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Lactobacillus acidophilus reproduces using binary fission, a type of asexual reproduction.  Binary fission causes the bacterium to double its contents (DNA replicates), the daughter chromosomes moves to opposite poles, cell wall begins to pinch/divide, cytoplasm is divided and new cell walls are created, then binary fusion is complete with two separate daughter cells. It is the primary form of reproduction for all bacteria, and can increase the population of the colonies very quickly because each generation doubles.

“This is a chart of how many bacteria would be in a colony over the course of one day, if each bacterium split every twenty minutes for an entire day.  On the y axis, it shows the numbers in scientific notation, a common way of showing large numbers.  At the end of 24 hours, there would be4,722,366,482,869,650,000,000, or 4.7 x 10²¹ bacteria in the colony.”

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The Characteristics of Lactobacillus Acidophilus

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The Characteristics of Lactobacillus Acidophilus

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They are 29 organism in this group; 15 strains named Lactobacillus acidophilus and L. bulgaricus, 11 isolated parts of the mammalian gut or form faeces and one from mouth. In carbohydrate fermentation, L. acidophilus ferment the four sugars such as amygdalin, cellobiose, salicin and sucrose. Lactobacillus acidophilus does not grow at 20 degree celcius or below and also does not grow at 48 degree celcius and above. But it grows very well at optimum temperature which is 37 degree celcius. In terms of serology, the serological work have not yet been prepared for the L. acidophilus group. For distinctive character, the L. acidophilus grows in 2% but not in 4% NaCl or bile salt.

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Allergies
people which are sensitive to lactobacillus acidophilus may be have a stomach discomfort or other side. this is caused by the trace amounts of lactose that they may contain from the manufacturing process

the most common side effect is gas which usually to with continued use. some research suggest that half of the reported serious cases of infection to lactibacillus tend to occur in people who have a immune problem. others side effect is athritis, bloating, blockage of lung artery, diarrhea, disease of esophagus, heart inflammation, liver infection, skin reactions, stomach cramping, stomach lining inflammation, stomach rumbling, and vaginal burning and discomfort

Pregnancy and Breestfeeding
lactobacillus acidophilus has been used safely during pregnancy (2 - 4 weeks before childbirth) and breestfeeding (for up to 6 month)

lactobacillus acidophilus tablets vave been studied in pregnant women for treatment of bacterial vaginosis and also for treatment of supparative inflammatory. studied also have found that lactobacillus acidopillus can prevent premature childbirth

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A Coggle Diagram about Benefits (EFFA) (Modern fermented foods TRY ME!, Relieves Irritable Bowel Syndrome, May treat respiratory infections, The best probiotics, produce lactase, Helps digestion of dairy products and produces vitamin K, which is essential to proper blood clotting and bone formation and repair., Helps digest food, produces vitamins

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Uploaded by nadia athirah on 2017-03-06.

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The habitat of L. acidophilus can be found in many places. This bacterium can be found in animal and human intestinal tracts (for humans it is found in the gastrointestinal tract), soil, water, milk and milk products, plants, silage, and manure.

Lactobacillus acidophilus is part of a group of lactobacilli---bacteria that live in the small intestine, vagina and similar parts of the human body. This beneficial bacteria helps prevent infection by disease-producing organisms and produces beneficial substances such as vitamin K and lactase. This bacteria is found in yogurt and other fermented milk products and is partially responsible for their sour taste.

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Do you know that Bacillus species can form endospores when conditions do not favour growth ? These endospores act as resting structure and hold a bacterial chromosome and a bit of cytoplasm. Endospores resist from heat, boiling, irradiation, acids and disinfectants and as living conditions getting improve, an endospore will germinates and a single bacterium emerges.

Not to mention, endospores also can germinate inside a human body ! But too bad that it can gives the muscle lock in irreversible contraction and end up causing tetanus in human body.

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This site helps to understand what are the probiotics

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Probiotics are live bacteria and yeasts that are good for your health, especially your digestive system. We usually think of these as germs that cause diseases. But your body is full of bacteria, both good and bad. Probiotics are often called "good" or "helpful" bacteria because they help keep your gut healthy.

You can find probiotics in supplements and some foods, like yogurt. Doctors often suggest them to help with digestive problems.

How Do They Work?

Researchers are trying to figure out exactly how probiotics work. Some of the ways they may keep you healthy:

When you lose "good" bacteria in your body, for example after you take antibiotics, probiotics can help replace them.

They can help balance your "good" and "bad" bacteria to keep your body working the way it should.

Types of Probiotics

Many types of bacteria are classified as probiotics. They all have different benefits, but most come from two groups. Ask your doctor about which might best help you.

Lactobacillus. This may be the most common probiotic. It's the one you'll find in yogurt and other fermented foods. Different strains can help with diarrhea and may help with people who can't digest lactose, the sugar in milk.

Bifidobacterium. You can also find it in some dairy products. It may help ease the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and some other conditions.

Saccharomyces boulardii is a yeast found in probiotics. It appears to help fight diarrhea and other digestive problems.

What Do They Do?

Among other things, probiotics help send food through your gut by affecting nerves that control gut movement. Researchers are still trying to figure out which are best for certain health problems. Some common conditions they treat are:

Irritable bowel syndrome

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Infectious diarrhea (caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites)

Antibiotic-related diarrhea

There is also some research that shows they're useful for problems in other parts of your body. For example, some people say they have helped with:

Skin conditions, like eczema

Urinary and vaginal health

Preventing allergies and colds

Oral health

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Probiotics are live bacteria and yeasts that are good for your health, especially your digestive system. We usually think of these as germs that cause diseases. But your body is full of bacteria, both good and bad. Probiotics are often called "good" or "helpful" bacteria because they help keep your gut healthy.

