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In 1901, Karl Landsteiner discovered the different blood groups. This enabled him to successfully carry out blood transfusions later on in 1916.

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People did not accept the government interfering with their daily lives. They wanted the government to leave them be and run their lives as they wished. This is called having a ‘laissez-faire’ attitude. It translates into ‘let people do as they choose’.

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Rowntree and Booth were a part of the ‘New Liberals’ in Parliament at the beginning of twentieth century in Britain.

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Rowntree published ‘Poverty: A Study of Town Life’ in 1901, containing all his findings from his research.

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A philanthropist is someone trying to improve the quality of life. They seek to encourage the welfare of others, usually by donating large sums of money.

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Why was the Vietnam war so unpopular?

-Vietnam war costed
1) $111 Billion on military operations
2) $62 Billion on economic and military aid
Overall total including many others = $728 Billion.

-US lost 58,220 troops, 282,000 deaths on allied military, 587,000 civilian deaths, total number of deaths on both sides amounts to 1,313,000. 400,000 people were killed or maimed by Agent Orange - 500,000 babies born with tumors.
Americans believed that being involved in war, sacrificing own men and money wasn't worth nor required. This caused many protests to occur such as young men burning their draft cards.

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Despite the evidence of Chadwick's research and the first Public Health Act being passed down, it was not everyone who contributed to make medical reforms. Only 50 councils had been appointed as Medical Officers.

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In 1889, Chadwick received a knighthood to acknowledge his contributions to medicine.

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Name the three (five?) Presidents in power during the Vietnam War

Vietnam War (Nov 1, 1955 - April 30, 1975)
1. Dwight D, Eisenhower (1953 - 1961)
2. John F. Kennedy (1961 - 1963)
3. Lyndon B. Johnson (1963 - 1969)
4. Richard Nixon (1969 - 1974)
5. Gerald R. Ford (1974 - 1977)

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Why was the USA concerned with Communism?

It can be said that the USA was concerned with Communism (Red Scare) because of several reasons. Firstly, in September 1920, a bomb exploded on wall street killing 38 people. Another bomb destroyed the front of Attorney general's house. Secondly, workers who were working in poor conditions went on strikes - first one on 21 January 1919, another one on 6 February which involved 60,000 workers. Despite the strike being peaceful, many press reacted as if they were the start of communist rising. Additionally, in April 1919, over 30 letter bombs were posted to arrive for 1 May - half exploded. Therefore, it can be said that the USA had a growing fear of communism.

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Cholera first arrived in Britain in 1831.

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John Snow believed that cholera was a waterborne disease, spread through filthy water rather than 'bad air' or miasma.

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What was McCarthyism?
Joseph McCarthy was a Republican Senator for Wisconsin who led House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) since 1951. He made more than 2,000 government employees to lose their jobs because he referred them as communists who were 'working and shaping' policy. This communist hunting was given a name, McCarthyism.

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In 1842, Chadwick published his ‘Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population.’

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What was the Red Scare?

Red Scare is a term used to describe the growing fear of communism. This idea strengthend with growth of socialism and flood of immigrants (between 1900-1910, 9.2 million migrated and by 1919, over 40 million people came to the US). This convinced many that communist-revolution might happen - many immigrants had communist political ideas and lived high-crime areas. To stop the uncontrollable immigration from Europeans, US introduced new legislations such as 'The Literacy Test' in 1917 (had to pass reading and writing test), 'The Emergency Act' in 1921 (put a limit on the number of immigratns allowed in a year to 357,000 - 3%) and 'The National Origins Act' in 1924 (limit of 150,000 which is 2%).

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1858 was the year when the Great Stink had happened.

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What is meant by mass production?

It means that it only produces one kind of a product, nothing more added Also, it produces constantly so that it produces same amount of product in a given time. For example, 'Tin Lizzie' or 'Model T Ford' where price never increased if not decreased. In 1909, one Tin Lizzie had a price of $1,200, in 1928, it was only $295.

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Why did prohibition fail?

