut Pratt de Brooklyn pour suivre des cours d'art, mais le jour où il reçoit ses premiers cours, son père est licencié et Jacob doit abandonner l'école et travailler pour aider sa famille,. Il commence par être livreur de journaux, puis il aide son père dans divers métiers. Par la suite, il trouve une formation et participe à un club de jeune pour lequel il réalise ses premiers dessins publiés dans le journal du club. Passionné par le dessin, Jacob Kurtzberg commence à réaliser des comic strips, signés du nom de Jack Curtiss, pour les proposer à des journaux ; cela est un échec et en 1935, répondant à une petite annonce, il postule un emploi aux studios ,.

Cet emploi ne lui plaît pas mais en travaillant là comme intervalliste sur les dessins animés de Popeye, il acquiert de l'expérience et il reçoit un salaire régulier. Toutefois, lorsque Fleischer décide de transférer son studio en Floride, Jack Kirby quitte cet emploi et se tourne vers les comic strips en signant un contrat avec le Lincoln Features Syndicate au début de 1936. Là il produit plusieurs strips sous différents pseudonymes : Brady, Lawrence, Jack Curtiss, Barton, Bob Dart, Curt Davis. En 1938, Jack Kirby propose ses talents à Will Eisner et Jerry Iger qui ont créé depuis peu un studio qui réalise des bandes dessinées pour plusieurs éditeurs. Là, Jack Kirby travaille pendant trois mois sur des planches préparées et parfois encrées par Eisner. Malgré cet engagement, Jack continue à produire un strip et des dessins humoristiques pour le Lincoln Features Syndicate .

Lorsqu'il quitte les studios d'Eisner et Iger, Jack commence une carrière d'artiste et en 1939, il réalise ses premières planches destinées à être éditées dans un ; la série s'appelle Solar Legion et elle est produite pour TEM Publishing . Il faudra cependant attendre mai 1940 pour que cette histoire, signée pour la première fois Jack Kirby, soit publiée dans le comic Crash Comics Adventures .

Entre-temps Jack Kirby a trouvé un emploi chez où il rencontre Joe Simon. Les deux hommes s'entendent très bien et commencent une collaboration fructueuse qui durera jusqu'après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Ils décident de former un studio où ils vont produire plusieurs comics.

Leur premier client est l'éditeur Timely Comics , l'ancêtre de Marvel Comics, pour lequel ils créent une série de héros : Red Raven, Comet Pierce, Mercury, the Vision, Hurricane, Tuk the Cave-Boy . Simon et Kirby vont aussi créer une série qui connaît immédiatement un immense succès : Captain America qui paraît en décembre 1940. Le comic book se vend à plus d'un million d'exemplaires ce qui à l'époque n'est pas un chiffre exceptionnel mais montre cependant que la série a de très bonnes ventes.

Encouragés par ce succès, Simon et Kirby continuent dans cette voie des comics patriotiques et créent Young Allies qui met en scène Bucky Barnes, le de Captain America, Toro, le de Human Torch et des adolescents luttant contre des nazis. Toutefois Joe Simon apprend que Martin Goodman ne compte pas respecter le contrat le liant à Kirby et Simon et leur verser ainsi toutes les sommes dues. Simon contacte alors National Comics , qui accepte d'engager les deux artistes avec un salaire double de celui payé par Timely.

Ainsi, forts de leur succès, Simon et Kirby vont chez l'éditeur National Comics pour reprendre des séries déjà existantes comme ou publiées dans Adventure Comics ou créer de nouveaux best-sellers comme The Newsboy Legion dans Star Spangled Comics et The Boys Commandos . Pour répondre à toutes ces sollicitations Kirby et Simon travaillent très vite (parfois jusqu'à six pages par jour), ce qui leur assure un revenu conséquent et permet à Jack Kirby, le , de se marier avec Rosalind Goldstein, surnommée Roz, qui sera son épouse jusqu'au décès de Jack. Quelques semaines après son mariage, Jacob Kurtzberg change officiellement son nom en Jack Kirby.

En 1943, l'association est interrompue car les deux hommes sont appelés à servir sous les drapeaux. En 1944, Jack débarque en Normandie, dix jours après le jour J. Il avance jusqu'en Lorraine, où il participe à la Bataille de Metz, notamment aux combats de Dornot, où les trois quarts des GIs engagés périssent. Gravement malade, il est évacué du front avant la fin des combats et ramené aux États-Unis. En récompense, il reçoit deux médailles militaires.

En 1945, Simon et Kirby se retrouvent et reforment leur association. Joe Simon signe un contrat avec l'éditeur Harvey Comics. Les conditions sont très avantageuses pour les deux artistes, comparées à celles que leur propose National. Malheureusement, à cette période, le monde des comics books connaît une crise de surproduction. Les marchands de journaux ne peuvent présenter tous les comics qui paraissent, ce qui les amène à n'accepter que les séries qui connaissent déjà le succès et à renvoyer les nouveautés. Face à cette crise, Harvey dénonce l'arrangement le liant à Kirby et Simon et ceux-ci se retrouvent sans emploi. National Comics accepte de faire travailler Kirby sur The Boys Commandos mais la situation financière n'est pas brillante, et cela d'autant plus que Roz a donné naissance à une petite fille, Susan, en .

Heureusement, Joe Simon parvient à signer, à l'été 1946, un accord avec la maison d'édition Crestwood Publications qui produit des livres, des magazines et des comics ; dans ce dernier cas, la dénomination de l'éditeur est alors Prize Comics . Dans un premier temps, Kirby et Simon s'inspirent des comics qui se vendent bien pour créer leurs œuvres. Ainsi ils proposent sous-titré The Crime Never Pays car le comics Crime Does Not Pay est diffusé à plus d'un million d'exemplaires. De même, comme les comics d'humour animaliers connaissent le succès, ils créent Lockjaw the Alligator .

Cependant, Kirby et Simon ne se contentent pas de suivre les modes, ils en créent également. Ils inventent un nouveau genre, le comics de romance. En juin 1947 sort le premier numéro de Young Romance . Le succès est immédiat ; entre le premier et le troisième numéro le nombre d'exemplaires imprimés est triplé,. Cela incite Kirby et Simon à créer d'autres comics de ce genre, en 1949 et Young Brides en 1952. Les ventes dépassent à chaque fois le million d'exemplaires,.

D'autres créations émaillent cette période : ( western), Black Magic ( paranormal), The Strange world of your Dreams (l'interprétation des rêves) et Fighting American . Ce dernier relate les aventures d'un super-héros patriotique contre les communistes mais au lieu de traiter cela sérieusement, à partir du deuxième numéro, le comic le fait d'une façon parodique avec des communistes plus ridicules que méchants. Durant cette période Jack et Roz ont deux autres enfants : Neal, né en mai 1948, et Barbara en novembre 1952.

En 1954, Kirby et Simon, bien qu'ils continuent de dessiner des séries pour Prize, décident de se lancer dans l'auto-édition en créant Mainline Publications. Quatre séries sont lancées : (western), Police Trap (policier), (romance) et (guerre). Le moment ne pouvait être plus mal choisi pour voler ainsi de ses propres ailes car les comics sont à cette époque sous l'accusation de pervertir la jeunesse américaine. Une commission sénatoriale est mise en place pour étudier les liens entre les comics et la hausse de la délinquance juvénile. Pour éviter une censure d'état, les éditeurs de comics décident de former la Comics Magazine Association of America qui édite le Comics code. La maison d'édition EC Comics ne peut plus, de ce fait, proposer ses comics d'horreur ce qui entraîne la faillite de son distributeur qui se trouve être le même que celui de Mainline. Mainline est obligée de cesser ses activités et est rachetée par Charlton Comics Group. Kirby et Simon continuent donc de travailler sur ces séries avec ce nouvel éditeur et sur celles qu'ils proposaient chez Prize.

Kirby devient le " King "

Si Kirby et Simon s'entendent toujours très bien, chacun cherche cependant à travailler en solo. Kirby souhaite publier des comics strips alors que Simon est engagé par Harvey comme éditeur. En attendant de trouver un diffuseur pour ses strips, Jack Kirby propose ses talents à Atlas Comics, anciennement Timely Comics. Là il travaille sur , Astonishing , etc. Mais en 1957, Atlas connaît de graves problèmes de distribution et Kirby se retrouve sans emploi. Il trouve heureusement une aide de la part de Frank Giacoia qui l'engage comme dessinateur de son strip Johnny Reb and Billy Yank .