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I also found that a video which it show the reaction of probiotics inside our guts!

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Probiotics - A quick trip inside our guts!

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http://www.probiotixfoods.com for natural probiotics products and more specific information about probiotics. Good bacteria? Yes, it is not a typo. When most of us use the word bacteria, the first thing that comes to our mind are diseases, infections and illnesses.

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hi and assalamualaikum! I found that there are so many advantages of this Lactobacillus acidophilus compared to their negative effects. What I found is this bacteria really helps us especially in our intestine. They play their role by secreting enzyme called lactase which is enzyme that helps breakdown of sugar in milk but people who are lactose intolerant don not produce this enzyme.
Other than that, the most important thing I want to share here that Lactobacillus acidophilus is the best probiotics for us.
Yogurt and probiotic supplements are some of the most commonly available ways to get beneficial bacteria in your diet, but commercial yogurt products contain very little friendly bacteria by the time you purchase them. Many also contain a good amount of sugar that feeds not only good bacteria but also any bad ones in your gut.
There are many other benefits of this bacteria and you guys can have a look on that in this site

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Lactobacillus acidophilus --it's a mouthful to be sure, but this particular probiotic and its other helpful associates in the tiny microscopic world of beneficial "germs" have become buzzwords in the mainstream media because they can fight infection and enhance your immunity.

Yogurt contains the probiotic lactobacillus acidophilus, but many people can't digest conventional yogurt. Kefir, which you can read about below, is an even better source of this beneficial bacteria.

Lactobacillus acidophilus, also known as L. acidophilus, is a beneficial bacteria that you definitely want living inside your small intestine.

It is very acid-resistant and tolerates bile quite effectively. Besides nestling into the mucosal lining of your small intestine, you'll also want L. acidophilus "colonizing" and protecting the lining of your vagina and cervix, (if you have them) and your urethra. In these places acidophilus will work to produce lactic and other organic acids inhibiting the adherence and multiplication of pathogenic microbes.

It competes against or "antagonizes" an array of pathogens including Escherichia coli (E. coli, the cause of "Montezuma's Revenge"), Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella (common causes of food poisoning), Candida albicans (yeast infections and syndromes), and other pathogens such as Shigella, Clostridium, Listeria, and Helicobacter species.

The Allure of L. Acidophilus

Like the billions of other beneficial microorganisms in your digestive tract, L. acidophilus helps you digest food, produces vitamins and facilitates digestion.

Even though there are many other kinds of probiotics in your intestines, lactobacillus acidophilus plays an especially important role. It is key to your digestion of dairy products and produces vitamin K, which is essential to proper blood clotting and bone formation and repair.

Here's a quick summary of what L. acidophilus can do in your body:

Produces lactase, the enzyme that breaks down the sugar in milk. (People who are lactose intolerant don't produce this enzyme.)

Prevents and treats diarrhea.

Reduces overgrowth of pathogens in your digestive tract.

Relieves Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Crohn's disease, and gut dysbiosis.

Decreases frequency of vaginal yeast infections and urinary tract infections.

Increases your immune response.

May treat respiratory infections like sinusitis and bronchitis.

The Best Probiotics for You

Yogurt and probiotic supplements are some of the most commonly available ways to get beneficial bacteria in your diet, but commercial yogurt products contain very little friendly bacteria by the time you purchase them. Many also contain a good amount of sugar that feeds not only good bacteria but also any bad ones in your gut.

Although they are sugar-free, probiotic supplements can be both expensive and relatively unstable. We also question their effectiveness in a really long digestive tract (your small intestine is about 3.5 times your body length.)
Fermented foods and drinks containing lactobacillus acidophilus and other probiotics are a much more potent choice for incorporating beneficial bacteria into your diet. The Body Ecology system of health and healing strongly emphasizes building your healthy inner ecosystem through fermented foods.
A healthy inner ecosystem is made up of the friendly microflora (good bacteria) that reside in our intestines and keep us healthy and strong.

Modern Fermented Foods

Many cultures have used fermented foods for centuries (and only now are we re-discovering their benefits. To learn more, read: Baghdad's Ancient Secret that can Help You Improve Your Health)

Body Ecology provides plenty of ways to incorporate lactobacillus acidophilus and other beneficial bacteria into your diet with delicious recipes and simple, whole food alternatives.

Vitality SuperGreen
is a delicious, easy way to get L. acidophilus AND your greens to build energy and good health.

To add some beneficial L. acidophilus to your diet, try one or more of the following:

Young Coconut Kefir. This delicious beverage is a great way to start your day and can stop sugar cravings. Just follow our easy instructions!

Raw Cultured Vegetables. Add a serving of fermented vegetables to every meal and you'll notice that your food digests more efficiently. Though you won't be able to see it, the cultured veggies also help extract more nutrients, and populate your stomach with plenty of probiotics. Our recipes make it simple.

Essential Duo Culture Starter. Essential Duo contains L. acidophilus and becomes the basis for homemade fermented foods.

Vitality SuperGreen. This whole food mixture has plenty of probiotics thanks to fermented greens, algaes, and grasses.

Lactobacillus acidophilus and other probiotics can be a great way to jumpstart your journey to good health. With Body Ecology's whole food sources of these beneficial bacteria, you can be sure that you are getting the highest quality and concentration of probiotics for your money.

