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Two divisions of the ANS and alternate names 

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Two divisions of the ANS and alternate names 

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The two divisions of the ANS are the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions. The parasympathetic division can also be known as the craniosacral division and the sympathetic division can be known as the thoracolumbar division. Hitner mentions this in chapter 5 “The ANS is composed of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions“ (61).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara. (2015). Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous system, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 61). McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.

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In the parasympathetic system, you find a neurotransmitter that releases in the ganglia and at the postganglionic nerve end. What releases out of the postganglionic nerve end is called acetylcholine. Hitner mentions this in chapter 5 “In the parasympathetic nervous system, the neurotransmitter released at both the ganglia and the postganglionic nerve endings is acetylcholine (ACH)” (64). We also have a neurotransmitter released in the sympathetic nerves. This neurotransmitter is also released at the ganglia which, releases acetylcholine. In the postganglionic nerve endings, it releases norepinephrine. Hitner also mentions this in chapter 5“ In sympathetic nerves, the neurotransmitter released at the ganglia is also ACH, but at the postganglionic nerve endings it is norepinephrine (N)”(64).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara. (2015). Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous system, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 64). McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.

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Location where each NT is released in each division of the ANS

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Location where each NT is released in each division of the ANS

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The parasympathetic system nerves are also known as the craniosacral division. These nerves come from the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord nerves are also known as sacral nerves. Cranial nerves work with he internal organs, glands of the head, the thoracic cavity and finally it counts with upper abdominal cavity. On the other hand the sacral nerves work with the lower portion of the abdominal cavity. Hitner states this in chapter 5, “The cranial nerves supply the internal organs and glands of the head, thoracic cavity and upper portion of the abdominal cavity” (61).

The sympathetic nerves of this division can also be known as the thoracolumbar which has a connection with the thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves. Thoracic nerves supply internal organs, glands of the head, the thoracic cavity and also the upper abdominal cavity. Lumbar nerves supply the lower portion of the abdominal cavity and also the pelvic cavity. Hitner states this in chapter 5,  “The thoracic nerves supply the internal organs and glands of the head, thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity” (61). Hitner also mentions, “The lumbar nerves supply the lower portion of the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity” (61). This explains how each of these nerves supply each cavity.

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara. (2015). Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous system, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 64). McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.

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Receptors of each division and their main locations

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Receptors of each division and their main locations

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The parasympathetic division includes two types of cholinergic receptors. These include the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. The muscarinic receptors are located on the cell membranes of the of the visceral organs. The glands are stimulated by acetylcholine. Hitner talks to us about this in chapter 5 he states, “In the parasympathetic division there are two main types of cholinergic receptors: muscarinic and nicotinic” (66).  Nn receptors are are located at the parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia. Hitner states this in chapter 5, “Nm receptors are located at both the parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia and are stimulated by ACH released from preganglionic nerve endings to conduct impulses across the autonomic ganglia to the postganglionic fibers of both autonomic divisions” (66). This information lets us know that acetylcholine is also released from preganglionic nerve endings and more important information. Nm receptors are found on the cell membranes of the skeletal muscle.

The sympathetic division cointains receptors that are subdivided. These receptors are called alpha and beta receptors. Each of them divide into two parts making them 4 receptors which are known as the alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, and beta 2. Hitner states this in chapter 5, “Alpha and beta receptors are subdivided into alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, and beta-2 (66). Alpha 1 can be found at the smooth muscle membranes of arteries, veins also in the sphincters of the urinary and the gastrointestinal tract. Hitner lets us know in chapter 6, “Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors are found predominantly on smooth muscle membranes of arteries, veins, and sphincters of the urinary and gastrointestinal tract” (71). Beta 2 can be found in the smooth muscle of the coronary  and skeletal blood vessels. Also at the bronchiole smooth muscle. Hitner states this in chapter 6, “The predominant beta receptor in the smooth muscle of coronary and skeletal muscle blood vessels and bronchiolar smooth muscle is the beta-2 receptor” (71). This lets us know where alpha 2 can be found. Beta 1 receptors can be found in the heart. Hitner mentions this in chapter 6, “In the heart, the predominant beta receptors are classified as beta-1 receptors, and when stimulated by NE or EPI, they increase heart rate and force of contraction” (71). On the other hand beta 2 are found in the smooth muscle of the coronary and skeletal muscle blood vessels and also in the bronchiolar smooth muscle. Hitner states this in chapter 6,  “The predominant beta receptor in the smooth muscle of coronary and skeletal muscle blood vessels and bronchiolar smooth muscle is the beta-2 receptor” (71).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara  (2015). Drugs Affecting the Sympathetic Nervous System, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 66). McGraw-Hill Learning solutions.

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara  (2015). Drugs Affecting the Parasympathetic  Nervous System, Pharmacology Introduction 7th edition (pp 71). McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.

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In the Adrenal medulla what happens in the sympathetic effect? It releases epinephrine. While In the Parasympathetic effect nothing happens.

What happens in the arteries in the sympathetic effect? Vasoconstriction happens. While in the parasympathetic effect most arteries are not supplied by the parasympathetic nerves.