Peu de temps après, Jack Kirby trouve du travail chez DC où il participe à de nombreux titres dont et . C'est dans ce dernier qu'il crée en , à partir d'un concept développé avec Joe Simon, The Challengers of the Unknown qui auront ensuite leur propre comic écrit et dessiné par Kirby. Entre-temps un projet de Kirby a été accepté par The George Matthew Adams Syndicate . Il s'agit de Sky Masters , un comic strip de science-fiction encré par Wally Wood qui sera publié de à . Kirby avait refusé d'honorer l'accord de verser un pourcentage à Jack Schiff, un des responsables éditoriaux de DC, qui lui avait trouvé ce travail. Ce refus conduit à un jugement en défaveur de Kirby. Cela rend les rapports entre Kirby et DC tendus et finalement, le dessinateur quitte DC en 1959. Cette année-là il retrouvera Joe Simon pour deux projets édité par Harvey : The Double Life of Private Strong et The Adventure of the Fly ; surtout il revient chez Atlas pour y dessiner des romance comics ( My Own Romance ), des westerns ( Rawhide Kid et ) et des histoires fantastiques ( Strange Tales ). C'est durant cette période que naît Lisa, le quatrième enfant de Jack et Roz, le .

En 1961, DC Comics a depuis quelques années relancé les super-héros. Superman, Batman et Wonder Woman maintiennent leurs ventes et des super-héros abandonnés sont recréés comme Flash ou Green Lantern. L'" âge d'argent des comics " commence. Martin Goodman propose alors à son neveu, Stan Lee, de créer une série de super-héros en s'inspirant de la Ligue de justice d'Amérique. Stan Lee demande à Jack Kirby de participer à la création de ce comic et c'est ainsi que naît en le comic The Fantastic Four mettant en scène les aventures des Quatre Fantastiques. Ce comic se différencie de ceux que l'on trouve chez les autres éditeurs par l'importance accordée aux relations sentimentales ; les histoires ne s'arrêtent pas avec la neutralisation des super-vilains mais continuent en présentant leurs vies quotidiennes avec des problèmes d'argent, d'amour, de famille, etc. Ce côté voulu par Stan Lee est apprécié par les lecteurs et The Fantastic Four connaît un très grand succès.

Cette réussite encourage Lee et Kirby à reprendre cette formule et à l'appliquer à de nouvelles séries. C'est ainsi que naissent en , en , Sgt. Fury and His Howling Commandos en , et Les Vengeurs en . En , Lee et Kirby font revenir Captain America . Toutes ces séries sont lancées avec Jack Kirby au dessin, mais celui-ci laisse souvent par la suite ce travail à d'autres dessinateurs. Il restera sur The Fantastic Four , et reviendra rapidement sur Thor et Captain America . Toutes ses séries ne sont pas égales dans le parcours de Kirby. Dans certains cas, comme les premiers épisodes des X-Men, il se contente d'être le dessinateur et intervient peu sur l'histoire. Dans d'autres comics, comme les Quatre Fantastiques et Thor, il est à la fois dessinateur et scénariste. Stan Lee s'occupant d'insérer les dialogues sur les planches de Kirby.

Jack Kirby participe aussi à la création de , en suggérant le nom du personnage et les pouvoirs basés sur l' araignée, et de , mais pour ces héros ce sont deux autres artistes qui sont chargés du dessin dès le premier épisode, Steve Ditko et Don Heck. Stan Lee, qui donne des surnoms à tous ses collaborateurs pour créer un lien avec les lecteurs, surnomme dans un premier temps Jack Kirby puis . C'est ce titre qui lui restera.

En 1970, bien que ses créations soient un succès, Jack Kirby, en désaccord avec la grande maison d'édition qu'est devenu Marvel, décide de la quitter pour DC Comics.

Kirby est accueilli par Carmine Infantino, alors éditeur chez DC, qui lui laisse carte blanche pour créer les séries qu'il désire. La seule condition est de reprendre une série déjà existante. Jack Kirby n'apprécie pas beaucoup cette demande mais il l'accepte et finalement le choix se portera sur Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen . Le premier numéro réalisé par Kirby sera le 133 qui sort en . Dès le 134 de ce bimestriel, le deuxième écrit et dessiné par Kirby, apparaît le personnage de Darkseid. Cela annonce les trois créations de Kirby qui sont lancées en 1971 : et Forever People en février, Mister Miracle en mars. Malgré le grand investissement de Kirby, les ventes ne satisfont pas les éditeurs de DC. Par conséquent, Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen est enlevé à Kirby en au 148 et en , après 11 numéros, et Forever People sont arrêtés. Seul Mister Miracle sera poursuivi jusqu'au 18 de .

Pour remplacer ces séries, Kirby en propose deux nouvelles : qui commence à paraître en à un rythme mensuel et ce pendant 16 numéros jusqu'en et Kamandi, the Last Boy on Earth dont les 40 épisodes paraissent d' à . En , paraît OMAC qui connaît 8 épisodes jusqu'en . Il lance ensuite une nouvelle version de Sandman avec Joe Simon. Kirby lance d'autres essais de séries qui paraissent dans First Issue Special. Vers la fin de son contrat de cinq ans, il reprend la série de guerre The Losers dans le comics Our Fighting Force et effectue divers travaux de commande pour l'éditeur comme Richard Dragon, Kung-Fu Fighter dont il dessine le troisième épisode sur un scénario de Dennis O'Neil.

En 1975, Kirby retourne chez Marvel où il reprend Captain America dont le premier numéro qu'il produit paraît en et dont il réalisera les scénarios et les dessins jusqu'en .

De à , il raconte l'histoire des Éternels dans la série de comics où l'on assiste à l'affrontement de cette race d'êtres quasi-divins et des Déviants, une autre race d'êtres qui tient aussi de cette forme de divinité ; la Terre est malheureusement le lieu choisi comme zone de combat. Après avoir adapté le film, il produit en un comics librement inspiré de 2001, l'Odyssée de l'espace qui en donne naissance à , série qui voit les mésaventures d'un robot humanoïde doté d'une conscience. Il réalise aussi en un comic book mettant en scène un personnage créé dans The Fantastic Four 52 de : Black Panther (la Panthère noire).

En , il propose Devil Dinosaur qui durera jusqu'en et qui conte les aventures aux temps préhistoriques d'un jeune anthropoïde chevauchant un tyrannosaure rouge dont il est l'ami. Enfin il retrouve une dernière fois Stan Lee en 1978 pour raconter la dernière aventure du Surfer d'argent. Par ailleurs, il réalise aussi de nombreuses couvertures pour des comics auxquels il ne participe pas comme .

Cette collaboration avec Marvel, l'éditeur dont il avait été l'artisan du succès, se termine définitivement en 1978 pour des raisons de reconnaissance de droit d'auteur. Il semble alors que Jack Kirby quitte définitivement le monde des comics et qu'il préfère se consacrer à l'animation.

Vivant depuis 1969 sur la côte ouest des États-Unis où sont installés les principaux studios américains d'animation, Kirby se tourne pour quelques années vers le dessin animé. Il travaille tout d'abord avec la société Hanna-Barbera puis à partir de 1980 avec la société Ruby-Spears Productions sur plusieurs projets. Il est chargé de préparer le design de personnages et de décors pour le dessin animé Thundarr the Barbarian (en français Arok le barbare). Il crée aussi de nombreux concepts nouveaux qui ne seront pas repris par les studios mais qui devraient sortir des cartons pour une utilisation commerciale.

Le départ de Jack Kirby de DC puis de Marvel s'explique par un sentiment de manque de reconnaissance de la part de ses employeurs. Or les années 1980 marquent l'essor des éditeurs indépendants qui accordent un droit d'auteur complet aux artistes qui travaillent pour eux. Aussi, en 1981, l'éditeur Pacific Comics propose à Kirby de réaliser des comics dont il sera pleinement propriétaire ; le résultat est constitué de deux séries Captain Victory and the Galactic Rangers qui est un space opera et qui explore le génie génétique. Malheureusement, Pacific fait faillite et les deux séries sont interrompues. Jack Kirby prend alors sa retraite. En 1986, un conflit l'oppose à Marvel qui refuse de lui rendre ses originaux si Kirby n'appose pas sa signature sur un document par lequel il reconnaît Marvel comme seul propriétaire des droits sur les personnages qu'il avait cocréés. Un accord est trouvé mais les suites persistent jusqu'à maintenant puisque les héritiers de Kirby sont de nouveau en procès avec la firme Marvel.