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Lactobacillus Acidophilus: The Key Benefits of this "First Class" Beneficial Bacteria & How to Best Obtain It in Your Diet

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Lactobacillus acidophilus --it's a mouthful to be sure, but this particular probiotic and its other helpful associates in the tiny microscopic world of beneficial "germs" have become buzzwords in the mainstream media because they can fight infection and enhance your immunity. Yogurt contains the probiotic lactobacillus acidophilus, but many people can't digest conventional yogurt.

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What is Lactobacillus Acidophilus.

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What is Lactobacillus Acidophilus - How Lactobacillus Acidophilus is Important for Your Body?

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http://amzn.to/1nGPjea :In this video you would get to know what is Lactobacillus Acidophilus and how it is important for your body.Ultra Flora Plus DF Capsules is also provides provides highly viable, pure strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus (NCFM strain) and Bifidobacterium lactis.

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I have been found this article on the metabolism of Lactobacillus Acidophilus.
Let me know if  this article is good and informative for you guys. THANK YOU :)

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Abstract

In prokaryotic species equipped with glycogen metabolism machinery, the co-regulation of glycogen biosynthesis and degradation has been associated with the synthesis of energy storage compounds and various crucial physiological functions, including global cellular processes such as carbon and nitrogen metabolism, energy sensing and production, stress response and cell-cell communication. In addition, the glycogen metabolic pathway was proposed to serve as a carbon capacitor that regulates downstream carbon fluxes, and in some microorganisms the ability to synthesize intracellular glycogen has been implicated in host persistence. Among lactobacilli, complete glycogen metabolic pathway genes are present only in select species predominantly associated with mammalian hosts or natural environments. This observation highlights the potential involvement of glycogen biosynthesis in probiotic activities and persistence of intestinal lactobacilli in the human gastrointestinal tract. In this review, we summarize recent findings on (i) the presence and potential ecological distribution of glycogen metabolic pathways among lactobacilli, (ii) influence of carbon substrates and growth phases on glycogen metabolic gene expression and glycogen accumulation in L. acidophilus, and (iii) the involvement of glycogen metabolism on growth, sugar utilization and bile tolerance. Our present in vivo studies established the significance of glycogen biosynthesis on the competitive retention of L. acidophilus in the mouse intestinal tract, demonstrating for the first time that the ability to synthesize intracellular glycogen contributes to gut fitness and retention among probiotic microorganisms.

Introduction

Glycogen, a soluble multi-branched glucose homopolysaccharide, is a common form of energy storage synthesized by animals and eukaryotic microorganisms. Among prokaryotes, intracellular glycogen has been identified in more than 50 bacterial species including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as archaebacteria (reviewed in []). Based on a recent analysis of 1,202 bacterial genomes, intact glycogen metabolic pathways are generally present in species adaptable to more diverse habitats and flexible lifestyles []. Structurally analogous to amylopectin, an energy storage component of starch in plants, glycogen is composed of chains of ?-1,4-linked glucose units interconnected by comparatively more extensive ?-1,6-linked branches. Most bacterial glycogen has an average chain length of?~?7 to 13 glucose units and an estimated molecular size of ca. 10 ⁷ to 10 ⁸ Da [],[]. Glycogen is considered a flexible and efficient form of energy storage due to its large molecular mass and highly branched structure, and its accumulation has little effect on the internal osmotic pressure of the cells.

Glycogen synthesis in bacteria is generally regarded as a mechanism to prolong survival by supplying energy production during growth-limiting conditions. This so called energy of maintenance allows cells to sense and respond to nonsupportive environments, such as starvation and stress []. Glycogen may be synthesized during exponential growth or in stationary phase, and its accumulation generally occurs in the presence of excess carbon sources []. The classical biosynthetic pathway involves phosphoglucomutase (Pgm), glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase (GlgC or GlgCD), ADP-glucose-specific glycogen synthase (GlgA) and branching enzyme (GlgB) (Figure). Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-6-phosphate into glucose-1-phosphate, which serves as a substrate for ADP-glucose synthesis catalyzed by GlgC or GlgCD. Then, GlgA catalyzes the transfer of glucosyl units from ADP-glucose to the elongating chain of linear ?-1,4-glucan. GlgB subsequently cleaves off portions of the glucan and links it to internal glucose molecules in existing chains via ?-1,6 glycosidic bonds to form the glycogen structure. The catabolism of glycogen is mediated by glycogen phosphorylase (GlgP) [] and debranching enzyme (GlgX or Amy) [], which catalyze the sequential phosphorolysis of ?-1,4-glucosyl linkages in the glucan chain from the non-reducing ends and debranching of the limit dextrins generated by GlgP, respectively.

Although the precise function of bacterial glycogen is not well-defined, an increasing number of studies have revealed the involvement of glycogen metabolism in major physiological roles, beyond the synthesis of energy reserve compounds (Table). Eydallin et al. showed that in Escherichia coli, glycogen metabolism is interconnected with global cellular processes including energy production, nutrient transport and metabolism, cell envelope integrity, protein turnover, stress responses and intercellular communication, and is tightly regulated by nutritional and energy status [],[]. Glycogen synthesis also plays a role in the sporulation of Bacillus subtilis[] and the biosynthesis of trehalose in Corynebacterium glutamicum which contributes to osmoprotection and cell wall synthesis [],[]. In Mycobacterium smegmatis and several other microorganisms, the parallel synthesis and degradation of glycogen during early growth phase suggests that the glycogen metabolic pathway functions as a carbon capacitor that regulates downstream carbon and energy fluxes [],[],[]. The ability to synthesize glycogen has also been associated with the colonization persistence of Streptococcus mutans[], Mycobacterium tuberculosis[] and E. coli[], indicating glycogen synthesis as an important niche factor in the host environments.

