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Endocrine System Reminder systems for women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus to i..._ Discovery Service for Endeavour College of Natural Health Library

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Li, F., Zhang, T., Li, B., Zhang, W., Zhao, J., & Song, L. (2018). Motor imagery training induces change in brain neural networks in stroke patients. Neural Regeneration Research, 13(10), 1771-1781.

Martinez-Cava, A., Morán-Navarro, R., Hernández-Belmonte, A., Courel-Ibáñez, J., Consesa-Ros, E., González-Badillo, J., & Pallarés, J. (2019). Range of motion and sticking region effects on the bench press load-velocity relationship. Journal of Sport Science and Medicine, 18, 645-652.

Middleton, P., & Crowther, C. (2014). Reminder systems for women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus to increase uptake of testing for type 2 diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance. (Protocol) Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009578.pub2

Morisawa, Y., Takayama, S., & Sato, K. (2015). Surgical repair with external fixation of epiphyseal fractures of the proximal phalanges of three fingers: a case report. Hand Surgery, 20(3), 471-473.

Ross, S. (2011) . The core rules of netiquette. Retrieved from: http://www.albion.com/netiquette/corerules.html

Tortora, G., Derrickson, B., Burkett, B., Peoples, G., Dye, D., Cooke, J., … Mellifont, R. (2019).
Principles of anatomy and physiology (2nd Asia-Pacific ed.). Milton: John Wiley and
Sons Australia, Ltd.

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Tom is a 15 year old soccer player that fell over during training. An X-ray revealed a Type II fracture of the L) proximal femoral growth plate. It required closed reduction and plaster cast immobilisation to heal.

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Tom is a 15 year old soccer player that fell over during training. An X-ray revealed a Type II fracture of the L) proximal femoral growth plate. It required closed reduction and plaster cast immobilisation to heal.

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The National Talent Identification and Development Program administered by the Australian Institute of Sport determined that Ben displayed an aptitude for powerlifting. He decided to pursue this sport and went on to compete at both state and national level.

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The National Talent Identification and Development Program administered by the Australian Institute of Sport determined that Ben displayed an aptitude for powerlifting. He decided to pursue this sport and went on to compete at both state and national level.

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Identify which muscle fibre type is best suited for this activity and provide rationale for the answer.

For powerlifting, Ben uses rapid, intense movements for short durations thus the muscle fibre best suited for this activity is Fast Glycolytic (FG) or Fast Twitch B. This muscle fibre group has low myoglobin and few mitochondria and blood vessels. FG has a low resistance to fatigue and a low capacity to generate ATP as it is generated through anaerobic glycolysis, however it has a fast contraction speed (explosive power) and is therefore best suited to powerlifting (Tortora et al., 2019).

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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand. She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke.

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When waking up one morning, seventy year old Maria noted that she could not move her fingers to button up her blouse with her R) hand. She tried to talk to her daughter however despite being able to speak, she could not arrange the words in a coherent fashion. She sought medical assistance and was diagnosed as having a stroke.

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State which major part of the brain has been damaged and name the TWO (2) major functional areas of that part of the brain that have been affected.

The cerebral cortex is damaged. Tortora et al. (2019) writes that within this cortex, both the association area (premotor area) and motor area (Wernicke’s area) have been affected. The premotor area generates nerve impulses that contract specific muscle groups in a specific sequence; the stroke has impacted her ability to execute this function. A stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) in Wernicke’s Area restricts one’s ability to speak coherently (fluent aphasia).

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was been recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening. Her initial blood glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels.

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Samantha (50 years old) has a family history of diabetes type 2, is morbidly obese and suffers from high blood pressure. At a routine medical visit, it was been recommended that she make an appointment for diabetes screening. Her initial blood glucose levels indicated the presence of higher than normal blood glucose levels.

