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One of the challenging ethical issues that IFAP addresses is the use of cyberspace for the radicalization of young people leading to violence. Interventions are articulated around the support of multidisciplinary research, empowering youth online communities and key youth stakeholders, strengthening mobilization and cooperation between media professionals and practitioners and supporting creative media campaigns and outreach strategies targeting policy-makers and opinion-makers as well as the general public.

Attention is also given to the ethical dimensions of Artificial Intelligence that can certainly contribute towards sustainable development, but also pose questions related to the use of this emerging technologies and the respect of fundamental human rights. UNESCO is playing a leading role to sensitize different stakeholders on the ethical dimension of the use of Artificial intelligence and reflection on challenges to be addressed and the development of its use in furthering inclusive equitable knowledge societies. World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology ( COMEST) is also playing a leading role on ethical questions raised by artificial intelligence.

UNESCO will continue to advocate for the ethical implications of the information society is part of the global debate on technology and its impact on society. Several initiatives have already been undertaken, in cooperation with the African Centre of Excellence for Information Ethics to produce training material on the subject of Information Ethics.

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One of the challenging ethical issues that IFAP addresses is the use of cyberspace for the radicalization of young people leading to violence.

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This Course Video Transcript

Interprofessional Healthcare Informatics is a graduate-level, hands-on interactive exploration of real informatics tools and techniques offered by the University of Minnesota and the University of Minnesota's National Center for Interprofessional Practice and Education. We will be incorporating technology-enabled educational innovations to bring the subject matter to life. Over the 10 modules, we will create a vital online learning community and a working healthcare informatics network. We will explore perspectives of clinicians like dentists, physical therapists, nurses, and physicians in all sorts of practice settings worldwide. Emerging technologies, telehealth, gaming, simulations, and eScience are just some of the topics that we will consider. Throughout the course, we'll focus on creativity, controversy, and collaboration - as we collectively imagine and create the future within the rapidly evolving healthcare informatics milieu. All healthcare professionals and IT geeks are welcome!

View Syllabus

Skills You'll Learn

Graph Theory, Information Theory, Data Virtualization, Health Informatics, Data Visualization (DataViz)

This module explores ethical issues related to healthcare informatics in the interprofessional context. By the end of this module, learners will be able to: explore ethical issues related to healthcare informatics in the interprofessional context and analyze security and privacy challenges related to healthcare informatics.

Taught By

Karen Monsen, Ph.D., RN, FAAN

Informatics and ethics, the reference for this presentation, unless otherwise noted is chapters eight through ten of the Optional Hoyt text. Building on the informatic framework of data information and knowledge in the context of ethics leaves us to consider the notion that knowledge is power. The dynamics of power remind us that we healthcare informatisis should structure and use data, information, and knowledge, ethically and responsibly. In this presentation, we will consider three key points. Principles and codes of ethics, laws, privacy and security, and voice. Recall your professional code of ethics. What does ethical practice of informatics mean to you and how does it relate to your own professional ethics? Key point one, principles and codes of ethics. Information ethics, as we know it today, is relatively new. And is heavily influenced by the access to information that is enabled by technology and the internet. In 1997, Severson introduced four principles of information ethics. Respect for information property, respect for privacy, fair representation, and non-maleficence. You may wish to explore some of the activities of these international informational ethics organizations and a brief history of information ethics at these websites. The International Medical Informatics Association Code of Ethics for Health Information Professionals was authored by Canadian professor Dr Kluge in collaboration with the International Medical Informatics Association work group on data protection and health information. As well as numerous individuals, agencies, and organizations. It was endorsed by IMIA in 2002. It is available online in Croatian, Czech, Dutch, English, Japanese, Korean, Portugese, Russian and Spanish. It was reviewed in 2011. Applying these principles in healthcare informatics is a special case because of the realtionship between the EHR and the patient. Because patient information is private, and because information forms the basis of decisions that have a profound impact on the welfare of the patient. In addition, these datas are used to guide policy in health care institutions, governments and other agencies. The IMIA code of ethics includes principles of information, privacy and disposition, openness, security, access, legitimate infringement, least intrusive alternative and accountability. These principles relate to the notion, that all persons have a fundamental right to privacy. And hence, to control over the collection, storage, access, use, communication, manipulation and disposition of data about themselves. Key point two, laws privacy, and security. To ensure this fundamental right to privacy, the United States government passed the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act in 1996. A major goal of HIPAA privacy rule is to ensure that individual's health information is properly protected. While allowing the flow of health information needed to provide and promote high quality health care. And to protect the public's health and well being. Similar laws have been enacted by countries around the world. The HIPAA rule is far reaching. Take a moment to explore special topics of health information privacy in various settings. In January of 2013, the US Department of Health and Human Services Office for Civil Rights announce that a final rule has been enacted. That implements provisions of the high tech act under HIPAA. The final omnivous rule greatly enhances a patient's privacy protection. Provides individuals new rights to their health information, and strengthens the government's ability to enforce the law. Key point three, voice. To add an inter professional dimension to our ethics conversation. Let's consider the collaborative work inspired by a 1997 editorial in the British Medical Journal titled An Ethical Code for Everybody in Healthcare. This editorial suggested that care of patients was now influenced by so many complex interactions that an ethical code generated by a single profession was no longer a sufficient moral compass. In response, the Tavistock group proposed ethical principles for every one in healthcare. The principles consider health and healthcare a right, and support balance in the distribution of resources for health to both individual and populations. Comprehensiveness of care, responsibility for continuous efforts to improve care, safety of care, openness in care delivery. And cooperation with those who receive care, among those who deliver care, and with others outside the health care delivery system. Cooperation is seen as the central principle. The challenge of cooperation with those who receive care, among those who deliver care. And with others, outside direct healthcare delivery can be addressed through shared EHR and shared language. Informatic tools can help transcend silos, promote shared understanding and give voice to patients and healthcare professionals alike. Clearly, there is a role for informaticists in the ethical discourse of healthcare informatics. We are needed, because we can envision the future of shared information and use our tools to show the way. In this presentation, we considered three key points. Principles and codes of ethics, laws, privacy and security, and voice. These key points are fundamental to understanding the ethics of interprofessional healthcare informatics.