The 18th Amendment, often referred to 'Noble Experiment', can be said that it had failed simply because many Americans were not ready to accept the amendment; outlawing alchol just pushed the market underground and created a huge policing problem. This can be proven by the fact that there were 15,000 speakeasies before the volstead act was introduced in New York, however increased to 30,000 by 1926. By 1933, there were over 200,000 speakeasies. Also, the wets created moonshines (homemade alchol which made several hundred people to die per year - dangerous. However, it is estimated that over 700 million gallons of moonshines were produced in American homes), and jobs such as bootleggers (smugglers like Willian Mccoy who brought alcohol from the west Indies and Canada to the US illegally). It led to a rise in organised crime who bribed police, judges and politicians for example, Al Capone. He had a private army and 700 men in his control. By 1927, he was earning $60 million a year from bootlegging and is to to be said that he is responsible for 500 murders. Additionally, rise in organised crimes led to a vital murder case such as Valentine's day Massacre (happend on 14th February 1929) leading to an increase in crime rate. Lastly, there weren;t enough prohinition agents to enforce the law - only 1,500 in 1920. The low salary paid to the agents made it easy to bribe them where in constrat, people running illegal alcohol operations had plenty of money.

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Why was prohibition introduced?

There were many reasons why prohibition was introduced in the US such as:
1) to stop the damage caused by alchol
2) believed that workers would be more reliable if they didn't drink (some workers turned up to work drunken)
3) led to lawlessness in the cities by crimes
4) saloons were seen as dens of vice that destroyed family life
5) big breweries were commonly run by German immigrants who were poryrayed as an enemy
6) politicians backed up to get more votes
7) propagandas supporting prohibition (dry against wet)

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In 1874, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson set up the first London School of Medicine for Women.

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In 1911, only 495 women were on the Medical Register in Britain.

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The Crimean War started in October 1853.

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Who were Sacco and Vanzetti and what happened to them?

Sacco and Vanzetti were Italian immigrants who were accused of killing two men and stealing $15,777 on 15 April 1920. (Which can be said that they were arrested due to red scare – growing fear of communism.) It can be said that they were innocent because there were 107 witnesses who swore they saw the two elsewhere at the time of crime and judge Thayer was a narrow minded who had a mind full of prejudiced view towards the immigrants. On the other hand, it can be said that they were guilty because men told lies when questioned and had 61 ‘eye witnesses’ who identified Sacco and Vanzetti. However, they were sentenced to death and executed on 23 August 1927.

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What was the Monkey Trial?

A trial between fundamentalists (believes bible) and people who believed in Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (schools taught the Darwin’s theory). In 6 states, fundamentalists, led by William Jennings Bryan managed to pass a law to ban the teaching of evolution. A biology teacher called John Scopes deliberately broke the law – put the case against law. In July 1925, the trial started and the fundamentalists lost.

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3 problems faced by black people in 1920s

1)      Frequent lynching by Ku Klax Klan (white supremacists) - 5 million people by 1925. By 1920, 70 black Americans were lynched. (In 1930, Top ship and Abe Smith were arrested under a suspicion of murder. Before the trial, they were taken off jail, beaten, then lynched by a mob of about 1000 people.)

2)   Employment - they were 'last to be fired, first to be fired'.

3)      Segregation - enforced Jim Crow laws in the south; whites and blacks to use different facilities in public areas where blacks were to use the worse. However, the North lived in separate neighbourhoods, not necessarily segregated. By 1910, the black population in Harlem areas of New York was 10%, 33% in 1920, 70% in 1930.

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PEEL stands for Point, Evidence, Explanation and Link.

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Nightingale's 'Notes on Nursing'- Revision Challenge 15

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Nightingale's 'Notes on Nursing'- Revision Challenge 15

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Florence Nightingale’s ‘Notes on Nursing’ was published in the year of 1859. This helped her reach a platform to connect to other aspiring female nurses wanting to make a name for themselves, despite the gender barrier.

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WASP - White Anglo Saxon Protestants

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Economic boom is a term used to describe the prosperity the US experienced in the 1920s - rapid growth in industries such as cars (Henry Ford; assembly line, standardisation, mass production...), steel, glass and rubber. It can be said that the republican polices such as laissez-faire (belief that government should interfere as little as possible) and low texation (Fordney and Mccumber tariff act -  Raised tariffs on industrial goods) led to the economic boom in the 1920s. This can be proven by the fact that the number of people filing income tax returns for earnings of more than $1 million a year rose from 65 to 513 and that average wages increased by 11%. Additionally, the working hours dropped from 47.4 to 44.2, giving more leisure time to workers - more time to spend money.