What happens in the heart? The sympathetic effect increases the heart rate and  it also causes Atriventicular conduction. It also  increases the contraction of the heart. In the parasympathetic effect the decrease in the heart rate and in the antriventicular conduction happens . It also decreases in its contraction.

What happens in the intestines, the GI and the secretions? The sympathetic effect decreases while the parasympathetic effect increases.

In the post ganglionic neurotransmitter within the sympathetic effect, norepinephrine is released. While in the parasympathetic effect acetylcholine is released.

What happens in the pupil of the eye? Dilation happens in the sympathetic effect. While in the parasympathetic effect constriction happens.

What happens in the respiratory passages? In the sympathetic effect bronchodilation happens. While in the parasympathetic effect bronchoconstriction happens.

What happens in the bladder? In the sympathetic effect relaxation happens. While In the parasympathetic effect  contraction happens.

In the urinary sphincter contraction happens, in the sympathetic effect. while in the parasympathetic effect relaxation happens.

Hitner provides us with a chart in chapter 5 that provide these facts (65).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara  (2015). Drugs Affecting the Sympathetic Nervous System, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 65). McGraw-Hill Learning solutions.

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In the parasympathetic division, there are two main types of cholinergic receptors: muscarinic and nicotinic. The muscarinic receptors are located on the cell membranes of the visceral organs and glands. Hitner states this in chapter 5, “Muscarinic receptors are located on the cell membranes of the visceral organs and glands and are stimulated by ACH released from parasympathetic postganglionic nerve endings”(66). Nm receptors are located on the cell membranes of the skeletal muscle. These are also stimulated by acetylcholine from somatic nerve endings. Hitner also states this in chapter 5, “ Nm receptors are located on cell membranes of skeletal muscle and are stimulated by ACH from somatic nerve endings to contract skeletal muscle” (66). On the other hand, Nn receptors are located at the parasympathetic and sympathetic ganglia. These are also stimulated by acetylcholine that releases from preganglionic nerve endings that cross the autonomic ganglia to the postganglionic fibers of both divisions. Hitner mentions this in chapter 5, “Nm receptors are located on cell membranes of skeletal muscle and are stimulated by ACH from somatic nerve endings to contract skeletal muscle” (66).

In the sympathetic division, we have adrenergic receptors that are divided into 4 parts. Alpha 1, alpha 2, beta 1, and beta 2. Alpha 1 can be found at the smooth muscle membranes, also in arteries and veins, and the urinary and gastrointestinal tract. Hitner states this in chapter 6 “Alpha-1 adrenergic receptors are found predominantly on smooth muscle membranes of arteries, veins, and sphincters of the urinary and gastrointestinal tract“ (71).
These alpha 1 receptors also produce norepinephrine and epinephrine and can cause contraction. Alpha 2 receptors are found in adrenergic nerve endings. These activate with norepinephrine and epinephrine that can Allow to activate a negative feedback mechanism . Hitner states this in chapter 6, “ Alpha-2 adrenergic receptors are located on adrenergic nerve endings; they are activated by NE and EPI to activate a negative feedback mechanism that reduces and regulates the release of additional NE” (71). The beta 1 receptors can be found in the cardiac and smooth muscle membranes. These beta 1 receptors can increase the heart rate and cause contraction. Hitner also mentions this in chapter 6 “beta-1 receptors, and when stimulated by NE or EPI, they increase heart rate and force of contraction” (71). On the other hand beta 2 can produce vasodilation and bronchodilation. Hitner makes this clear in chapter 6, “When these beta-2 receptors are stimulated by EPI, they produce vasodilation and bronchodilation (relaxation of bronchiolar smooth muscle)” (71).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara  (2015). Drugs Affecting the Sympathetic Nervous System, Pharmacology Introduction 7th edition (pp 66, 77). McGraw-Hill Learning solutions.

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Alpha 1 adrenergic agonist drugs generic brand is ephedrine. Also phenylephrine which is also known as (Neo-Synephrine®).

Adrenergic agonist generic brand drugs are epinephrine which trademark name is (Adrenalin®).

The alpha 1 adrenergic blocking drugs have 3 generic band names, the first one is prazosin which trademark name is (Minipress®). The second generic drug is terazosin which trademark name is (Hytrin®). Finally the third drug generic name is  doxazosin which trademark name is (Cardura®)

The beta 1 adrenergic agonist consist of one drug which generics name is dobutamine.

Beta 2 consists of 4 drugs. The first drug generic name is albuterol which generic name can be  (Proventil® or Ventolin®). The drug is terbutaline which can be known as (Brethine®). The drug is formoterol which trademark name is  (Foradil®). The last one is known as salmeterol which trademark name is (Serevent®). All of the above are considered bronchodilators.

Selective 1 beta blockers consist of two types of drugs. The first one is atenolol also known as (Tenormin®). The second drug is metoprolol also known as  (Lopressor®).

Non selective beta blockers consist of 3 different drugs, the first one is
nadolol (Corgard®). The second one is propanolol (Inderal®). The third one is timolol (Blocadren®).

Hitner provides us with a picture of a list of these type of drug examples (75).

Hitner,  H. Nagle, Barbara  (2015). Drugs Affecting the Sympathetic Nervous System, Pharmacology Introduction: 7th edition. (pp 75). McGraw-Hill Learning Solutions.