Lactobacillus acidophilus was the first probiotic microorganism demonstrated to possess a functional glycogen biosynthetic pathway []. This ubiquitous probiotic microbe is widely used in the manufacture of yogurt, fermented dairy products and probiotic supplements []. Probiotic attributes of L. acidophilus include the alleviation of lactose intolerance and cold and influenza-like symptoms [],[], the modulation of immune cell functions [] and the alleviation of abdominal pain via modulation of visceral pain perception []. Due to its Generally Regarded As Safe (GRAS) status and the ability to survive transit through the digestive tract, L. acidophilus has been considered an ideal vehicle for mucosal-targeted delivery of vaccines and biotherapeutics [],[]. As with other probiotic microbes, research has revealed in vivo mechanisms involved in their survival and interaction with the host to promote biodelivery and fitness in the gut. The presence of intact glycogen metabolic gene clusters in L. acidophilus NCFM and certain Lactobacillus species typically associated with natural or mammalian host environments led to our speculation that glycogen metabolism potentially contributes to the survival and probiotic functionalities of lactobacilli in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

This review highlights our recent findings on the genetics and physiology of glycogen metabolism in L. acidophilus[], including factors (e. g. type and availability of carbon source, growth phase) which affect gene expression and glycogen biosynthesis, and the influence of glycogen metabolism on various probiotic-associated phenotypes of L. acidophilus. We also present our most current in vivo studies demonstrating that the capability of synthesizing intracellular glycogen contributes to the competitive retention of L. acidophilus in the mouse GI tract.

Glycogen metabolic pathway genes among Lactobacillus

The glycogen metabolic pathway in L. acidophilus is encoded by a 11.7-kb chromosomal region consisting of glgBCDAP-amy-pgm genes (LBA0680 to LBA0687) (FigureA) []. All seven genes are co-transcribed as a polycistronic mRNA and the gene cluster designated as the glg operon. To date, among the genome sequences of Lactobacillus species available in the NCBI genome database [ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/browse/ ], only?~?30% of the species possess complete glycogen metabolic gene sets. The glg operons identified in these Lactobacillus species have a conserved chromosomal mosaic arrangement of the glg genes, with the glgBCDAP genes representing the core genes in these species (FigureB). In terms of sequence homology, the glycogen pathway enzymes of L. acidophilus exhibited 41 to 90% identity to the corresponding proteins among the other Lactobacillus species, with closest orthologs found in Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lactobacillus helveticus R0052, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus PB2003/044-T3-4, L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis CRL581, Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens and Lactobacillus equicursoris. Phylogenetic analysis of the conserved glycogen synthase, GlgA, showed a phylogenetic relationship with resemblance to that of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of Lactobacillus species []. This implied that the presence of this operon among specific lactobacilli was not due to recent horizontal gene acquisition.

The glg-encoding Lactobacillus species predominantly originate from mammalian hosts or natural environments, such as Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus ruminus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus gastricus, Lactobacillus mucosae and Lactobacillus murinus. Despite the general absence or degeneration of the gene cluster among the sequenced strains of L. helveticus and L. delbrueckii, both of which are commonly associated with domesticated dairy environments, the non-dairy origin strains L. helveticus R0052, a commercial probiotic strain isolated from sweet acidophilus milk [], along with a human vaginal isolate of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (PB2003/044-T3-4) and a cheese isolate of L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis (CRL581) appeared to harbor complete sets of glycogen metabolic pathway genes. This observation reflected a niche-specific function of glycogen metabolism among lactobacilli. The conservation of the genomic region flanking the glg operons in L. helveticus R0052 and L. acidophilus demonstrated that this operon was lost from the other sequenced strains of L. helveticus. In the case of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, small remnants of the glg operon were found among the majority of the sequenced strains at the genomic region corresponding to that of the glg locus in strain PB2003/044-T3-4. This suggested that only the latter strain preserved an intact glg operon as part of a niche-specific gene repertoire equipped for its adaptation to the human vaginal environment.

It is noteworthy that, most Bifidobacterium species known as dominant GI commensals and probiotic microorganisms also possess all the essential enzymes for glycogen biosynthesis and catabolism []. The glycogen pathway genes in Bifidobacterium species, like in C. glutamicum[], another species of Actinobacteria, are not organized as a single operon but instead are dispersed within the genomes []. Meanwhile, no glycogen metabolic genes were found in several species that are closely related to L. acidophilus and are commonly associated with mammalian host niches, notably Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus johnsonii and the majority of the Lactobacillus crispatus strains. Nonetheless, the presence of intact glycogen metabolism gene sets in L. acidophilus and other glg-encoding Lactobacillus species, in specific host-associated strains of L. helveticus and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, as well as its prevalence in bifidobacteria, indicates a functional and ecological advantage conferred by their ability to synthesize glycogen.