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Isolationism is United States' policy to not to interfere or keep out of the business of the other countries. It can be said that this was a result of the Great Depression and the memory of WW1 - 116,708 American soldiers died during the war. Due to the doctrine of isolationism, the Congress denied U.S. membership in the League of Nations. Although it was the president of America, Woodrow Wilson, who wished to set LoN up (14 points). "How shall you keep from meddling in the affairs of Europe or keep Europe from meddling in the affairs of America?" - William E Borah in the Senate, 19 November 1919.

Protectionism - Law which encouraged people to buy American goods.

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Typhoid (1896), Tuberculosis (1906), Diphtheria (1913) and Tetanus (1927) were the diseases discovered between 1896 and 1927.

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Alexander Fleming was the one to discover Penicillin in the year of 1928. This discovery enforced significant change in the medical history, and is now the most widely used antibiotic in the world! But, Florey and Chain were the ones who pushed the use of Penicillin as an antibiotic forwards. They influenced both the USA and UK Governments, showing them the potential of Penicillin in curing their wounded soldiers.

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Penicillin was a medical development based on chance. It changed the course of medicine to this day, reaching far into the future. It was first discovered by Alexander Fleming on September 1928.

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An Isolationism is a policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries.

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Antibiotics work by impacting things that bacterial cells possess, but human cells don’t. They work by either directly destroying the bacteria, or by slowing the growth of one. A various spectrum of compelling drugs are included in an antibiotic, which is used to treat diseases caused by bacteria. However, infections caused by viruses (colds or coughs) cannot be treated with this.

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The Nazi-Soviet Pact was made by Germany and the USSR in 1939; to make sure Chamberlain would not possibly stop Hitler from invading Poland, now that Stalin is his alliance. Although him and Stalin made a secret agreement to divide Poland up between them. It can be said that the failure of Anglo-Soviet talks led to the Nazi-Soviet Pact because Stalin, initially tried to negotiate with Britian. However, Chamberlain didn't trust Stalin due to the fact that he is a communist and a dictator. Stalin, too, did not trust Chamberlain because he once had openly stated that a greater Germany would be a barrier against the communist USSR. Additionally, after the Munich agreement (appeasement) in 1938 convinced Stalin that Britain would break its promise to Poland similarly to the incident happend in Czechoslovakia.

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The Nazi-Soviet Pact was made in 1939, August where Hitler made a deal with Stalin to split Poland between the two of them. Hitler did this because he felt that Britain would not dare do anything with the USSR involved as they were already afraid of them. Stalin did this because he was unhappy with the way Chamberlain had dealt with him after he offered a pact.

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Appeasement is dealing with enemies in a peaceful way. Chamberlain did this to prevent Hitler from starting another war and to keep Germany fighting against the USSR due to their ideologies. He also did this because he wanted to delay the inevitable in order to get ready for the war. Appeasement ended after Germany took over the East of Poland in September 1st, 1939.

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In 1936 Hitler took a gamble and sent 22,000 troops into Rhinelands in hopes France and Britain would not react. They took his bluff and Hitler managed to militarize the Rhinelands. The reason for this was because of one of his aims to abolish the Treaty of Versailles which included the demiliterization of Rhineland.

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The National Health Service (NHS) was established in July 1948. Despite the strong opposition from doctors, the project pushed through, providing the public free treatment. It is significant as it played a huge role in increasing people's life expectancy.

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Appeasement is a policy followed by Britain which meant not interfering with Hitler - making concessions to Germany in the hope of avoiding war.

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Hitler invaded the Rhineland on 7th of March, 1936 although he accepted not to in the Locano Pact, 1925. The reasons he gave for invading was that France had signed a treaty with USSR to protect each other against Germany and this meant that Germany was under a threat. Therefore, he should be allowed to place his troops on his own frontier. When Hitler moved his troops in to the Rhineland, Germany only had 22,000 soldiers.

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National Insurance Bill- Revision Challenge 9

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National Insurance Bill- Revision Challenge 9

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The National Insurance Bill was first introduced by the National Health Act in 1911. Originally, it was a contributory system of insurance to work against illness and unemployment. Later, it contributed to retirement pensions and other benefits for the needy.

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Anaesthetic is a substance which prompts insensitivity to pain. It is given to a patient in order to reduce the presence of pain during an operation. It temporarily weakens your senses and awareness, preventing the nervous systems to pass on messages of pain to the brain.