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Informatics and Ethics - Informatics and Ethics | Coursera

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This Course Video Transcript Interprofessional Healthcare Informatics is a graduate-level, hands-on interactive exploration of real informatics tools and techniques offered by the University of Minnesota and the University of Minnesota's National Center for Interprofessional Practice and Education. We will be incorporating technology-enabled educational innovations to bring the subject matter to life.

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Information ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information, information technology, and information systems for personal, professional, and public decision making. For example, is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music? Should librarians ever remove controversial books from the shelves or monitor users' Internet searching? Should a scientist post the genome for the Ebola virus on the Internet?

Information ethics provides a framework for critical reflection on the creation, control, and use of information. It raises questions about information ownership and access to intellectual property, the rights of people to read and to explore the World Wide Web as they choose. Information ethicists explore and evaluate the development of moral values, the creation of new power structures, information myths, and the resolution of ethical conflicts in the information society (Capurro 2001). If bioethics addresses living systems, then information ethics similarly covers information systems. Where bioethics evolved from medical ethics after World War II to engage the broader implications of societal changes such as informed consent and reproductive rights, information ethics grew out of the professional ethics traditions of librarians and early information professionals in order to describe and evaluate the competing interests that sought to control the information assets of a high-tech society (Smith 1997). Like other areas of applied ethics in science and technology, information ethics focuses on social responsibility and the meaning of humanity in relation to machines.

Built from the codes and commitments of professional librarians to protect the right to read, fight censorship, protect patron privacy, assure confidentiality of library records, and provide service for everyone, information ethics has extended these traditions into cyberspace. The term information ethics first appeared in the literature of library and information science in the late 1980's (Hauptman) alongside other terms such as information technology ethics, cataloging ethics, and archival ethics. In the next few years, information ethics grew to encompass dilemmas facing librarians and information professionals (Mason, Mason, and Culnan 1995) as they introduced new information and communications technologies (ICTs) to public, academic, and special libraries and also into publishing, healthcare, and the new information industry.

Today information ethics encompasses a wide range of issues involving the creation, acquisition, organization, management, translation, duplication, storage, retrieval, and any other processes involving printed or digital texts, graphics, voice, and video. Information ethics can address any issue relating to the Information Society or the Knowledge Economy. As a field of applied ethics, it draws upon historical and philosophical insights (Floridi 1999) in order to describe current problems such as bridging the digital divide and to craft normative solutions for personal and professional conduct and for public policy (Tavani 2003).