Glycogen metabolism in L. acidophilus is dependent on carbon source and growth phase

The differential expression of the glg operon and glycogen accumulation profiles under various carbohydrate conditions demonstrated that glycogen biosynthesis in L. acidophilus is highly dependent on the type of sugar substrates present []. From a previous microarray-based global transcriptomic study of carbohydrate utilization by L. acidophilus, expression of the glg operon was upregulated when raffinose or trehalose was provided as a sole carbon source compared to other sugars; whereas glucose appeared to repress the glg genes []. Subsequently, real time-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) experiments and quantitative glycogen assays showed that raffinose was among the sugar substrates examined that induced the highest level of the glg operon expression and intracellular glycogen accumulation, followed by the disaccharides trehalose and lactose []. Both glg expression and glycogen biosynthesis were repressed by glucose. This is consistent with the identification of a catabolite response element ( cre) upstream of the glg operon which is further evidence that glycogen metabolism is subject to catabolite regulation []. On the contrary, in microorganisms such as C. glutamicum, S. mutans and Salmonella enteritidis, glycogen accumulation and gene expression were induced in the presence of glucose [],[],[]. From the perspective of niche adaptation in the small intestinal environment, we theorized that the presence of glucose may signal for nutrient abundance and ideal conditions for population expansion, leading to the prioritization of carbon flow towards glycolysis and other biosynthetic pathways []. When glucose is deprived, cells may respond by de-repressing the catabolic machinery for complex carbohydrates along with activating the glycogen metabolic pathway. Under these conditions, glycogen metabolism may generate energy storage reserves and serve as a carbon capacitor in order to regulate downstream metabolic flux, presumably in an energy conservation state to prolong survival.

Temporal glycogen accumulation profiling revealed significant differences during growth on raffinose or trehalose (Figure). On both sugars, the highest intracellular glycogen content was observed during early log phase, indicating that L. acidophilus was actively synthesizing and accumulating glycogen during the early growth phase. Previous observations in C. glutamicum also showed that glycogen accumulated rapidly at early log phase when growing on various sugar substrates []. While a dramatic decrease in glycogen level occurred in cells grown on trehalose following early log phase, the raffinose-grown cells maintained at about 50% of their initial glycogen level as the cells entered stationary phase, and remarkably, continued to retain a stable level throughout late stationary phase (Figure). Since the glycogen synthesis and degradation genes are co-transcribed, it is likely that the observed glycogen levels were the result of post-transcriptional regulation. It was previously proposed that the balance of parallel synthesis and degradation pathways serves to maintain the glycogen structures and function as a carbon capacitor for sensitive regulation of downstream carbon and energy fluxes [],[],[],[]. It is plausible that L. acidophilus may maintain a higher level of intracellular glycogen as well as glg expression to enhance sustainability when growing on a more complex carbon source, a scenario most likely encountered in the gut environment. This presents a novel strategy for utilizing raffinose and potentially other prebiotic oligosaccharides to induce the cells into accumulating and maintaining a stable glycogen pool in order to enhance the viability and residence time of L. acidophilus in the GI tract. Meanwhile, it is interesting to note that the transcription of the glg operon was elevated in cells cultured in semi-defined medium without a carbon source [] as well as during late stationary phase (FigureB). We speculated this might be partly due to the de-repression of the glg operon when fermentable carbon sources are depleted. It is also possible that the glg operon was induced during transient starvation conditions, presumably for the catabolism of remaining glycogen storage, or as part of a stress response regulon.

Functional characterization of the glg operon

An in-frame deletion of the glgA or glgB gene resulted in a glycogen-deficient phenotype in both mutants of L. acidophilus (Figure). Hence, the inactivation of glgA or glgB alone abolished the ability of the mutants to synthesize glycogen, confirming that (a) the glg operon is functional in L. acidophilus; (b) glgA and glgB encodes for a glycogen synthase and a glycogen-branching enzyme, respectively, and (c) both functional glgA and glgB are required for the formation of intracellular glycogen. Interestingly, both ? glgA and ? glgB mutants, but not the ? glgP or ? amy mutant, exhibited less robust growth on raffinose compared to the parent strain []. These results suggest an interconnection between glycogen synthesis and raffinose metabolism. The growth defect on raffinose might be due to the major influx of glucose-1-phosphate intermediates (resulting from raffinose catabolism) into the glycogen synthesis pathway, leading to the accumulation of ADP-glucose and linear ?-glucan chains in the ? glgA and ? glgB mutants, respectively. The inability of the mutants to convert these intermediates into glycogen macromolecules may consequently affect carbon down flow and compromise growth.

Inactivation of the glgB or glgP gene resulted in slightly slower growth and colony morphotype variation in MRS medium. Both mutants also showed increased sensitivity to bile and simulated small intestinal juice. The bile sensitivity phenotype might be attributed by an overall growth defect which led to decreased efficiency of the bile efflux systems [], and possibly the functionality of other resistance mechanisms that protect the cells from digestive enzymes (i.e., amylase, protease, lipase) present in the simulated small intestinal juice. Given that the same phenotype was not observed in the other glycogen-deficient mutant, ? glgA, we speculate that in the ? glgB mutant, accumulation of the ?-glucan polymers that were unable to form glycogen structures resulted in various physiological perturbations that affected its growth and survival in the small intestinal environment. In M. tuberculosis, inactivation of GlgB was lethal which might be due to the intracellular accumulation of poorly soluble linear ?-glucan polymers []. With respect to the ? glgP mutation, a similar growth defect and morphological alteration was also observed in M. smegmatis carrying a mutation in the glycogen-degrading enzyme gene, glgE[]. Based on the authorsproposed model of glycogen metabolism as a carbon capacitor for glycolysis, the absence of GlgE disrupts glycogen recycling, resulting in glucose molecules sequestered in glycogen, thereby compromising downstream metabolic pathways. Hence, the growth and bile sensitivity phenotypes of the L. acidophilus ? glgP mutant emphasize the physiological importance of coordinated glycogen synthesis and degradation as well as the ability of the cells to retrieve a carbon source from glycogen storage during normal growth as well as stress conditions.