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The Manchurian Crisis was between 1931-33 and was due to Japan in need of money as China and The USA had set up trade barriers preventing trade between Japan. This made the Japanese army angry and they then wanted to rebuild their Empire again by first invading Manchuria after a problem in 1931. They now owned the south Manchurian Railway but later invaded all of it after blaming China for sabotaging the railway. In 1932 a puppet government was set up in Manchuria by the Japanese Army whilst they began their invasion of China. The Japanese government was telling the army to retreat but they would not listen. They then appealed to the League of Nations but there was a problem. Japan were part of the League of Nations and a big member in it. The Japanese army however replied saying not to worry and this was a local difficulty being settled. Later in 1932 the League of Nations sent a boat which took a year to gather an official report on the matter and in 1933 a vote was passed to stop Japan with 42 to 1. Japan took this as an insult and left the League of Nations on March 1933.

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Disarmament was considered where the world would give up their weapons and military for world peace. This failed as many countries despised one another and each felt vulnerable to attack from the countries surrounding them and so they did not give up their military.

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The Kellogg-Briand Pact was signed in 1928 by 65 nations which stated that no one would not use their armies to fight in disputes but only for self defence.

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To stop future wars
Improve people’s way of living and jobs
To aim for disarmament countries
Enforce the Treaty of Versailles

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The first was the reduction of arms to 100,000 men, 6 battleships and 0 airplanes or submarines.
The second was the Rhineland allowed to be kept by the Germans but demilitarised.

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‘Diktat’ was a term used by the public to describe what they felt the The Big Three were doing as they were dictating the Treaty to the Germans prohibiting any say in the matter. They blamed the government as well using the word Dolchstoss which meant stab in the back by the Weimar Republic.

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The Treaty of Versailles was signed at the Paris Peace Conferance in 1919 after Germany lost to the Allies leading to the making of the ToV to ensure that this would never happen again (spoiler - it did). The Treaty was created by The Big Three and Germany had to sign this whether they liked it or not:
Guilty - They had to accept full blame for the war (Article 231)
Army - Their army had to be reduced to 100,000 men, 6 battleships and no airplanes or submarines. (The Germans did this but destroyed their military vehicles and whatnot to not allow any of the Big Three get their hands on them.
Reparations - 6.6 billion US dollars to be repaid due to damages done to buildings, structures and industry ( especially in France )
Germany lost land - The Germans lost 1 tenth of their land which consisted of Danzig, the Polish Corridor, Alsace Lorraine, Melmedy and Eupen and the Seinfeilds. Rhinelands were kept but demiliterized.
League Of Nations - The LoN recommended by Wilson was to be formed in order to prevent wars and deal with problems in the world.
Extra payments - Austria to be forbidden to reunite with Germany.

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They were leaders of countries who were victorious against Germany after WW1. George Clemenceau was the leader of France who was nick named The Tiger and Father Victory due to his ferocity when it came to wars. He did not wish for a peaceful treaty and even said once that ‘it is easier to make war than peace’ which shows he did not want Germany to be left unanswered. He wanted Germany’s army to be reduced to a mere police force and huge reparations to be paid. David Lloyd George was the leader of Britain who was considered the mediator of the two other members of The Big Three: ‘Sat there I was between Napolean and Jesus Christ’. He did not want a harsh treaty but neither did he want a peaceful one: ‘We want a peace that will be just, but not vindictive’. The British public, however, did not agree with George as they wanted a more harsh treaty forcing DLG to act a bit harsh as a compromise. Finally, Woodrow Wilson was the president of The United States and wanted to end wars and bring peace. He made up the Fourteen Points which consisted of no secret treaties, freedom among seas and disarmament. He attempted to use this in place of the Treaty of Versailles but was rejected by the Germans 100 days before they were forced to sign the ToV. Wilson was sick at the time and wanted this ‘war to end all wars’.

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1- The Four Humours in the human body were black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood. These were ought to be kept balanced in order for one to steer clear of diseases.

2- Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox on May 1796. Fluid from a cowpox blister was scratched into the skin of an eight year old lad, named James Philipps.

3- James Simpson, a doctor who studied midwifery, discovered the potential of chloroform in reducing the presence of pain during operations. He developed chloroform as an anesthetic in 1847.