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Figure 2: Glucose/Insulin Negative Feedback Cycle

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Figure 2: Glucose/Insulin Negative Feedback Cycle

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Name the endocrine gland and associated relevant tissue within the gland that contributes to blood glucose regulation. Name and describe the function of TWO (2) cells located within this tissue that participate in glucose homeostasis.

Amongst the acini clusters (digestive enzymes) within the pancreas are 1-2 million tiny clusters of endocrine tissue called pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans. The Alpha cells within the pancreatic islets secrete glucagon, and the Beta cells secrete insulin. These two cell types regulate blood glucose levels through a negative feedback cycle (see figure 2). Glucagon directly stimulates the release of insulin and insulin suppresses glucagon secretion. As blood glucose levels decline and less insulin is secreted, Alpha cells are no longer inhibited by insulin and can secrete more glucagon to increase blood glucose levels (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Name (in the correct order) the zones of the epiphyseal plate and describe the structure of the cells contained in each zone.

As indicated in Tortora et al. (2019), the epiphyseal plate is made of hyaline cartilage with four zones shown in figure 1:

1.     Zone of Resting Cartilage

a.     Small, scattered mature cells (chondrocytes) within cartilage.

2.     Zone of Proliferating Cartilage

a.     Contains slightly larger chondrocytes arranged like stacks of coins which undergo interstitial growth.

3.     Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage

a.     Large chondrocytes arranged in columns which accumulate lipids, glycogen and alkaline phosphatase and calcify ECM.

4.     Zone of Calcified Cartilage

a.     Only a few cells thick and consists mainly of dead chondrocytes because ECM has calcified.

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Describe the process of growth in length of a long bone.

Interstitial growth in long bone occurs from the epiphyseal growth plate. Chondrocytes undergo mitosis, proliferate, grow in size, mature and then are calcified. Osteoclasts in the zone of calcified cartilage dissolve the calcified chondrocytes, then osteoblasts from the diaphysis rebuild it into bone on the diaphysis side via endochondral ossification. This process starts on the epiphyseal side of the long bone and ends with growth of new bone on the diaphyseal side (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Describe the process by which the identified muscle fibre produces the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) required to contract the muscles used during a bench press

According to Tortora et al. (2019), Fast glycolytic muscle fibres use anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP. Glucose enters the contracting muscle fibres via facilitated diffusion or produced by the breakdown of glycogen. Glucose is catabolised by a series of reactions in to 2 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of lactic acid. Most of the lactic acid diffuses out of the muscle and into to liver via the bloodstream then converted back to glucose. Anaerobic glycolysis generates enough energy for up to two minutes of muscle activity.

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Give a rationale as to why each of the functional areas was chosen by referring to the changes experienced by Maria.

Wernicke’s area is responsible for interpreting and comprehending spoken word, damage to this area causes Wernicke’s/fluent aphasia. Wernicke’s aphasia is when the patient knows what they want to say but the words do not come out in a coherent manner, just as Maria was experiencing when trying to communicate with her daughter.

The Premotor area plays a role in preparing the body muscles to carry out skilled or repetitive actions, one of Marias symptoms involved not being able to button up her blouse but didn’t not complain of paralysis so the premotor area has also been effected (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone involved in hyperglycaemia.

As stated in Tortora et al. (2019), Insulin is released by Beta cells of the pancreas, this is stimulated by high levels of glucose in the blood. Insulin promotes storage processes of glucose into the cell.

The main process is glycolysis, this converts glucose into ATP. It also promotes the conversion of glucose into glycogen to be stored short term, and long term storage of glucose in adipose tissue. Once blood glucose levels drop too low, the alpha cells of the pancreas will release glucagon and  insulin stops being released.

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T1G1 Netiquette adapted from Ross S. (2011)

Rule 1: Check yourself before you wreck yourself.

We are willing assist each other, but must first rely on ourselves. Keep the following dot points in mind for all assignment tasks:

-       Check spelling and grammar

-       Know what you’re talking about and state it clearly

-       Reference correctly

Rule 2: Don’t abuse your power

Everyone is entitled to their opinions and everyone differs in values, beliefs and personal limitations. To ensure effective group participation, work with empathy, compassion and maturity.