In vivo competitive and displacement colonization studies supporting the role of glycogen biosynthesis in gut retention

In enteric bacteria such as E. coli, glycogen storage plays a critical role in the colonization of the mouse GI tract as evidenced by the significant colonization defect of mutants that are unable to synthesize or degrade internal glycogen []. In order to establish whether the ability to synthesize intracellular glycogen contributes to the retention of L. acidophilus in the GI environment, we conducted two in vivo studies using a 129S6/SvEv germ-free mouse model. The first experiment involved a competitive colonization strategy whereby the germ-free mice were co-colonized with both the ? glgA glycogen-deficient mutant and the parent strain in equal ratios. The GI retention of both strains was monitored by plating fecal samples during a period of 4weeks (Figure). In the follow-up experiment, germ-free mice were first mono-colonized with the ? glgA mutant, followed by subsequent introduction of the parent strain into the same mice to determine whether the ability to generate glycogen reserves would enable the parent population to overturn the dynamic of the established mutant population in the gut.

Prior to the mouse experiment, in order to enable differential enumeration and comparison of the bacterial populations representing the parent (NCK1909) [] and the ? glgA (NCK2180) [] strains in the fecal samples, the parent and mutant strains were marked with spontaneous resistance to different antibiotics. Both antibiotics, rifampicin (Rif) and streptomycin (Str), were selected for use due to their low minimal inhibitory concentrations [] and relatively low spontaneous resistance frequency exhibited by L. acidophilus. Both antibiotic resistance phenotypes do not provide cross-protection against each other. One Rif-resistant (Rif R) parent and one Str-resistant (Str R) ? glgA mutant colonies were isolated from exposure to the respective antibiotics and designated as NCK2300 (parent) and NCK2301 (? glgA mutant), respectively (FigureA and Additional file ). Both antibiotic-resistant derivatives exhibited undistinguishable growth phenotypes compared to their native counterparts, and the antibiotic resistance phenotypes were stable throughout 30 consecutive passages in the absence of antibiotics, confirming that the spontaneous antibiotic resistant phenotype was stable and did not negatively impact growth (Additional file ). Since the spontaneous antibiotic resistance phenotype, once established, is inherent in the selected strains, this strategy eliminates the need of external antibiotic agents for maintenance of resistance phenotypes within the bacterial populations in an in vivo system. It also allows for the co-investigation of two or more bacterial strains competitively, in vivo.

Competitive co-colonization of glycogen-deficient ?glgA mutant and parent strains

On the initial day (Day 0) of the mouse experiment, both parent (NCK2300) and ? glgA mutant (NCK2301) derivatives were combined in 1:1 ratio of cell concentrations and delivered to the germ-free mice ( n?=?4) by intragastric gavage (1 10 ⁷CFU total in 200?l) (FigureA). Following administration, fecal samples were collected periodically to differentially enumerate the parent and mutant populations on antibiotic selective media. The results in FigureA showed an initial population decline of the ? glgA mutant on Day 4 post-gavage. The population level of the mutant continued to decline and was maintained at a 2 log reduction compared to the parent population. We suspect that the lack of a further decline of the mutant population was likely due to the coprophagic nature of rodents. This study demonstrated that the ability of L. acidophilus to synthesize intracellular glycogen storage provides a competitive advantage in the mouse GI tract.

Colonization displacement of ?glgA mutant by the parent strain

Germ-free mice ( n?=?3) were initially mono-colonized with the glgA mutant by intragastric gavage at a dose of ca. 4 10 ⁶CFU (FigureB). In the absence of competition, the mutant was able to establish initial population levels in the gut (> 6 10 ⁸CFU/g of fecal samples; FigureB) that are at least 5 times higher than its population levels during previous co-colonization studies (highest population count?~?1 10 ⁸CFU/g; FigureA). The parent strain (ca. 5 10 ⁸CFU) was subsequently administered to the mice by gavage when the glgA mutant population reached the level of 6 10 ⁸ 8 10 ⁸CFU/g. The population dynamic of the mutant and parent were monitored as described previously by differential plating of fecal samples on antibiotic selective media. Our data showed that the introduction of the parent strain resulted in a population shift whereby the decline in the mutant abundance coincides with the continual increase of the parent population level (FigureB). The observed population displacement of the ? glgA mutant by the parent strain further substantiates the role of glycogen metabolism on the competitive fitness of L. acidophilus in the host environment. Moreover, the ability of the ? glgA mutant to establish initial colonization in a germ-free system provided evidence that the decline of the mutant population in the initial competitive colonization study was not due to colonization defect in vivo, but rather the lost of competitiveness against the parent population that possesses glycogen biosynthetic capability.

Conclusions

These studies have provided crucial insights into the broad biological functions and probiotic attributes in Lactobacillus that rely on functional glycogen biosynthetic and catabolic pathways. Genetic dissection of the pathway in L. acidophilus has thus far suggested that glycogen metabolism plays multifaceted roles including normal growth maintenance, the utilization of certain complex sugars (e.g. raffinose), bile tolerance and competitive fitness in the gut. Although the underlying mechanisms on how glycogen metabolism operates globally remains to be established, it is likely that the in vitro phenotypes translated to the observed competitiveness of L. acidophilus, in vivo. Koch [] previously proposed that bacteria in nature generally exist between the states of feast or famine whereby nutrients are rarely in constant supply. This is supported by the fact that glycogen storage is ubiquitous among enteric bacteria, possibly due to the necessity to support rapid growth in the intestinal environment where there is intense competition for nutrients []. In view of this, the ability of L. acidophilus to synthesize and store energy in the form of glycogen, either prior to (e.g. during commercial processing or product storage) or during its transit through the host, potentially confers advantages to its retention and probiotic activities in the GI tract. We further postulate that the concerted glycogen anabolism and catabolism in L. acidophilus serves to regulate central carbon flow and operate based on nutrient status to conserve energy and resources in the competitive intestinal environment (Figure). Overall, we foresee that this work will serve as a foundation to expand our understanding on the roles of glycogen metabolism in other probiotic and commensal species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, and to apply the knowledge for improvement of biodelivery and gut persistence of these microorganisms within the host.