4- As a consequence of the Public Health Act in 1875, the councils were made to ensure that citizens were provided with a fresh water supply as well as good sewerage and drainage systems. Local authorities were made to assign Medical Officers to take charge of public health to assure the clean environment they were trying to achieve. Furthermore, sanitary inspectors were also appointed to look after butchery and restrict infected food from being sold. Lastly, people were disciplined to keep their sewers in good condition by covering them, supply clean water to their people, pick up litter and equip street lighting.

5- Pasteur’s Germ Theory was published on 1861. He discovered that it was germs that had caused the diseases.

6- Antiseptics are used to kill microorganisms loitering on and near the surface of the

body. It is applied to the exterior layer (living tissue/skin) to lessen the risk of infection.

7- In 1847, James Simpson discovered the potential of chloroform as an anesthetic. Inhaling it helped supply a form of anesthesia. Though it had its fair share of opposition as its side effects were unknown, it became more widespread in 1853 when Queen Victoria used it to give birth.

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Disarmament means putting weapons down or reducing the size of army. 'Disarmament: the reduction or withdrawal of military forces and weapons.' Why did disarmament fail? - Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference in 1933. He insisited that if other states agreed to do the same, then Germany is willing to disarm and that he wanted peace. However, in Mein Kampf, he said he wanted a Greater Germany (Grossdeutsland), a living space (Lebensraum) and to reunite all the German speaking people (Irredentalism). Which can be interpreted as an ambition to expand the territories - in 1935, there was a big rally to how off his army, in 1936, he introduced conscription, in 1936, Hitler remilitarises Rhineland and supports Spanish War to test out their new techniques of aerial bombing.  By this time, it was clear that disarmament failed. - It can be said that Disarmament failed because Britain and France, the leaders of the League of Nations, (one of the aims for LoN was disarmament) allowed Germany to rearm with several reasons. Firstly, Britain thought the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh on Germany.  Therefore, Britain agreed on Anglo-German Pact (Naval Agreement) in 1935 which allowed Germany to have a third tonnage of British surface navy and equal tonnage of submarines. Additionally, Britain and France saw rearmamnet as a legitimate way to reduce unemployment as most of the countries were still suffering from the Great Depression. Lastly, as Hitler was a person who greatly disagreed on communism, they thought greater Germany would mean a buffer against communism. In a nutshell, Britian and France did not intervene as much as they should to stop Germany from growing and rearming, clearly failing to disarm leading to a second World War.

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Post for revision challenges! Well done Michelle!

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Kelloggg-Briand pact was signed in 1928 by over 60 countries not to use war as a way to resolve international disputes. Germany's inclusion in the Pact helped Europe to lessen the tensions.

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The aims of the League of of Nations were: SIDE
S - STOP WAR
Stopping war would bring peace to the world - Woodrow Wilson claimed that the Great war (WW1) was "a war to end war".
I - IMPROVE PEOPLE'S LIVES AND JOB
Improve on unemployment.
D - DISARMAMENT
By disarming all the countries, it would make war impossible - no armed forces to attack another.
E - ENFORCE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Such as making Germany's armed force to be severely limited and disallowing Anschluss. Although it can be said that this particular aim failed. When Hitler came to power in 1933, he immediately started to rearm and introduced conscription in 1936. By 1939, Germany had 800,000 men (23% into armament), 70 navy ships, 8000 aircrafts and 21 battleships. Also, Britain affreed to Anglo-German Naval Agreement which allowed Germany a third of tonage of British surface army. Additionally in 1938, Hitler took over Austria and suggested Anschluss to Schuschnigg who called a plebiscite. Under the eye of Nazi Germany, 99.75% agreed to unite. Hitler's main aim, stated in Mein Kampf, to make a greater Germany (Grossdeutsland) was attained and it can be said that the League had failed to achieve its aim.

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Treaty of versailles was a peace settlement signed by Britain, Germany and America in 1918. Treaty of Versailles made Germany to pay £6,600 million (132 billion gold marks) as a reparation, the population and territory of Germany to be reduced by 10% (Alsace Lorraine to France, Rhineland to be a demilitarised zone, Danzig to be a free city under League of Nations - article 100 and lost about 7 million people). All Germany's overseas colonies were to be taken, they had to accept all the war guilt (clause 231) which Germans thought was a betrayal from the soldiers who signed the treaty - "November Criminals", "Dolchstoss" - stab at the back, "Diktat" - dictated (Germans thought they were being dictated by the big three, having to obey whatever is decided on the treaty). Also, they had a huge military loss where army was to be reduced to 100,000 men, conscription disallowed, 6 battleships, no aircraft and union with Austria banned - Anschluss.