Rule 3: Respect others

We are equal participants in this workbook and will treat each other with respect. We come from different backgrounds - considered a strength. We can utilise our personal experiences to enhance our workbook, remembering to move forward with respect.

Rule 4: Be forgiving of other people’s mistakes

Constructive feedback is welcome. Acceptance and mindfulness are key to succeeding.

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Can neurogenesis occur to replace damaged/destroyed neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)? Give rationale for answer.

According to Tortora et al. (2019), research conducted in the 1990’s unveiled that new neurons emerge in the adult human hippocampus. However, there is little evidence to suggest that neurogenesis occurs in other parts of the CNS. This is believed to result from inhibiting influences from neuroglia and the absence of growth-stimulating cues present during foetal development. Additionally, scar tissue formed by astrocytes after axonal damage acts as a barrier to regeneration. Research is ongoing.

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Samantha has been commenced on pharmaceuticals as a treatment for her prediabetes. After taking the medication for a few weeks she experiences a hypoglycaemic episode where her blood glucose level falls below the recommended level. Describe the negative feedback regulation of the hormone (from the gland identified in Q.1) involved in hypoglycaemia.

As Tortora et al. (2019) explain, hypoglycaemia stimulates alpha cells of the pancreatic islets to secrete glucagon. Glucagon then acts on hepatocytes to convert glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) and to form glucose from lactic acid and certain amino acids (gluconeogenesis). Hepatocytes rapidly release glucose into the blood and consequently, blood glucose level rises. If glucose continues to rise, hyperglycaemia inhibits release of glucagon and stimulates beta cells to secrete insulin in attempt to reverse the effect and achieve normal blood glucose level.

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The damage to Maria's brain has resulted in her inability to move her R) arm. Which "specific neuron" in the neural circuits that make up the somatic motor pathways has been affected in the case? Give a rationale for the answer.

The spinal cord and brain are mainly made up from multipolar neurons which control movement and muscles.  As Maria is unable to move her R) arm, the specific neuron affected is the multipolar neuron (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Throughout a powerlifting event, Ben noted that he could not lift as effectively towards the end of a competition. State the "fatigue resistance" of the previously identified muscle fibre and describe TWO (2) factors that may contribute to metabolic fatigue specifically when powerlifting.

According to Tortora et al. (2019), the fatigue resistance of fast glycolytic (FG) or Fast Twitch B muscle fibre is low. Production of ATP through anaerobic glycolysis provides enough energy for two minutes of maximum muscle activity. As anaerobic glycolysis requires glycogen, metabolic fatigue can be caused when glycogen levels are insufficient. Additionally, a build-up of lactic acid in the active skeletal muscle fibres and bloodstream may also cause muscle fatigue and soreness.

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A brief contraction generated by a single action potential within a motor unit is called a twitch contraction. A single muscle twitch has THREE (3) "main" periods. Name and describe at least ONE (1) event that occurs "during each of the periods".

Tortora et al., (2019) describe the three main periods as:-

1. The latent period

During this period calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

2. The contraction period

During this period several events occur including peak tension in the muscle fibre.

3. The relaxation period

During this period, again, several actions occur, with one being the tension from the muscle fibre decreasing.

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https://padlet.com/saskia_heydon/zph8tur6es1n

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Name "in the correct order" and briefly outline (including the cells involved) the phases of bone fracture repair.

According to Tortora et al. (2019) bone fracture repair involves:

1.     Reactive phase

Broken blood vessels cause fracture haematoma around the site. Consequentially, bone cells die and swelling and inflammation occur. Phagocytes and osteoclasts remove dead or damaged tissue.