Additional file

Abbreviations

Declarations

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the North Carolina Agricultural Foundation and Danisco/DuPont Nutrition & Health USA, Inc. We express our gratitude to Dr. Sarah OFlaherty, Dr. Sue Tonkonogy, Rosemary Sanozky-Dawes and Emma Call for technical advice and insightful discussion. Our appreciation also extends to Ashley Weaver from the Gnotobiotic Core at the College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University for assistance with experiments using germ-free and gnotobiotic mice. The Gnotobiotic Core is a facility of the Center for Gastrointestinal Biology and Disease, funded by NIH grant P30 DK034987. This paper was contributed to the supplement for the Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Lactic Acid Bacteria ( http://www.microbialcellfactories.com/supplements/13/S1 ).

Electronic supplementary material

Competing interests

Authors' contributions

YJG conceived the study, designed and performed the in vivo murine experiments, and wrote the manuscript. TRK participated in the study design and coordination. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Below are the links to the authors' original submitted files for images.

Authors' Affiliations

Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

References

1. Belanger AE, Hatfull GF: Exponential-phase glycogen recycling is essential for growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. J Bacteriol. 1999, 181: 6670-6678.

2. Spatafora G, Rohrer K, Barnard D, Michalek S: A Streptococcus mutans mutant that synthesizes elevated levels of intracellular polysaccharide is hypercariogenic in vivo. Infect Immun. 1995, 63: 2556-2563.

3. Harris GS, Michalek SM, Curtiss R: Cloning of a locus involved in Streptococcus mutans intracellular polysaccharide accumulation and virulence testing of an intracellular polysaccharide-deficient mutant. Infect Immun. 1992, 60: 3175-3185.

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Insights into glycogen metabolism in Lactobacillus acidophilus : impact on carbohydrate metabolism, stress tolerance and gut retention

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In prokaryotic species equipped with glycogen metabolism machinery, the co-regulation of glycogen biosynthesis and degradation has been associated with the synthesis of energy storage compounds and various crucial physiological functions, including global cellular processes such as carbon and nitrogen metabolism, energy sensing and production, stress response and cell-cell communication.

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Assalamualaikum and hi guys. Here i will upload the links for our first video progression and our mind map link (coggle). This will help you to recap what we have been discussed in our video discussion and the task given for each of us in coggle as well.

FIRST VIDEO DISCUSSION  :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A2c7oOSg74E&feature=youtu.be

MIND MAP (COGGLE) : https://coggle.it/diagram/WL2In4qVIgABgA2S

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Did you know that L.Acidophilus is a friendly bacteria exist in our intestine? or even vagina? Yes. Vagina.

Also, it is commonly used to treat children or adult who suffer from diarrhea and an alternative aid to those who is reluctant to eat medicine. The most amazing things about L.Acidophilus is also effective in treating bacterial vaginal infection, colic in babies, lung infections in children, skin problems in children who are allergic to milk, and other conditions.

After all of the benefits, we need to know how our body reacts to it. If there's any sign of allergy, refer to the doctor as soon as possible. Common allergy is difficulty of breathing. DO NOT take L.Acidophilus if you are on drugs that weaken your immune system eg:Dexamethasone.

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Metabolism

Nadia

Characteristic

Luqman

Nutritional Type

Aidiel

Taxonomy

Wadhihah

Benefits

Effa

Side Effect

Adiq

Life Cycle

Aqilah Tarmizi

Sources/Phylogeny

Farah Nabilah

Fun Facts

HadeQee

Habitat

Aqilah Fakri

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The most known probiotics are Lactobacillus Acidophilus 

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The most known probiotics are Lactobacillus Acidophilus 

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A healthy intestinal flora is linked with a healthy body in general and the two main components aiding in a healthy intestinal flora are called pro and pre-biotics. The most known probiotics are Lactobacillus Acidophilus (loves acid) and Bifidobacterium. Because Lactobacillus Acidophilus loves an acidic environment they can effectively travel through our stomach acid.

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Puzzled by probiotics? You're not alone. Scientists are just beginning to unlock why and how probiotics, the "good" bacteria that live in your gut and aid digestion, can boost your health. Research suggests they are responsible for a variety of benefits including supporting the immune system, relieving depression and helping to prevent obesity. You've probably seen probiotics in capsule or powder form, but you can also find this friendly bacteria in many foods you might already be eating.

"Food has an almost immediate effect on your intestinal environment, which is composed of trillions of microbes."

"There is no science out there that I am aware of regarding which is a better delivery method: supplements or food," says Kristi King, R.D., spokesperson for the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. She warns that probiotic supplements are not regulated by the FDA, meaning what's on the label might not necessarily be what's inside. "Someone whose immunity is compromised should be especially cautious about taking a supplement that isn't regulated by the FDA."