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Georges Clemenceau - Prime minister of France, wanted REVENGE and PUNISH Germany for killing 1.5 million French soldiers. He wanted to weaken Germany; they would never be invaded again (invaded twice in 1870 and 1914)  and make them pay. Woodrow Wilson - president of America who wanted to make the world safe. Additionally, he wanted to end war by making a fair peace - In 1918, he published the 14 points (League of Nations).
David Lloyd George - Prime Minister of Great Britain, wanted to make Germany pay but did not want revenge - justice. Therefore, he tried to get a 'halfway point' between Wilson and Clemenceau.
David Lloyd George - "We want a peace which will be just, but not vindictive." He, later on describes the treaty as "a great pity" for Germans.
Woodrow Wilson - "Friendship is the only cement that will ever hold the war together."
Geroges Clemenceau - "It is easier to make war than peace."

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This article talks about the life of a turkish prisoner of war who was a soldier in the ottoman empire. His name was Enver Pasha and he was hero of the 'Young Turk' revolution in 1908

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In the twilight of the Ottoman Empire, 100 years ago, a restless Turkish prisoner of war languished in Malta, then a British possession. With copious leisure time forced upon him, Eşref Bey began to write his adventures as an officer in the Ottoman army. His biography has not survived, yet, from the archival material that has, we can imagine what it might have included: a string of increasingly momentous assignments for the Committee of Union and Progress (Ottoman patriots opposed to the policies of the sultan) and for Enver Pasha, hero of the 1908 'Young Turk' revolution and the pre-eminent military figure of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War.

Eşref's story is not well known outside Turkey, where it has attained legendary status. He was born in the imperial capital, Istanbul, in 1873, where his father had risen to the post of chief falconer. He attended some of the empire's top military schools. Yet Eşref was not Turkish. He was from Circassia, a region in the north Caucasus along the east shore of the Black Sea, and he had a propensity for conflict. His career was destined to veer between insider and outsider.

During the First World War, Enver Pasha became the effective commander-in-chief of the Ottoman Empire (a title technically held by the sultan) and attempted to keep the empire intact in the face of increasingly long odds. Eşref was one of the 'self-sacrificing officers' who coalesced around Pasha, taking a role in his Special Organisation, Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa, which handled sensitive issues such as intelligence gathering and covert operations. By the end of the war, Eşref had become a notorious figure. Yet his rise to prominence was far from straightforward. His career took him across the length and breadth of the sprawling Ottoman Empire and beyond during its final decades, frequently crossing the line between loyal imperial servant and outlaw.

As a young student, his propensity for violence saw him expelled from an academy in Istanbul. He was sent to another in the city of Edirne (Adrianople), in what proved to be the first of many stints in exile. His misdemeanours saw him transferred from prison to prison, but eventually he escaped and lived among the tribes of the Najd desert, in central Arabia, where he mastered Arabic as well as the manners and customs of the Bedouin. Such knowledge would be called upon during the First World War.

Eşref set out to make a nuisance of himself in the eyes of the Ottoman authorities. Exploits such as kidnapping the son of the commander of the Ottoman military barracks at Medina and ambushing the imperial pilgrimage caravan on its way to Mecca were aimed at impressing the central authorities, persuading them that they would be better off rehabilitating such an industrious and resourceful personality.

Sultan Abdülhamid II's policy of forbearance ensured that Eşref was pardoned and restored to the imperial fold. He and his brother were given sinecures on one of the sultan's estates near İzmir (Smyrna), but they soon grew restless. Turning to brigandage in the mountainous territory of western Anatolia, they engaged in further banditry before being recruited again into the state's expanding security apparatus. Appointed as a gendarmerie officer, Eşref was now in charge of combatting the same group of outlaws to which he had once belonged.