En 1993, l'éditeur Topps Comics publie des fonds de tiroir de Jack Kirby, dont certains datent de l'époque de Pacific Comics : , Captain Glory , Nightglider et . Kirby ne fournit donc que le concept de base, les couvertures et quelques splash pages pour ce projet, nommé le Kirbyverse. Il en va différemment pour Phantom Force une série créée pour Image Comics qui comporte deux numéros entièrement dessinés par Kirby et encrés par une pléiade d'artistes distribués par Image ( Jim Lee, Rob Liefeld, Todd McFarlane, Marc Silvestri, Erik Larsen, Jerry Ordway, etc.). Un numéro zéro et les épisodes 3 à 8 (qui sont crédités à Kirby et qui présentent à chaque fois un ou deux de ses dessins) sont publiés plus tard par l'éditeur West Coast Genesis avec lequel devait travailler Kirby. Ce nouveau projet est interrompu par sa mort qui survient le dans sa propriété de Thousand Oaks en Californie, causée par une crise cardiaque.

L'influence de Kirby sur les auteurs de comics est très importante. Elle a commencé dès les années 1960 chez l'éditeur Marvel. En effet les dessinateurs étaient invités à dessiner leurs comics dans le style de Jack Kirby. Des artistes plus actuels ont rendu hommage à Kirby et déclaré qu'il avait eu une grande influence sur leur travail. Parmi ces artistes on trouve Alan Moore, Stephen Bissette et John Totleben qui dédient le numéro 27 de Swamp Thing à Jack Kirby avec respect et affection,. Todd McFarlane dans le premier numéro de reconnaît aussi l'influence de Kirby sur son travail. Enfin, lors d'une série d'interviews publiées dans le magazine The Jack Kirby Collector 27, des auteurs tels que Kurt Busiek, Barry Windsor-Smith, Erik Larsen, Roger Stern, Marv Wolfman, Neil Gaiman reconnaissent l'influence de Kirby et Michael Wm. Kaluta affirme que dans les comics, l'influence de Jack Kirby est indéniable. La plupart des gens que nous rencontrions étaient influencés uniquement par Kirby durant leurs années formatrices,. L'hommage le plus clair vient de Frank Miller qui le considère comme le père de la BD moderne américaine.

Jack Kirby continue à être une référence grâce aux albums publiés, reliés ou brochés, tant par DC Comics que par Marvel, qui reprennent les séries auxquelles il a participé. À ces rééditions s'ajoutent les comics inspirés des créations de Kirby comme Jack Kirby's Galactic Bounty Hunters écrit par Lisa Kirby et Steve Robertson et dessiné par Mike Thibodeaux, ou Kirby: Genesis écrit par Kurt Busiek et dessiné par Alex Ross et Jack Herbert.

L'œuvre de Jack Kirby est maintenant accessible en France sans restriction, mais elle a parfois été visée par la censure en raison de certains de ses thèmes. Si des années 1960 à 1990, les comics DC ou Marvel sont régulièrement traduits, certains connaissent des problèmes avec la Commission de surveillance et de contrôle des publications destinées à l'enfance et à l'adolescence instaurée par la loi 49-256 du . Ainsi Marcel Navarro, éditeur des éditions Lug, dont le personnage Fantax avait été à l'origine de la loi, voit son magazine Wampus, puis son magazine dans lequel on trouve , Le Surfer d'argent et Les Quatre Fantastiques, interdit à la vente aux mineurs à partir du 7 à la suite d'une décision de cette commission mettant en cause sa science-fiction terrifiante, ses combats de monstres traumatisants, ses récits au climat angoissant et assortis de dessins aux couleurs violentes. Le deuxième essai pour publier Les Quatre Fantastiques, cette fois dans un magazine intitulé , s'achève de la même façon, avec une interdiction à la vente aux mineurs à partir du numéro 14, ce qui conduit Lug à cesser la publication de ce magazine. Cela amènera alors l'éditeur à proposer les aventures des Quatre Fantastiques au format album qui n'est pas soumis aux mêmes conditions de publication. De même Les Éternels, publié dans le magazine à partir du 93 est dans un premier temps censuré par l'éditeur qui gomme des monstres ou redessine des personnages avant d'être totalement arrêté suite aux mises en garde de la commission ; l'éditeur préférant arrêter cette série plutôt que de voir son magazine vedette (qui propose par ailleurs , et ) totalement interdit.

Arédit reprend la série en omettant dix épisodes qui resteront inédits jusqu'en 2007. À cette époque, cet éditeur publie toutes ses histoires dans un petit format qui ne respecte pas les proportions du format comic book et les planches originales sont redécoupées, des vignettes sont coupées ou au contraire redessinées pour s'insérer dans ce format de page. De plus, certaines des histoires d'horreur dessinées par Kirby, par exemple (1972), sont marquées "pour adultes" alors qu'elles sont approuvées par l'organisme de censure américain, qui a relâché ses critères en 1971 pour accepter certaines histoires de ce genre. Plus tard Arédit lancera une collection au format comics, ce qui permettra pour la première fois de voir des aventures de Captain America , Hulk, Kamandi, etc. par Kirby dans leur format d'origine. Cependant, un tiers seulement de la vingtaine d'épisodes de Captain America est traduit.

Captain America : Au début de l'année 1940 Joe Simon et Jack Kirby commencent à travailler pour Timely. Les tensions internationales qui préfigurent une guerre prochaine et la situation des juifs en Allemagne qui touche particulièrement Simon, Kirby et Martin Goodman (propriétaire de Timely), tous trois juifs, poussent à la création d'un nouveau super-héros patriotique. La première apparition de ce personnage, nommé Captain America, se fera dans le premier numéro de Captain America Comics qui paraît le (la date inscrite sur la couverture est ). Ce premier épisode connaît un énorme succès avec des ventes qui dépassent le million d'exemplaires (ce chiffre n'est pas rare à l'époque mais il marque le succès). En novembre 1963, Jack Kirby et Stan Lee ressuscite Captain America dans The Avengers 4. Captain America est retrouvé en état d' hibernation par les Vengeurs et accepte de faire partie de ce groupe. Cela permet à Jack Kirby de reprendre le personnage dans le comic Tales of Suspense à partir du 59. Ce comic au 100 est rebaptisé Captain America . Lorsqu'il revient chez Marvel en 1976 Jack Kirby retrouve une dernière fois ce personnage dont il écrit, dessine et édite les épisodes du 193 au 214.

Les Quatre Fantastiques : En 1961, Martin Goodman, éditeur propriétaire de la firme Atlas, au vu du succès du comic book The Justice League of America, édité par DC Comics, suggère à Stan Lee, qui est scénariste, dialoguiste et responsable éditorial chez Atlas, de créer une série mettant en scène un groupe de super-héros. Stan Lee propose à Jack Kirby de travailler avec lui sur ce concept et de leurs discussions naît The Fantastic Four dont le premier numéro sort le et qui met en scène les aventures de quatre super-héros : Mr Fantastique, la Fille invisible, Torche humaine et la Chose. Kirby et Lee créent un nombre important de personnages encore présents dans l'univers Marvel ( Docteur Fatalis un scientifique de génie vêtu d'une armure, les Inhumains, Galactus le dévoreur de monde, le Surfer d'argent, la Panthère noire le premier super-héros noir de Marvel, etc.) durant les 102 épisodes qu'ils cosignent.

L'Homme-fourmi : En , dans le numéro de Tales to Astonish apparaît le personnage, créé par Lee et Kirby, d' Henry Pym, un scientifique qui a découvert le moyen de réduire sa taille à celle d'une fourmi. En septembre 1962 dans le numéro de Tales to Astonish , il revient mais cette fois-ci en tant que super-héros nommé . Kirby dessine ses aventures avant de passer la main à Don Heck. Il retrouve le personnage au 49 dans lequel devient .

Hulk : En , sort le numéro du comic book Incredible Hulk . On y trouve l'histoire d'un scientifique, Bruce Banner, qui est irradié par des rayons gamma et qui devient une créature monstrueuse, Hulk. Ce personnage inspiré par le roman de Robert Louis Stevenson L'Étrange Cas du docteur Jekyll et de M. Hyde, ne trouve pas un lectorat suffisant et le comic est arrêté après six numéros. Hulk trouve cependant une nouvelle place dans Tales to Astonish à partir du 60 (daté d'), qu'il partage avec puis avec Namor. Steve Ditko dessine plusieurs épisodes de Hulk avant que Jack Kirby ne reprenne le personnage du 68 au 84.