The Historical Context

In the mid-fifteenth century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the movable type printing press altered the parameters of information access and control and began to change the world. Widespread dissemination of printed information helped to change the balance of power in Europe, notably contributing to the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation, disruptions to the political power of the Roman Catholic Church, and the rise of the nation-state.

In the mid-twentieth century, Claude Shannon (1948) and others developed elegant mathematical theories that made modern information technologies possible while other advances, such as the development of the atomic bomb, made the risks and rewards of widespread scientific and technological knowledge more significant and more visible in everyday life. Since then the increasing volume of digitized information and the exponential improvements in digital processing, storage, and communication have again altered the landscape of information access and control.

Alongside the technological advances that have occurred since the mid-twentieth century, formal consideration of the uses and abuses of information began even before it was designated information ethics, or infoethics. The UN General Assembly raised many infoethical themes in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) including information access (Article 19), intellectual property (Article 27), privacy (Article 12), security (Articles 17 and 27), community (Article 27), and education (Article 26). Since then, the role of information in government, healthcare, and business, and concerns about the uses of that information, have continued to fuel public policy debates. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) uses the term information ethics to focus attention on global problems ranging from literacy, including cell phone access in the developing world, the need to protect local cultures and languages from the dominance of English on the Internet, and the ramifications of expanding databases of genetic information.

In the last fifteen years, information ethics has also evolved within and beyond its early professional and academic communities. Its academic vitality is evident in the formation of scholarly associations such as the International Society for Ethics and Information Technology (INSEIT), scholarly websites such as the International

Center for Info Ethics (ICIE), and journals such as The Information Society (1981), Journal of Information Ethics (1992), Science and Engineering Ethics (1995), Ethics and Information Technology (1999), and International Review of Information Ethics (2004). The growing number of books and journal articles that address ethics in academic and professional literature indicates the expanding recognition of and participation in the field.

Key Ethical Themes

From the perspective of information ethics, there are five important themes to be considered: community, ownership, access, privacy, and security (COAPS; see Figure 1). As a framework, the COAPS themes help to guide ethical analysis and aid the discovery of underlying conflicts, as illustrated by ethical questions that have emerged since the mid-twentieth century.

Does the anonymity of the web encourage or detract from community formation online?

Who owns e-mail messages on a corporate e-mail server, and who can read them?

Do patients have a right of access to information about a terminal illness?

Do libraries and librarians have an obligation to protect the privacy of patron records?

Does personal security warrant the widespread use of surveillance cameras in public places?

Community

In an 1813 letter, Thomas Jefferson distinguished goods that are lessened and ideas that are multiplied when shared:

He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine receives light without darkening me.

The distinction has become increasingly salient over time. Future creative work builds on past creative work. All branches of science have flourished since the Royal Society of London first published the Philosophical Transactions in 1765, establishing a creative commons of scientific work for scrutiny, criticism, and derivation.

SOURCE: Defense Advanced Research Program Agency (DARPA), http://www.darpa.mil; Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC), http://www.epic.org; American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), http://www.aclu.org.

Terrorism Information Awareness Program (TIA)

.. "search[ing] for indications of terrorist activities in vast quantities of data."

Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (USA PATRIOT)

Grants law enforcement broad rights of search and surveillance with limited judicial oversight.

Computer Assisted Passenger Pre-screening System II (CAPPS II)

Focused on identifying and computing risk score for airline passengers.

While ideas on paper may be expensive to reproduce and awkward to distribute, they have demonstrated great power. Creativity requires a balance of access, to make future creative work possible, and control to make creative work worthwhile. The U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, establishes such a balance by granting inventors limited-term, exclusive rights to exploit their inventions, in exchange for full disclosure for the benefit of future inventors. Lawrence Lessig (2001) has written and spoken extensively about the intellectual and creative commons. In 2002, Lessig and others founded Creative Commons (http://www.creativecommons.org), "devoted to expanding the range of creative work available for others to build upon and share."

For software, the open source movement, described by Eric Raymond (1999), encourages community and collaboration by requiring programmers to share software source code and to allow the creation of derivative works. The widely deployed Linux operating system and Apache web server demonstrate the multiplicative benefits of a creative software commons.