When Italy invaded Tripolitania (Libya) in 1911, Eşref received the first of a steady stream of combat assignments, which lasted until his capture by the Arab Revolt and transfer to British custody in 1917. After secreting a group of Ottoman and Arab VIPs across Egypt and into Libya, Eşref went to work with Libyan tribes as part of the Ottoman-Sanusi resistance to the Italian invasion. When the Balkan Wars broke out the following year, Eşref again saw action, playing a leading role in the postwar, 'off-the-books' Ottoman operation to create a mini-state in western Thrace out of land that formerly belonged to Bulgaria. The short-lived government Eşref helped to form was intended to protect the region's Muslim population, who had been abused during the fighting. When, at the war's end, it was negotiated away by the Ottoman government, Eşref and his comrades were incensed: he had served as commander of the 'National' paramilitary forces and had even designed the flag of the ill-fated entity.

Eşref's most daring assignment came when Enver Pasha ordered him to deliver a shipment of gold and arms to the Ottoman army in Yemen, the province of the empire in the south of the Arabian peninsula that had been cut off due to the British-backed 'Arab Revolt' in the west. Navigating a difficult route, Eşref led his contingent overland through Arabia. They were ultimately discovered and attacked by a much larger force. Eşref was captured and paraded around the Hijaz region in the west of Arabia before being handed over to British military officials, who took him to Cairo for interrogation. It was then that he was transferred to Malta, where he was forced to sit out the rest of the conflict.

Shortly after his release from Malta, he was made a regional commander in the growing 'National' movement by Mustafa Kemal, the future Atatürk, who would establish the modern Turkish republic. This movement in the interior of Anatolia was a rival to the Ottoman government in Istanbul, now under Allied occupation. Having failed to quell an insurrection in western Anatolia, Eşref had fallen out of favour with the nationalist hierarchy being established at Ankara.

He finally broke with Ankara in 1920, following his fellow Circassian, 'Çerkes' Edhem, across the front line and into the zone of Greek occupation in western Anatolia. As a result he has subsequently been referred to as a 'traitor to the nation' in works of mainstream Kemalist historiography. Forced to live in exile from the newly founded republic and separated from his family for more than 30 years, he was finally allowed to return to Turkey as an old man.

Beyond the individual details, Eşref's life epitomises a number of broader trends that help us understand this era of rapid change in the region and its disastrous personal toll. As the son of Circassian immigrants, Eşref represents the demographic change that played a critical role in this period. The Ottoman military, especially the growing paramilitary forces, recruited heavily among the Circassians, who had been forced out of the Caucasus by Russian expansion in the 19th century. Eşref's peripatetic career also highlights the extent to which technology - and the capacity for communication and movement that it enabled -changed the dynamic of this period. During his many adventures Eşref travelled by train, steamship, car and even aeroplane, and he was a committed user of the telegraph. Ultimately his career underscores the extent to which loyalty and personal networks worked both for and against agents like Eşref, who were always at the sharp end of events during this tumultuous and defining period of history.

Benjamin C. Fortna is the author of The Circassian: A Life of Eşref Bey, Late Ottoman Insurgent and Special Agent (Hurst, 2017).

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In the twilight of the Ottoman Empire, 100 years ago, a restless Turkish prisoner of war languished in Malta, then a British possession. With copious leisure time forced upon him, Eşref Bey began to write his adventures as an officer in the Ottoman army.

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Newspaper Articles Concerning Segregation and Racism

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Newspaper Articles Concerning Segregation and Racism

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This page contains original, scanned newspaper articles covering the period from 1865 until 1920. The articles cover the racial attitudes of local whites to Ypsilanti’s large black community, segregation and the campaigns, suits and organizations that mobilized against it. Also included are articles looking at African-American views on race and articles on black businesses open to serve the black community. For dozens of articles on the campaign to desegregate Ypsilanti schools, see the First Ward School Newspaper Archive.

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This page contains original, scanned newspaper articles covering the period from 1865 until 1920. The articles cover the racial attitudes of local whites to Ypsilanti's large black community, segregation and the campaigns, suits and organizations that mobilized against it. Also included are articles looking at African-American views on race and articles on black businesses open to serve the black community. For dozens of articles on the campaign to desegregate Ypsilanti schools, see the First Ward School Newspaper Archive.

The language and content of these stories, taken directly from period newspapers, is often derisive and racist, especially on this topic. It should be noted that the 'color line' and racial segregation were openly and unashamedly discussed in the period. Though the articles are presented without commentary, readers are asked to pay attention to how reporting in the local press changes as the years progress and the gains won in the Civil War era are overturned. While many of these clippings are simply notices or seemingly minor, together they tell a grand story of the life of the community.