2a. Reparative phase: fibrocartilaginous callus formation

Phagocytes clean up dead bone cells and new blood vessels grow into the fracture haematoma. Fibroblasts then produce collagen fibres and chondroblasts produce fibrocartilage. This eventuates in the development of fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus which repairs and bridges the broken ends of the bone.

2b. Reparative phase: bony callus formation

Osteoprogenitor cells develop into osteoblasts which then produce spongy bone trabeculae. Both living and dead portions of the bone fragments are joined by the trabeculae. Over time the fibrocartilage is transformed to spongy bone and the callus is then known as bony (hard) callus.

3.    Bone remodelling phase

Remodelling of the callus occurs where osteoclasts resorbed dead portions of fragments. Spongy bone is also replaced by compact bone.

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Name ONE (1) possible consequence of damage to the epiphyseal plate in Tom's L) femur and outline why this occurs.

According to Tortora et al. (2019), one possible consequence
of damage to the epiphyseal plate is that it may close and stunt future growth, causing the L) femur to be ‘shorter’ than the R).  The cartilage cells stop dividing and bone replaces same, causing the epiphyseal plate to fade, and an epiphyseal line is created.

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Muscle contractions are described based on TWO (2) variables: "force (tension)" and "length (shortening)". Throughout the process of Ben performing a bench press, different types of contractions are employed. Name and describe each of the types in relation to muscle force and length.

Tortora et al. (2019) indicates isotonic contractions occur when there is constant muscle tension as a load is moved and can be categorised as either a concentric or eccentric contraction.

Concentric contraction occurs when the muscle shortens to produce force and movement and eccentric contraction occurs when the muscle lengthens while maintaining force and movement. These two contractions occur as Ben performs a bench press.

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Describe (3) factors that influence the growth and repair of Tom's bones during his teenage years?

According to Tortora et al. (2019), these factors influence growth and repair during the teenage years:

1.     Minerals. Growing bones require large amounts of calcium and phosphorus together with smaller amounts of magnesium, fluoride and manganese. During bone remodelling, these minerals are necessary.

2.    Vitamins. Vitamin A is required to promote osteoblast activity, Vitamin C synthesises collagen, Vitamin D increases absorption of calcium and Vitamins K and B12 are required for synthesis of bone proteins.

3.    Hormones. During puberty, sex hormones including androgens such as testosterone as well as oestrogen increase osteoblast activity, synthesis of bone extracellular matrix and growth spurts.

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Week 14

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Hormones within the body (other than those identified in 2 & 3 above) can contribute to an elevation in blood glucose. Choose ONE (1) hormone and describe the mechanism by which it raises blood sugar levels.

According to Tortora et al. (2019) Glucagon is identified as one hormone:

If the concentration of insulin in the bloodstream drops too low, Glucagon which acts on liver cells, begins to increase the glucose and increases the blood glucose.  The liver stores glycogen and converts to glucose, which in turn is released into the bloodstream.

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For the hormone identified in 4. above, name the location and specific cell type from where it is secreted and identify the hormone that stimulates its secretion. "Describe" where the hormone that stimulates the secretion is synthesised.

Tortora et al. (2019) describe the location and specific cell type for Glucagon as being a secretion from alpha cells of the pancreatic islets. The liver is responsible for synthesising , that is – fatty acids to speed the conversion and glycogen to glucose to slow the conversion.

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The axons of the neuron identified above extend from the brain via two types of somatic motor pathways - the direct and indirect motor pathways. Which "specific" pathway (within either one or the other of these pathways) is affected? Using this pathway as an example, explain why damage to the L) side of Maria's brain has affected the movements in Maria's R) hand.

According to Tortora et al. (2019), skilled movement of the hands, requires input from direct motor pathways to the distal muscles. Specifically, it seems Maria’s Lateral corticospinal pathway has been affected. Due to the pathway’s decussation of the corticospinal axons in the medulla oblongata, the axons synapse with local circuit neurons or lower motor neurons on the opposite side of the spinal cord. Hence, the right side of the body is controlled by the left cerebral cortex and vice versa.