Thor : Ce personnage apparaît pour la première fois dans 83 portant la date d'août 1962. Créé par Stan Lee et Jack Kirby, il est basé sur son homologue dans la mythologie nordique. Kirby dessine les premières histoires jusqu'au numéro 89 puis laisse la place à d'autres dont Don Heck. À partir du numéro 101, il reprend le rôle de dessinateur attitré de la série. Le personnage de Thor a un tel succès que le 125 de Journey into Mystery est renommé The Mighty Thor . Kirby porte le personnage vers une maturité dont il est le seul responsable. Numéro après numéro, il s'inspire de la mythologie nordique et étend l'univers du héros en créant de nombreux personnages qui marqueront l' Univers Marvel.

Nick Fury : Ce personnage apparaît pour la première fois dans le premier numéro de Sgt Fury and his Howling commandos daté de écrit par Stan Lee et dessiné par Jack Kirby. Nick Fury est alors le sergent d'une escouade qui parcourt les zones de combats de la seconde guerre mondiale. Kirby dessine les sept premiers épisodes avant de laisser les crayons à Dick Ayers. Il retrouve ce personnage en août 1965 dans Strange Tales 135, avec Stan Lee encore au scénario. Cette fois-ci l'action se passe dans le présent et Nick Fury, devenu colonel, est recruté par un service secret du gouvernement américain, le SHIELD, afin de devenir directeur de celui-ci et de lutter contre une organisation criminelle : HYDRA. Kirby dessine la série jusqu'au 153 de avant d'être remplacé par Jim Steranko.

Les X-Men : En , Stan Lee et Jack Kirby proposent une nouvelle équipe de super-héros, après les Quatre Fantastiques et les Vengeurs. Cette fois-ci l'équipe est constituée de jeunes gens qui ont tous la particularité d'être des mutants, c'est-à-dire des personnes nées avec un pouvoir. Le groupe se compose de Cyclope, Angel, Iceberg, le Fauve et Strange Girl qui sont dirigés par un télépathe le Professeur Xavier. Dès le premier épisode les X-Men doivent lutter contre celui qui sera leur ennemi juré : Magnéto. Lee et Kirby créeront aussi au épisode les sentinelles, des robots fabriqués par Bolivar Trask, un scientifique persuadé que l'apparition des mutants signifie la fin de l'espèce humaine. Après 17 numéros Kirby abandonne la série qui est reprise par Werner Roth.

Les Éternels : Ce groupe d'êtres surhumains apparaît dans le premier numéro du comic book éponyme daté de . Probablement inspiré par le livre Présence des extraterrestres d' Erich von Däniken le comic book raconte l'histoire de ces personnages aux pouvoirs fantastiques qui vivent sur Terre mais dont les humains ignorent l'existence. Cette race, ainsi que celle des humains et une troisième, monstrueuse, celle des Déviants a été créée par des extra-terrestres, les Célestes, qui doivent revenir pour juger leurs créatures. L'affrontement entre les Éternels et les Déviants est la base de l'intrigue de cette série qui ne dure que 19 numéros et un annual. La série s'achève en .

Machine Man : En 1976, Jack Kirby est chargé d'adapter sous la forme de roman graphique le film 2001, l'Odyssée de l'espace. En décembre de cette année sort le premier numéro d'une série qui reprend les éléments du film et qui est nommée 2001 : A Space Odyssey. Dans le épisode de cette série apparaît un personnage, nommé Mister Machine , qui est un robot doté de conscience grâce à l'action du monolithe. La série s'achève, en , au 10 à cause du manque de lecteurs mais en , Jack Kirby reprend le personnage de Mister Machine , le rebaptise Machine Man et conte ses aventures dans le comic éponyme .

The Newsboy Legion et The Boys Commandos : En , dans le numéro de Star Spangled Comics , Kirby et Simon proposent une nouvelle série nommée The Newsboy Legion, starring the Guardian . Ils créent ainsi un nouveau concept qui sera par la suite souvent repris, celui du groupe d'adolescents auquel il arrive d'extraordinaires aventures, l'adulte ne fait qu'épauler ces jeunes. Cette idée plaît tellement que Star Spangled Comics devient une des meilleures ventes de DC Comics. En juin 1942 dans le 64 de Detective Comics apparaît un nouveau groupe de jeunes, toujours accompagnés d'un adulte, The Boy Commando , composé de quatre adolescents, chacun d'une nationalité différente, un Anglais, un Néerlandais, un Français et un Américain. Fin 1942, le groupe gagne son propre comic. Tout le temps que dure leur collaboration, Kirby et Simon utilisent plusieurs fois cette idée : en paraît le numéro de Boy Explorers publié par Harvey (deux numéros seulement paraissent) et en est un western mettant en scène un groupe de jeunes. Enfin Kirby lorsqu'il reprend Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen recrée The Newsboy Legion , constituée cette fois-ci des fils du groupe originel, qui aident Olsen et Superman à lutter contre leurs ennemis.

Les Challengers de l'Inconnu : En 1957, Jack Kirby propose à DC Comics une série mettant en scène quatre aventuriers qui, ayant survécu à une catastrophe, sont prêts à tout risquer persuadés de vivre un temps emprunté. La première apparition de ces héros se fait dans le sixième numéro du comics . Les Challengers reviennent dans le numéro suivant, dans le onzième et le douzième avant de gagner leur propre série. L'origine de ce groupe est un projet de Kirby et Simon qui ne vit jamais le jour et que Jack Kirby se réapproprie. Pour réaliser cette série Kirby travaille avec le scénariste Dave Wood. Il dessine les huit premiers épisodes avant de partir pour Marvel.

Le Quatrième Monde (en anglais : The Fourth World ) : c'est un projet ambitieux proposé par Kirby à DC en 1970. Sur quatre comics liés ( Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen , , Forever People et Mister Miracle ), Jack Kirby développe un univers entier et cohérent et raconte la lutte impitoyable entre deux mondes antagonistes habités par des dieux. D'un côté se trouve New Genesis dirigé par Highfather de l'autre Apokolips, soumis à Darkseid. Les habitants de ces deux mondes se livrent à des affrontements épiques qui vont se répercuter sur Terre. Dans ces comics, Kirby introduit de très nombreux concepts : les tubes boum, les boîtes-mères, la Source, l'équation de l'Anti-Vie, l'Astro-force, les rayons alpha et oméga, etc. qui seront réutilisés par la suite par d'autres artistes de DC. En 1985, Jack Kirby retrouve cet univers en réalisant le roman graphique The Hunger Dogs qui conclut la saga qu'il avait voulu créer.

The Demon : Lorsqu'en 1972 DC décide la suppression de deux des titres du quatrième monde, il est demandé à Kirby de reprendre, à la place, le personnage de Deadman ; Kirby refuse et, s'inspirant d'un épisode de Prince Vaillant de Hal Foster, préfère proposer un nouveau personnage nommé Etrigan le démon. Etrigan est un démon de l'enfer invoqué par Merlin l'Enchanteur pour combattre ses ennemis ; l'âme d'Etrigan est liée à celle d'un humain, Jason Blood, qui de ce fait est devenu immortel. Au siècle, Etrigan continue de combattre démons et sorciers. La série qui conte ses exploits commence en et s'achève en avec le numéro.

Kamandi : En , Jack Kirby propose ce nouveau personnage dans Kamandi, The Last Boy On Earth . L'éditeur Carmine Infantino, voyant le succès du film La planète des singes suggère à Kirby de réaliser une bande-dessinée post-apocalyptique pour remplacer les séries du Quatrième Monde qui viennent d'être arrêtées. Jack Kirby reprend alors un projet de 1957 intitulé Kamandi of the caves et crée ainsi une histoire qui met en scène les aventures d'un jeune homme, Kamandi, dans un monde post-apocalyptique luttant contre des animaux doués de l'intelligence et de la parole et cherchant d'autres humains. Kirby abandonne la série au 40, daté d' pour repartir chez Marvel. La série continuera jusqu'au 59.

En 1947, Simon et Kirby sont des auteurs reconnus et ils ont déjà par le passé créé des comics importants tel que Captain America en 1940. Cependant cette année est celle d'un événement important pour le duo et plus largement pour l'industrie des comics. Pour Prize, Simon et Kirby vont créer un nouveau genre : le comic sentimental. En , est publié le premier numéro de Young Romance . Le succès est immédiat et les ventes dépassent régulièrement le million d'exemplaires. Dès lors, de nombreux éditeurs vont copier la formule et le marché des comics va être submergé de titres à l'eau de rose : () chez Timely, Sweetheart () chez Fawcett, de Kirby et Simon chez Prize (1949)... 147 titres paraissent durant les années 1949-1950 avant que cette surproduction soit délaissée par les lecteurs et que trente titres seulement restent en 1951 (dont ceux de Simon et Kirby qui continuent à bien se vendre ; un troisième titre sera même ajouté en 1952 : Young Brides ).