Ownership

Modern technology, practice, and law allow tight control over the communication of and access to ideas, threatening the creative commons and future creative works. For example, while Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1837) exists in the public domain, digital rights management technology allows a publisher to prevent a buyer from sharing, copying, or printing the e-book version, a level of control that becomes more significant when fewer printed copies of a work exist. In practice, librarians balance owning paper journals against licensing electronic journals. Web-based, electronic journals offer economy and powerful access capabilities but also carry the risk of complete loss when the license expires. In law, the United States has extended the period of copyright protection, once fourteen years after publication, to seventy years after the author's death, seriously restricting the creation of derivative works.

The Internet hosts a dynamic evolution of morals, ethics, and laws related to information ownership and use. Freed from the limitations of identity, distance, and substance, Internet users have not always transplanted their behavioral norms directly from the real to the virtual world. Individuals and legislators face novel situations when the concept of theft is separated from both physical location and physical loss. Peer-to-peer file-sharing networks allow complete strangers to share perfect copies of digitized songs across vast distances while a presumed anonymity frees them from social constraints they might feel off-line.

Access

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws "abridging the freedom of speech or of the press." The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 19, begins "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression." These declarations codify ethical principles that recognize the value of expressing multiple points of view.

But freedom of speech, while widely recognized as a fundamental right, remains controversial in detail and execution. Because members of a pluralistic society may hold different values, there are frequent conflicts about what information should be publicly available and what information should not be. The American Library Association (ALA) Code of Ethics states, "We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources." That commitment conflicts with the values of those who challenge the availability of some books in school and public libraries. The ALA Office for Intellectual Freedom reports over 6,000 book challenges (that is, " an attempt to remove or restrict materials, based upon the objections of a person or group") between 1990

and 2000. Table 1 lists the most frequently challenged books of 2002 and the reasons for the challenge.

Privacy and Security

Competing values and interests in public policy and government activities also lead to ethical tensions. Terrorist attacks, whether in Madrid, London, Tel Aviv, Kashmir, Tokyo, or New York, place governments in unfamiliar ethical territories as they develop responses in the form of new laws, policies, and programs that are in turn subject to the critical appraisal of civil liberties and human rights groups. James Moor (1998) describes such circumstances in terms of conceptual muddles and policy vacuums that arise when new situations (such as terrorism) and emerging capabilities (data mining) lead to new behaviors (widespread surveillance) with concomitant ethical questions of whether familiar concepts (privacy) apply and whether the new behaviors are acceptable. Table 2 presents a selection of U.S. government actions that have raised serious ethical dilemmas of privacy versus security and that illustrate an ongoing struggle between secrecy and accountability.

To the extent that such programs occur in secrecy, they leave their scope, policies, methods, activities, and even underlying data insulated from review and criticism. They leave the participants unaccountable outside their bailiwicks. As Joseph Pulitzer observed,

There is not a crime, there is not a dodge, there is not a trick, there is not a swindle, there is not a vice which does not live by secrecy. (Brin 1998)

While secrecy does not presuppose malicious intent, it reduces the opportunity for accountability and opens the door for individual and institutional misuse of information.

Information professionals face dilemmas when balancing their ethical and legal obligations. For example, the USA PATRIOT Act grants law enforcement agencies broad rights to examine the records of library patrons. The ALA Privacy Toolkit describes privacy as "essential to the exercise of free speech, free thought, and free association" and urges libraries to adopt routine patron privacy and record retention policies in support of the library mission. At the same time, library policies may conflict with fulfilling the surveillance mission of law enforcement agencies.

Government responses to terrorism provide the opportunity for both practical and philosophical consideration. Practically it is reasonable to consider how much these actions enhance security, how much they impinge upon privacy, and what are the relative weights to be applied on either side of the equation. Philosophically it is valuable to ponder how government efforts to ensure security conflict with guaranteed civil rights.

Information Ethics in Popular Culture

Fiction and films frequently illustrate information ethical dilemmas, illuminating significant points that may not be apparent in everyday life. The entertainment value of emphasizing particular dilemmas and their consequences in fictional settings does not reduce the value of ethical exploration by way of popular culture.

Machines have long mimicked and extended human physical capabilities. But a physical aid such as a snow shovel presents few consequential dilemmas and appears only infrequently as the dramatic centerpiece of a film or book. At the other extreme, information technologies mimic and extend the human mind-popularly regarded as the essence of being human. The role of self-aware creations in fiction and film has increased as information and information technology permeate everyday life. Consider the Terminator (1984, 1991, 2003) and Matrix (1999, 2003, 2003) trilogies which project the ethical dilemmas that arise when the roles of information processing machines conflict with the needs, even the survival, of human society. Table 3 lists examples of films and fiction that highlight infoethical dilemmas drawn from the COAPS framework.