The newspapers were accessed through microfilm at various libraries and archives. The Ypsilanti Public Library, The Ypsilanti Historical Society, The Library of Michigan as well as Eastern Michigan University's Halle Library all have Ypsilanti newspapers.

They include: Ypsilanti True Democrat, 1864-1865. Changed to Ypsilanti Commercial in 1865 and published, with some interruptions, until 1906. Ypsilanti Sentinel published from the 1840s until it merged to form the above Commercial in 1865. Ypsilanti Daily Press, published from 1905-1920. The Ypsilantian, published from 1880-1912.

The date and publication of the article are in the title; for example 12dec1919press is December 12, 1919 Ypsilanti Daily Press, 4jul1897ian is July 4, 1897 Ypsilantian m and so on. Click on any thumbnail to cycle through a slide show of larger versions, which can be further enlarged and downloaded.

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Newspaper Articles Concerning Segregation and Racism

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This page contains original, scanned newspaper articles covering the period from 1865 until 1920. The articles cover the racial attitudes of local whites to Ypsilanti's large black community, segregation and the campaigns, suits and organizations that mobilized against it. Also included are articles looking at African-American views on race and articles on black businesses open to...

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This pilot wanted to know what really capitalsm was like because he felt the communist leaders were lying that the capitalists are monsters. So he takes of as a training group in ussr and then flies to japan with the Soviet Mig-25

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Viktor Belenko - The pilot who stole Soviet's Mig-25 fighter jet

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On 6 September 1976, an aircraft appears out of the clouds near the Japanese city of Hakodate, on the northern island of Hokkaido. It's a twin-engined jet, but not the kind of short-haul airliner Hakodate is used to seeing. This huge, grey hulk sports the red stars of the Soviet Union.

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2015 lynching
- Holly Mitchell

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DEVELOPING STORY - This story will be updated as new information becomes available.

Hundreds of activists gathered in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement in Downtown Albuquerque Friday night.

The crowd gathered outside Century 14 theater at the intersection of Central and First SW, holding signs that said "de-militarize the police" and "black and brown lives matter," among others. More than 800 people on the event's Facebook page have said they plan to attend the protest which is set to wrap up at 9:30 p.m.

The protest caused businesses and even local government organizations to close early on Friday.

"Bernalillo County has been advised that an organized protest will occur at One Civic Plaza this afternoon. For the safety of our employees, there will be an early dismissal at 3:30 p.m. today," a statement on the Bernalillo County website read.

According to the statement, the following buildings will be locked and secured: Assessor's Office at 501 Tijeras NW, City/County Building at One Civic Plaza NW, the County Annex at 415 Tijeras NW, the Law Enforcement Center at 400 Roma NW, the Public Safety Bldg. at 401 Roma NW, the Steve Schiff Bldg. at 520 Lomas NW and Union Square at 111 Union Square NW.

The early closures disrupted early voting at the city clerk's office at the Plaza del Sol building at 600 Second NW. Early voting was supposed to have been open there until 6 p.m.

"They shut down City Hall and Plaza del Sol, so we had to shut down our polling location," City Clerk Natalie Howard told the Journal. She said she called Secretary of State Maggie Toulouse Oliver and was advised that it was OK because the closure was out of her control.

Howard said a sign was put on the door advising early voters that the site had closed early but that other early voting sites would be open until 6 p.m. Notice was also provided on the city's website and through social media.

Tucanos Brazilian Grill restaurant also released a statement saying they will only seat guests until 3 p.m.

"Because of the expected size of the march, the city is anticipating significant disruption to traffic in the area, as well as the potential for property damage should the protest not remain peaceful," the statement read.

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Updated: Black Lives Matter protest kicks off downtown

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DEVELOPING STORY - This story will be updated as new information becomes available. Hundreds of activists gathered in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement in Downtown Albuquerque Friday night. The crowd gathered outside Century 14 theater at the intersection of Central and First SW, holding signs that said "de-militarize the police" and "black and brown lives matter," among others.

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I thought this timeline was pretty helpful

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Two Hundred Years of Surgery

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year 10 students FYI

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yea 11 students FYI