En 1954, Joe Simon et Jack Kirby travaillent pour Prize pour qui ils ont déjà créé des comics policiers, des comics de romance, etc. Joe Simon propose à Jack Kirby de créer, en plus, un nouveau super-héros patriotique, sur le modèle de Captain America. L'ennemi à cette époque de la guerre froide n'est pas le nazisme mais le communisme et ce nouveau héros nommé " Fighting American ", aidé d'un jeune acolyte nommé Speedboy, combattra surtout de dangereux Russes ou de menaçants Chinois. L'originalité des histoires racontées tient à la place de l'humour. Si le premier numéro se veut sérieux, par la suite les situations et les personnages sont plus caricaturaux, les histoires ont une tonalité plus comique. La série de comics connaît 10 numéros bimestriels (d' à ) puis en , les éditions Harvey tenteront de relancer le personnage : cet essai ne durera qu'un numéro.

Captain Victory et ses Chasseurs galactiques

Captain Victory marque le retour de Kirby dans le monde des comics après son départ en 1978 pour celui de l'animation. Les responsables des éditions Pacific Comics lui propose de créer pour eux une nouvelle série. Kirby ressort de ses archives un ancien projet qui devient Captain Victory and his galactic rangers . Ce comic book est le premier de l'Histoire à être diffusé uniquement dans des magasins de comics. Avant que Pacific ne fasse faillite, 13 numéros paraissent, montrant ce personnage aidé des rangers galactiques luttant, dans un univers de space opera, contre une race insectoïde dirigée par Lighting Lady.

Jack Kirby s'est souvent heurté aux maisons d'édition qui le publiaient, que ce soit DC, Harvey, Prize et surtout Marvel. En 1941, Marvel est le premier éditeur avec lequel il entre en conflit. Alors que les ventes de Captain America comics sont de l'ordre du million d'exemplaires et que les revenus de Simon et Kirby auraient dû profiter de cela, Martin Goodman ment sur les profits tirés du magazine et minimise le pourcentage versé aux auteurs. Plutôt que de poursuivre en justice Goodman, Simon et Kirby préfèrent passer à DC qui leur propose le double du salaire payé par Marvel. Ainsi le conflit ne se résout pas devant les tribunaux mais les deux parties se sépareront en très mauvais termes. Le départ du tandem Kirby - Simon de DC, en 1947, pour Harvey, ne sera pas non plus aisé (DC n'appréciant pas l'abandon de ses auteurs vedettes pour un concurrent) mais Kirby trouvera tout de même du travail chez DC lorsque Harvey rompra le contrat.

En 1968, Kirby se range aux côtés de Marvel contre Joe Simon qui veut récupérer les droits de Captain America. En 1972, Kirby signe un document transférant les droits sur son travail à Marvel puis en 1975, il signe un contrat dans lequel la question des copyrights n'est pas évoquée.

La lutte la plus importante aura lieu à partir de l'année 1978 car à cette date les lois américaines sur le copyright changent et les avocats de Marvel font en sorte que tous les personnages créés pour Marvel restent la propriété de l'entreprise. Depuis 1976, Marvel, à l'image de ce qui se faisait chez DC depuis 1973, rendait aux artistes les pages des comics qui paraissaient et accordait un petit pourcentage des bénéfices en cas de réimpression des comics et d'utilisation dans un autre média. La question du retour des pages se posait pour les comics anciens car le stockage de celles-ci n'était pas contrôlé, des pages étaient données comme cadeau à des partenaires de Marvel, etc. En 1984, Marvel s'engage à rendre aussi les pages anciennes qui ont été triées de 1975 à 1980. Le problème auquel s'est trouvé confronté Jack Kirby tient au fait que dans son cas un document particulier qui faisait quatre pages (contrairement au document donné aux autres artistes qui faisait une page) était joint. Or, ce texte d'une part ne faisait état que de 88 pages à rendre, soit à peu près 1 % de celles produites par Kirby pour Marvel, d'autre part de nombreuses clauses limitaient l'usage possible de ces pages par Kirby. Le document commun obligeait les artistes à reconnaître Marvel comme seul propriétaire des droits liés à la création des personnages. À cela s'ajoutait, pour Kirby seul, l'interdiction d'utiliser, montrer, vendre ses pages sans l'autorisation de Marvel, l'interdiction de contester publiquement cet accord ou de soutenir un auteur qui le ferait et de reconnaître Marvel comme propriétaire des pages qui seraient retrouvées par la suite, en dehors des 88 rendues (soit à peu près 7 900 pages " disparues "). Ce document est refusé par Kirby et la lutte s'engage et dure jusqu'en 1987 ; Marvel explique durant cette période que Jack Kirby ne réclame pas seulement ses pages mais aussi une reconnaissance du copyright sur ses créations. Après de longues tractations et une révolte contre Marvel de la part des artistes, des critiques et des lecteurs, le document particulier sera remplacé par le commun et près de 1 900 pages seront rendues,.

En 2009, les héritiers de Jack Kirby s'opposent eux aussi à Marvel en réclamant le retour des copyrights de comics créés par Jack Kirby et Stan Lee pour 2014. La liste de comics comprend les 21 premiers numéros de Fantastic Four , les 2 premiers , les 6 Hulk, etc. Cette demande est aussi adressée à plusieurs studios de cinéma et à la Walt Disney Company, qui est le propriétaire de Marvel. En cette demande est rejetée par Disney qui lance une action en justice contre les Kirby. Ceux-ci en retour attaquent en justice Disney et Marvel. Un premier jugement est donné le et s'achève en fin de non-recevoir pour la demande des héritiers Kirby. Il reconnaît Marvel, et par extension Disney, seul propriétaire des copyrights au motif que Kirby était à l'époque travailleur freelance (travaillant à la commande) pour Marvel et qu'il a cédé ses droits en 1972. En , l'avocat de la famille Kirby dépose appel mais celui-ci est rejeté en . Les héritiers de Kirby décident alors de se pourvoir devant la cour suprême mais le , avant qu'une décision de justice ne soit prise, ils trouvent un arrangement avec Marvel. Les termes complets de celui-ci sont inconnus mais ils amènent l'éditeur à créditer Kirby sur l'ensemble des publications dont il est l'auteur ou/et le coauteur,.

Analyse de l'œuvre

L'importance de Jack Kirby dans le monde des comics s'explique essentiellement par sa maîtrise technique du média. Stan Lee, jamais avare de superlatif, parle d'un maître de la narration, dessinateur immense, génial inventeur de personnages inoubliables.

Le style que Jack Kirby a élaboré au cours des années s'accorde avec le type de récit qu'il raconte et la force du dessin et l'énergie de la mise en page correspondent aux pouvoirs fantastiques des personnages. Scott McCloud, dans son essai Réinventer la bande dessinée explique que Jack Kirby s'empara du motif central des histoires de super-héros - la puissance - et en fit également le motif central de leur graphisme. Des artistes aux styles aussi différents que John Totleben et Erik Larsen conviennent aussi que le style de Kirby se caractérise par l'impression d'énergie qui transparaît dans ses planches.

Techniquement cela se traduit par plusieurs procédés : l'utilisation de splash-pages (images de pleine page contrastant brutalement avec des planches découpées en cases) ; des traits dynamiques et engageant qui dessinent les personnages et les actions ; une utilisation de lignes pour marquer le mouvement " qui semblent presque avoir une réalité propre ". De même, Kirby est semble-t-il l'inventeur d'un objet graphique destiné à marquer plus fortement l'irruption d'énergie : les " Kirby krackles ", qui sont constitués de taches noires, circulaires et de tailles variées qui accompagnent les rayons ou les flux d'énergies (combat, objets sidéraux, etc.),.

Il apparaît donc que Jack Kirby, en utilisant un média bi-dimensionnel et qui fige le temps, cherche à donner l'impression de mouvement. L'analyse par McCloud du numéro 46 de The Fantastic Four : " Those who would destroy us " marque de plus la prédominance de l'enchaînement d'action à action dans l'œuvre de Kirby. Cela signifie que deux cases contiguës sont le plus souvent reliées par une action qui se prolonge.