Here's what researchers do know: Food has an almost immediate effect on your intestinal environment, which is composed of trillions of microbes. "You can replenish your bacteria flora within three to four days," says Gina Sam, MD, MPH, Director of the Mount Sinai Gastrointestinal Motility Center at The Mount Sinai Hospital.

But the jury's still out concerning how often - and in what quantities - you'd need to consume certain probiotics to reap the benefits. "It's frustrating for me as a health care provider, because people want a solid answer but the research just isn't there quite yet," King says. She notes that though there are hundreds and hundreds of strands of probiotics, only the two most common strands, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, have been widely studied.

Since probiotic dietary supplements lack strong scientific evidence demonstrating their safety and effectiveness, your best bet may be adopting a probiotics-rich diet. (Plus, supplements can be pricey!) And remember, if you have persistent gastrointestinal distress, you should always consult a physician.

9 Foods With Probiotics

1. Yogurt

Did you know there are tens of billions of bacteria per serving of yogurt? When making this dairy-aisle favorite, producers add cultures of bacteria after milk has been pasteurized, to ensure the bacteria survives. "Some brands have more live and active cultures so people have to be aware of reading the labels," says Dr. Sam. Be on the lookout for the National Yogurt Association's "Live & Active Cultures" seal, which certifies that the product contains at least 100 million cultures per gram, or 20 billion per eight-ounce serving.

2. Kefir

A milky beverage originating in Russia and Turkey, kefir is thought to be an even better source of probiotics than yogurt. Made by fermenting goat, cow or sheep's milk with kefir "grains," this drink contains ten to 20 different types of bacteria. According to research published in the American Journal of Dietetics, kefir has been proven to help ease lactose intolerance in some adults. Don't like the tangy taste? Try using kefir instead of milk in your favorite smoothie recipe.

3. Kimchi

Spicy and sour, this traditional Korean side dish is made by fermenting cabbage, cucumber or radish. Since it's mostly pickled vegetables, kimchi is a great low-calorie source of fiber. When making sandwiches, stir-fries or soup with this unique ingredient, just be sure to add it last to avoid cooking off the good bacteria. Early research demonstrates a link between kimchi consumption and immune system regulation.

4. Sour Pickles

Salty pickle spears also deliver a punch of probiotics. Seek out varieties that are brined in water and sea salt instead of vinegar, says Dr. Sam. Vinegar brine won't allow the beneficial bacteria to grow. Bonus: Pickle juice is rich in electrolytes, and has been shown to help relieve exercise-induced muscle cramps.

5. Kombucha

Come-boo-what? Kombucha (pronounced cum-bu-cha) is a slightly sweet and fizzy liquid that results when sweet black tea is fermented with a mushroom-like colony of bacteria called a "scoby." King recommends kombucha as a potent source of probiotics - provided they're clearly marked on the label. Each bottle of the Synergy Drink brand of fermented teas, for instance, packs one billion bacillus coagulans and one billion saccharomyces boulardii, two types of organisms that are thought to help and prevent diarrhea. However, because cultures and preparation methods will differ, it's difficult to pin down exactly what probiotics will be in a given batch of kombucha.

6. Sauerkraut

Used to top sausages or as a side dish, this condiment is made from fermented cabbage. Keep in mind, not all supermarket sauerkrauts will have beneficial bacteria. Dr. Sam says to check if the sauerkraut has been pasteurized because this process will destroy probiotics. Just remember: Always consult a physician before eating unpasteurized foods while pregnant.

7. Sourdough Bread

Probiotics in bread? Believe it. This tangy toast is made with sourdough starter (which functions like yeast) and contains lactobacillus. Since sourdough is low on the glycemic-index, it will keep you full for longer instead of igniting a short-lived energy spike and crash.

8. Miso

Soybeans fermented with brown rice produce miso paste, a popular seasoning used in Asian cuisine. The fermentation process is what makes this condiment a source of lactobacillus acidophilus. Since it has a strong, salty flavor and lots of sodium, a little will go a long way! Dr. Sam notes that there are reported to be over 160 strains of probiotics in miso.

9. Tempeh

Another food formed from fermented soybeans, tempeh is a firm, white block that's frequently used as a protein-packed meat substitute for vegans and vegetarians. Keep in mind, it has more calories - but more protein, fiber and probiotic potential - than tofu, which is also soy-based.

Powered by Probiotics

If you're experiencing gastrointestinal distress or want to boost your immunity, any of these natural sources of probiotics could provide some relief. "Not only do these probiotic-rich foods give us good bacteria, but most of the foods will give us other health benefits as well," says King. "It's a win-win situation."

Consumers have a wide variety of capsules, liquids and foods to choose from, so it's important you choose the option that fits with your budget, taste preferences and wellness needs. Still unsure? Talk with your physician to discuss if a medical grade probiotics prescription could be right for you, King says.
Originally posted August 2014. Updated April 2015.

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9 All-Natural Sources of Healthy Probiotics

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Puzzled by probiotics? You're not alone. Scientists are just beginning to unlock why and how probiotics, the "good" bacteria that live in your gut and aid digestion, can boost your health. Research suggests they are responsible for a variety of benefits including supporting the immune system, relieving depression and helping to prevent obesity.

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Lactobacillus acidophilus is a probiotic that's often added to foods. Probiotics are healthy bacteria that protect against potentially harmful bacteria, which can grow in your digestive tract. Probiotics can also help if you've taken antibiotics that can destroy your own colonies of good bacteria or if you ...

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Hello everyone! You guys need to post your materials here. and others will comment. Thankyou :) 

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Hello everyone! You guys need to post your materials here. and others will comment. Thankyou :) 