Si la progression du récit est l'élément central dans l'écriture de Kirby, la construction des cases n'est pas abandonnée et Kirby peut être caractérisé comme un " maître de la forme et de la composition des vignettes ". Jim Valentino va dans le même sens en soulignant la maîtrise du cadrage, de l'angle de vue, etc.. Gérard Courtial, pour définir le style graphique de Jack Kirby, s'attarde sur les comics créés pour DC dans les années 1970, et, qui reprennent tout ce qui a pu, à un moment ou à un autre, constituer le style " Kirby ". Il évoque alors la déformation expressionniste localement caricaturale, la linéarité à la limite du schématisme, le jeu abstrait du noir et de la lumière.

Jack Kirby innove aussi en créant des collages qui s'insèrent dans le récit dessiné. À partir de photographies découpées dans des magazines, il constitue un décor fantastique et y place par la suite ses personnages.

Cependant si l'art de Kirby s'apprécie dans la lecture complète d'un récit et que la construction des vignettes et les liens entre elles sont réfléchies et maîtrisées, le dessin en lui-même pêche parfois. Il n'est pas rare de constater des erreurs, parfois grossières, dans le dessin. Il est ainsi possible de rencontrer un dessin montrant un personnage avec deux mains gauches, ou encore un des héros, Hulk dans l'épisode 2 des Vengeurs, dont le nombre de doigts de pied varie entre 3 et 5, d'une case à l'autre. Ces détails n'intéressent pas Kirby, laissant le soin à l'encreur de corriger ses erreurs. D'ailleurs, ce travail d'encreur ne l'a jamais intéressé, ne se souciant pas de savoir comment celui qui se chargeait de cette tâche travaillait.

Jack Kirby participe quasiment dès le début de sa carrière à l'écriture des scénarios qu'il met en image. Ainsi, lorsqu'il collabore avec Joe Simon, les deux artistes participent à tous les moments de création.

De même, chez Marvel Comics dans les années 1950-1960 avec Stan Lee, il est très impliqué dans la création des histoires, étant donné qu'à cette époque Stan Lee met au point la " méthode Marvel ". Cette technique de travail consiste pour le scénariste (Stan Lee à ce moment) à proposer une idée générale, que le dessinateur met en image comme il l'entend. Ensuite, sur les planches proposées et acceptées, le scénariste place les dialogues.

C'est seulement à partir de son arrivée chez DC Comics en 1970 que Kirby est seul responsable de son œuvre : il écrit, dessine et édite les comics qu'il reprend ou qu'il crée, que ce soit chez DC, Marvel ou des indépendants comme Pacific ou Image Comics. Ce qu'il écrit alors seul est jugé beaucoup plus sévèrement que ce qu'il a pu concevoir avec d'autres, ou que sa maîtrise graphique pour faire progresser le récit. Ce qui lui est reproché est surtout son sens du dialogue. Scott Edelman, qui travaillait chez Marvel dans les années 1970 quand Kirby avait repris Captain America , critique ses dialogues comme n'étant pas crédibles et incohérents. Même des auteurs admirateurs de Kirby, comme Neil Gaiman, font une critique semblable. Gaiman explique qu'il connaît par cœur des dialogues de scénaristes comme Stan Lee ou Will Eisner, mais aucun de Kirby. Enfin, le magazine The Jack Kirby Collector , écrit et édité par des admirateurs de Kirby, consacre un article aux dialogues délirants de Kirby.

Ce manque de maîtrise de l'art du scénariste s'est traduit non seulement par des critiques des pairs mais aussi par un relatif échec des comics lancés par Kirby seul. À l'exception notable de Kamandi, qui fut écrit et dessiné par Kirby durant 37 numéros, les autres titres ne dépassent pas les 20 épisodes (la reprise de Captain America se maintient durant 21 épisodes) et sont soit arrêtés ( Forever People et après onze numéros, Devil Dinosaur après 9, Les Éternels après 18 épisodes, etc.), soit repris par d'autres auteurs ( Captain America , Machine Man ...).

Jack Kirby est surtout connu pour ses comics mettant en présence des super-héros car, s'il a touché à tous les genres (humour, animalier, romance, western, policier), c'est son travail chez Marvel et DC qui a suscité un lectorat important qui se renouvelle grâce aux rééditions. Lorsqu'il s'agit de comics de super-héros (et cela est valable aussi pour ceux de science-fiction), le récit tend à l'épique, à l'extraordinaire. Cela signifie que même lorsque les personnages sont proches du type de justicier urbain ( Captain America , La Panthère noire), les aventures tiennent du grandiose et les personnages sont l'incarnation d'une valeur surhumaine. Captain America est l'incarnation des valeurs américaines (tout comme Fighting American sur un mode parodique) ; la Panthère noire lutte contre un être du futur, des robots, un mutant alors qu'il n'est qu'un super athlète.

Cet aspect surhumain atteint son apogée avec les séries du Quatrième Monde chez DC ou Les Éternels chez Marvel. Ce sont là des dieux qui combattent et les humains sont spectateurs et victimes de ces affrontements qui les dépassent. Cela correspond à la vision que Kirby a des comics : ce sont les mythologies de la société actuelle ; des histoires du bien contre le mal dans une forme simplifiée. On lit dans l'œuvre de Kirby cette certitude de ce qu'est le bien : les héros ne se posent pas de question sur la justesse de leurs actions, d'autant qu'il s'agit de se défendre contre une menace (l'Amérique contre le nazisme dans Captain America , contre le communisme dans Fighting American ; Loki, le dieu du mal contre Thor ; le Docteur Fatalis contre la Liberté, puisqu'il veut asservir le monde ; Darkseid et Apokolips, images d' Hitler et du nazisme contre le bien incarné en Highfather et New Genesis, etc.).

La recherche du grandiose, lorsqu'elle n'est pas tempérée par le travail d'un scénariste tel que Stan Lee, empêche toute dérision et humour comme le note Joseph Ghosn. L'influence de la religion juive de Kirby est une explication apportée pour expliquer cette philosophie, de même que sa jeunesse difficile en tant que fils d'immigré, qui a dû lutter pour gagner ce qu'il possède.

Distinctions

Au cours de sa carrière, Jack Kirby a reçu de nombreux Prix Alley dont celui dans la catégorie " Meilleur Dessinateur " ( Best Pencil Artist ) en 1968.

En 1972, l'Academy of Comic Book Arts récompense Jack Kirby avec un Prix Shazam dans la catégorie Special Achievement by an Individual pour son travail sur le Quatrième Monde qui comprend les séries Forever People, New Gods, Mister Miracle et Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen. En 1974, il reçoit le prix Inkpot, puis est intronisé dans le temple de la renommée des Shazam en 1975. Après avoir été nominé pendant deux années consécutives au Prix d'honneur ( Roll of Honour ) des Eagle, il le reçoit en 1979,,.

Les prix Jack-Kirby (dits Prix Kirby) organisés par le magazine Amazing Heroes et par Dave Olbrich de 1985 à 1987 ont été nommés en son honneur, et Kirby a fait partie des trois premiers auteurs inscrit à son temple de la renommée en 1987. À la suite de l'interruption des Kirby, les Prix Harvey et Eisner ont été créés. Les Harvey reprennent le nom de " temple de la renommée Jack Kirby " tandis que les Eisner font également figurer Carl Barks, Will Eisner et Jack Kirby dans leur temple de la renommée.

En 1993, le prix humanitaire Bob-Clampett lui a été remis. Après sa mort, en 1998, la réédition, sous la responsabilité éditoriale de Bob Kahan, de ses travaux chez DC Comics sur les New Gods dans l'ouvrage Jack Kirby's New Gods remporte un Harvey Award dans la catégorie " Meilleur projet de réédition " ( Best Domestic Reprint Project ). En 2017, le jury du prix Bill-Finger récompensant l'excellence dans l'écriture de comic book lui remet son prix posthume.

Notes et références

1. La date indiquée sur le comic book est mars 1941 car les comics aux États-Unis paraissent le plus souvent quelques mois avant la date inscrite sur la couverture et ce depuis la parution du premier comic en mai 1930 Famous Funnies

2. Ant-Man signifie Homme-fourmi. C'est ce nom qui a été choisi par les éditeurs français

3. Le nom anglais a été conservé par les éditeurs français

4. Un annual est un comic book qui s'ajoute à ceux publiés régulièrement durant l'année et qui présente un nombre de pages plus important

source utilisée pour la rédaction de cet article

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Gérard Courtial, À la rencontre des SUPER-HÉROS, Bédésup, , 152 p.

(en) Mark Evanier, Kirby : King of Comics, Harry N. Abrams, , 224 p. (ISBN 978-0-8109-9447-8 )

Joseph Ghosn, " l'étoffe des superhéros ", dans Qu'est-ce que la bande dessinée aujourd'hui ?, Paris, Beaux Art éditions et TTM éditions, , p. 68

(en) Sue L. Hamilton, Jack Kirby : Comic book creators, ABDO, , 32 p. (ISBN 978-1-59928-298-5 , lire en ligne)

Scott McCloud ( trad. de l'anglais), L'Art invisible : comprendre la bande dessinée, Paris, Vertige Graphic, , 215 p. (ISBN 2-908981-41-6 )

(en) Andrei Molotiu, " Kirby, Jack ", dans Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith (dir.), Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman, vol. 1, Greenwood Publishing Group / ABC-CLIO, coll. " Greenwood Icons ", , XV -920 p. (ISBN 978-0-313-39923-7 ), p. 406-417 .

Harry Morgan et Manuel Hirtz, Les apocalypses de Jack Kirby, Lyon, Les Moutons électriques, , 206 p. (ISBN 978-2-915793-83-3 )

(en) Joe Sutcliff Sanders et al., The Rise of the American Comics Artist : Creators and Contexts, University Press of Mississippi, , 253 p. (ISBN 978-1-60473-792-9 , lire en ligne)

(en) Matthew J. Smith, " Jack Kirby's Fourth World ", dans Randy Duncan et Matthew J. Smith (dir.), Icons of the American Comic Book : From Captain America to Wonder Woman, vol. 1, Greenwood Publishing Group / ABC-CLIO, coll. " Greenwood Icons ", , XV -920 p. (ISBN 978-0-313-39923-7 ), p. 366-374 .

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby, vol. 1, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 194 p. (ISBN 978-1-56685-006-3 )

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby : 1940-1941, vol. 2, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 270 p. (ISBN 978-1-56685-007-0 )

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby : March - May 1947, vol. 3, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 224 p. (ISBN 978-1-56685-008-7 )

Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :

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Jack Kirby en 1992. Jack Kirby, né Jacob Kurtzberg le dans le Lower East Side à New York et mort le à Thousand Oaks en Californie, est un dessinateur de bande dessinée et l'un des artistes les plus influents, célèbres et prolifiques de la bande dessinée américaine.

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Particulièrement connu pour avoir co-écrit Capitaine América, ce vétéran de la seconde guerre mondiale est l'origine même des héros patriotiques!

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Compléments

Joe Simon, né le et mort le à l'âge de 98 ans, est un dessinateur, éditeur et auteur de comics américain.

Biographie

Joe Simon, de son vrai nom Hymie Simon, naît le à Rochester dans l' état de New York d'un père tailleur, Harry Simon, juif anglais vivant depuis peu aux États-Unis. Sa mère Rose, n'appréciant pas le prénom choisi par le père rebaptise son fils Joe, prénom qui lui restera jusqu'à sa mort. Il est très tôt attiré par le dessin et c'est grâce à ses talents de graphiste qu'il trouve son premier emploi pour les journaux de Rochester et de Syracuse. Il retouche des photographies, dessine des illustrations pour les pages sportives, ce qui l'amène, d'ailleurs, à écrire des articles pour ces pages. Il commence par travailler pour la Paramount. En 1940, il propose ses services à la Fox Feature Syndicate, une entreprise qui publie des comics strips. Il y rencontre Jack Kirby avec lequel il va nouer une fructueuse association en créant un studio. Leur premier client est l'éditeur Timely Comics , l'ancêtre de Marvel Comics, pour lequel ils créent une série de héros : Red Raven, Comet Pierce, Mercury, the Vision, Hurricane, Tuk the Cave-Boy . Joe Simon devient aussi le premier éditeur en Chef de Marvel Comics. Simon et Kirby vont ensuite créer une série qui connaît immédiatement un immense succès : Captain America qui paraît en décembre 1940. Le comic book se vend à plus d'un million d'exemplaires ce qui à l'époque n'est pas un chiffre exceptionnel mais montre cependant que la série a de très bonnes ventes.

Encouragés par ce succès, Simon et Kirby continuent dans cette voie des comics patriotiques et créent Young Allies qui met en scène Bucky Barnes, le de Captain America, Toro, le de Human Torch et des adolescents luttant contre des nazis. Toutefois Joe Simon apprend que Martin Goodman ne compte pas respecter le contrat le liant à Kirby et Simon et de ne pas leur verser toutes les sommes dues. Simon contacte alors National Comics , qui accepte d'engager les deux artistes avec un salaire double de celui payé par Timely.

Ainsi, forts de leur succès, Simon et Kirby vont chez l'éditeur National Comics pour reprendre des séries déjà existantes comme ou publiées dans Adventure Comics ou créer de nouveaux best-sellers comme The Newsboy Legion dans Star Spangled Comics et The Boys Commandos . Pour répondre à toutes ces sollicitations Kirby et Simon travaillent très vite (parfois jusqu'à 6 pages par jour), ce qui leur assure un revenu conséquent. Cette collaboration dure jusqu'en 1943, date à laquelle les deux hommes sont appelés à servir sous les drapeaux. Joe Simon reste aux États-Unis et est affecté chez les garde-côtes. Il participe à des patrouilles avant d'avoir une nouvelle affectation pour dessiner des comics d'information destinés aux recrues potentielles.

En 1945, Simon et Kirby se retrouvent et reforment leur association. Joe Simon signe un contrat avec l'éditeur Harvey Comics. Les conditions sont très avantageuses pour les deux artistes comparées à celles que leur propose National. De plus, dans les bureaux de l'éditeur il rencontre celle qui deviendra sa femme en 1946, Harriett. Malheureusement, à cette période, le monde des comics books connaît une crise de surproduction. Les marchands de journaux ne peuvent présenter tous les comics qui paraissent ce qui les amène à accepter les séries qui connaissent déjà le succès et à renvoyer les nouveautés. Face à cette crise, Harvey dénonce l'arrangement le liant à Kirby et Simon et ceux-ci se retrouvent sans emploi. Heureusement, Joe Simon parvient à signer, à l'été 1946, un accord avec la maison d'édition Crestwood qui produit des livres, des magazines et des comics ; dans ce dernier cas, la dénomination de l'éditeur est alors Prize Comics . Dans un premier temps, Kirby et Simon s'inspirent des comics qui se vendent bien pour créer leurs œuvres. Ainsi ils proposent sous-titré The Crime Never Pays car le comic Crime Does Not Pay est diffusé à plus d'un million d'exemplaires. De même, comme les comics d'humour animaliers connaissent le succès, ils créent Lockjaw the Alligator .

Cependant, Kirby et Simon ne se contentent pas de suivre les modes, ils en créent également. Ils inventent un nouveau genre, le romance comics. En juin 1947 sort le premier numéro de Young Romance . Le succès est immédiat ; entre le premier et le troisième numéro le nombre d'exemplaires imprimés est triplé,. Cela incite Kirby et Simon à créer d'autres comics de ce genre, en 1949 et Young Brides en 1952. Les ventes dépassent à chaque fois le million d'exemplaires,.

D'autres créations émaillent cette période : ( western), Black Magic ( paranormal), The Strange world of your Dreams (l'interprétation des rêves) et Fighting American . Ce dernier relate les aventures d'un super-héros patriotique contre les communistes mais au lieu de traiter cela sérieusement, à partir du deuxième numéro, le comic le fait d'une façon parodique avec des communistes plus ridicules que méchants.

En 1954, Kirby et Simon, bien qu'ils continuent de dessiner des séries pour Prize, décident de se lancer dans l'auto-édition en créant Mainline Publications. Quatre séries sont lancées : (western), Police Trap (policier), (romance) et (guerre). Le moment ne pouvait être plus mal choisi pour voler ainsi de ses propres ailes car les comics sont à cette époque sous l'accusation de pervertir la jeunesse américaine. Une commission sénatoriale est mise en place pour étudier les liens entre les comics et la hausse de la délinquance juvénile. Pour éviter une censure d'état, les éditeurs de comics décident de former la Comics Magazine Association of America qui édite le Comics code. La maison d'édition EC Comics ne peut plus, de ce fait, proposer ses comics d'horreur ce qui entraîne la faillite de son distributeur qui se trouve être le même que celui de Mainline. Mainline est obligée de cesser ses activités et est rachetée par Charlton Comics Group. Kirby et Simon continuent donc de travailler sur ces séries avec ce nouvel éditeur et sur celles qu'ils proposaient chez Prize.

Si Kirby et Simon s'entendent toujours très bien, chacun cherche cependant à travailler en solo. Joe Simon commence par se tourne vers la publicitéavant de revenir vers les comics et de travailler pour Harvey Comics. Là, il fonde le magazine parodique Sick en , en s'inspirant de . Il dirige cette revue jusqu'aux années 1980. Il travaille aussi sur Casper the friendly ghost et Ritchie Rich. En 1966, il est nommé directeur éditorial pour cet éditeur et il lance une série de comics de super héros et pour cela engage Jack Kirby pour quelques numéros de The Fly et Private Strong. Par la suite, il part pour DC Comics où il crée des comics tels que Brother Power The Geek et Prez,.

Au début de l'année 1940 Joe Simon et Jack Kirby commencent à travailler pour Timely. Les tensions internationales qui préfigurent une guerre prochaine et la situation des juifs en Allemagne qui touche particulièrement Simon, Kirby et Martin Goodman (propriétaire de Timely), tous trois juifs, poussent à la création d'un nouveau super-héros patriotique. La première apparition de ce personnage, nommé Captain America, se fera dans le premier numéro de Captain America Comics qui paraît le (la date inscrite sur la couverture est ). Ce premier épisode connaît un énorme succès avec des ventes qui dépassent le million d'exemplaires (ce chiffre n'est pas rare à l'époque mais il marque le succès). Simon et Kirby ne réalise que les dix premiers épisodes avant de partir pour DC Comics mais Captain America continue à être publié par Timely jusque dans les années 1950. Le personnage reviendra dans les années 1960 d'abord dans Les Vengeurs puis dans Tales of Suspense . Marvel s'arroge alors tous les droits sur ce personnage et il faut attendre 2003 pour que Simon et Kirby soient reconnus comme créateur du personnage et qu'une partie des royalties versées à Marvel pour l'utilisation du héros leur soit remise.

En , dans le numéro de Star Spangled Comics , Kirby et Simon proposent pour DC comics une nouvelle série nommée The Newsboy Legion, starring the Guardian . Ils créent ainsi un nouveau concept qui sera par la suite souvent repris, celui du groupe d'adolescents auquel il arrive d'extraordinaires aventures, l'adulte ne fait qu'épauler ces jeunes. Cette idée plaît tellement que Star Spangled Comics devient une des meilleures ventes de DC Comics. En juin 1942 dans le 64 de Detective Comics apparaît un nouveau groupe de jeunes, toujours accompagnés d'un adulte, The Boy Commando , composé de quatre adolescents, chacun d'une nationalité différente, un Anglais, un Néerlandais, un Français et un Américain. Fin 1942, le groupe gagne son propre comic. Tout le temps que dure leur collaboration, Kirby et Simon utilisent plusieurs fois cette idée : en paraît le numéro de Boy Explorers publié par Harvey (deux numéros seulement paraissent) et en est un western mettant en scène un groupe de jeunes.

En 1947, Simon et Kirby sont des auteurs reconnus et ils ont déjà par le passé créé des comics importants tel que Captain America en 1940. Cependant cette année est celle d'un événement important pour le duo et plus largement pour l'industrie des comics. Pour Prize, Simon et Kirby vont créer un nouveau genre : le comic sentimental. En , est publié le premier numéro de Young Romance . Le succès est immédiat et les ventes dépassent régulièrement le million d'exemplaires. Dès lors, de nombreux éditeurs vont copier la formule et le marché des comics va être submergé de titres à l'eau de rose : () chez Timely, Sweetheart () chez Fawcett, de Kirby et Simon chez Prize (1949)... 147 titres paraissent durant les années 1949-1950 avant que cette surproduction soit délaissée par les lecteurs et que ne reste que 30 titres en 1951 (dont ceux de Simon et Kirby qui continuent à bien se vendre ; un troisième titre sera même ajouté en 1952 : Young Brides ).

En 1954, Joe Simon et Jack Kirby travaillent pour Prize pour qui ils ont déjà créé des comics policiers, des comics de romance, etc. Joe Simon propose à Jack Kirby de créer, en plus, un nouveau super-héros patriotique, sur le modèle de Captain America. L'ennemi à cette époque de la guerre froide n'est pas le nazisme mais le communisme et ce nouveau héros nommé " Fighting American ", aidé d'un jeune acolyte nommé Speedboy, combattra surtout de dangereux Russes ou de menaçants Chinois. L'originalité des histoires racontées tient à la place de l'humour. Si le premier numéro se veut sérieux, par la suite les situations et les personnages sont plus caricaturaux, les histoires ont une tonalité plus comique. La série de comics connaît 10 numéros bimestriels (d' à ) puis en , les éditions Harvey tenteront de relancer le personnage : cet essai ne durera qu'un numéro.

Brother Power the Geek : Brother Power est un mannequin qui, comme la créature de Frankenstein, s'anime grâce à un éclair. Il est adopté par un groupe de hippie et combat des motards. Créé en 1968, le comic book ne dure que deux numéros. Mort Weisinger, éditeur des comics de Superman après avoir feuilleté le comics, demande son arrêt immédiat car il n'accepte pas que la culture hippie soit présentée dans une œuvre publiée par DC. Le personnage disparaît jusqu'en 1989 lorsque Neil Gaiman l'utilise dans un épisode de Swamp Thing. En 1993 Rachel Pollack et Mike Allred lui consacrent un comic book.

Prez. Ce comics, créé en 1973, raconte l'histoire d'un adolescent, prénommé Prez, qui, manipulé par un mystérieux personnage nommé Boss Smiley (dont le visage est un smiley jaune, est élu président des États-Unis. Ayant découvert les manigances de Boss Smiley, Prez va lutter contre celui-ci, aidé par le directeur du FBI, un amérindien qui a transféré son bureau dans un teepee près du Potomac. Cet univers surréaliste ne trouve pas son lectorat et le comic book ne connaît que quatre numéros de à . Neil Gaiman fait sortir Prez des limbes de l'oubli dans le 54 de Sandman.

Outsiders (DC Comics)

The Green Team: Boy Millionaires

Autres éditeurs

Même si du duo Simon et Kirby, c'est ce dernier qui est le plus célèbre et a le plus influencé les générations suivantes d'artiste, il n'en reste pas moins que Joe Simon a aussi contribué à l'essor des comics books et qu'il a influencé de nombreux artistes. Ainsi Neil Gaiman explique que " les créations de Simon et Kirby étaient pleines de vie " ; elles l'ont certainement influencé puisqu'il a repris les personnages de Brother power the Geek et de Prez. De même pour un scénariste comme Ed Brubaker, Simon et Kirby étaient des "titans". En tant qu'éditeur et auteur chez Timely en 1940 il a aussi donné un exemple au jeune Stan Lee, alors garçon à tout faire qui est devenu par la suite le responsable de l'essor de Marvel Comics. Ce dernier reconnaît tout ce qu'il doit à Joe Simon dans une interview en expliquant : Joe Simon fut mon premier patron chez Marvel qui s'appelait alors Timely Comics. Il était incroyablement talentueux tant comme artiste que comme scénariste...Je n'aurais pu avoir meilleur mentor.

Récompenses

Bibliographie

Notes et références

Références bibliographiques

Autres références

source utilisée pour la rédaction de cet article

(en) Jack Kirby Checklist : 1998 Final Edition, TwoMorrows Publishing, , 100 p.

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby, vol. 1, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 194 p. (ISBN 978-1-566-85006-3 )

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby : 1940-1941, vol. 2, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 270 p. (ISBN 978-1-566-85007-0 )

(en) Greg Theakston et Jack Kirby, The Complete Jack Kirby : March - May 1947, vol. 3, Pure Imagination Publishing, , 224 p. (ISBN 978-1-566-85008-7 )

(en) Joe Sutcliff Sanders et al., The Rise of the American Comics Artist : Creators and Contexts, University Press of Mississippi, , 253 p. (ISBN 978-1-604-73792-9 , lire en ligne)

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Compléments Joe Simon, né le et mort le à l'âge de 98 ans, est un dessinateur, éditeur et auteur de comics américain. Joe Simon, de son vrai nom Hymie Simon, naît le à Rochester dans l' état de New York d'un père tailleur, Harry Simon, juif anglais vivant depuis peu aux États-Unis.