Professional Ethics

Ethical dilemmas also arise in the course of professional activities. When individuals adopt professional roles, they assume obligations beyond and sometimes in conflict with their personal beliefs. Librarians who order

SOURCE: Courtesy of Ed Elrod and Martha Smith.

American Association of University Professors (CSEP)

Resolution on covert intelligence.

American Library Association (http://www.ala.org)

Explicit commitment to intellectual freedom, privacy, and service.

American Medical Association (CSEP)

Patient right to receive information.

American Society for Information Science and Technology (http://www.asist.org)

Multiple responsibilities to employers, clients, users, profession, and society.

American Society for Public Administration (CSEP)

Whistle blower policy statement.

Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.org)

Identifies 24 imperatives as the elements of a personal commitment to ethical professional conduct. Supported by detailed guidelines.

Chartered Institute of Libraries and Information Professionals-UK (http://www.cilip.org.uk)

Statement of principles and multi-dimensioned responsibilities.

Dutch Association of Information Scientists (CSEP)

Multiple responsibilities to self, profession, employer, and society.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://www.ieee.org)

Commitment "to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, ..."

International Federation of Journalists (CSEP)

Primacy of respect for truth.

only books and materials supporting their political views about capital punishment are not exercising their professional obligations to build balanced collections and to provide services for a diverse, multicultural public. Professional neutrality refers to the commitment to separate professional obligations and personal beliefs.

Many professional groups have developed formal statements to guide decision making and behavior in situations common to their professions. These are often called codes of ethics to reflect their deliberate and conscious origins. Table 4 presents a sample of professional organizations with published ethical codes in fields related to the use of information.

Ethical decision making is neither straightforward nor predictable. Codes provide public statements of ideals and intentions. However they are only the starting point for decision making in professional activities. Codes cannot foresee every situation, yet professionalism often calls for decision making and action in unclear situations. Such ambiguity can require a delicate balancing act among stakeholder beliefs and priorities, the demands of professional obligations, and short-term, long-term, and unintended consequences.

Future Prospects for Information Ethics

The published literature of information ethics intertwines with other areas of applied ethics such as computer ethics, cyberethics, journalism, communications, and media ethics, image ethics, Internet ethics, engineering ethics, and business ethics, reflecting its broad philosophical underpinnings and practical applications far beyond academia. Information ethics contributes to society when it addresses problems that affect the quality of life. Looming ethical questions may seem to arise more from science fiction than science and technology, but science fiction quickly becomes everyday fact. For example, witness the confluence of technology, biology, and national security in the increasing use of biometric identification methods. Looking forward to future technologies and ethical debates:

Will single-issue, virtual communities focused on abortion or animal rights, for example, reduce the tolerance for other points of view?

What new business models will arise if intellectual property ownership withers in the face of unstoppable copying?

Who will have access to the research information about cloning a human?

Will the privacy rights of consumers be renegotiable with every credit card transaction?

After the poliovirus has been successfully synthesized from its constituent chemical building blocks, does publishing the gene sequences for deadly viruses on the Internet pose a threat to worldwide security?

The future is arriving quickly in the emerging field of bioinfoethics. It signals a fresh arena for exploration using the combined insights of bioethics and information ethics. It encompasses recent discussions of reproductive ethics, genetics ethics, healthcare ethics, and computer ethics. Bioinfoethics promises to shape personal decisions, professional practice, and public policy. Beyond that, new infoethical domains will continue to emerge wherever new technologies and practices raise new dilemmas that might include applications of robots, nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence. Figure 2 illustrates the contributions of many, diverse domains of ethical analysis to bioinfoethics and to other emerging ethical domains in the future.

An Icelandic genetic mapping project illustrates such a bioinfoethical dilemma. With parliamentary approval, a private company has begun collecting and analyzing genealogical, medical, and genetic data about the people of Iceland in the hope of uncovering diseases with genetic bases and then developing profitable new drugs to treat those diseases. Such research holds the potential for immense medical benefit and immense privacy intrusion. Genetic mapping is likely to become more widespread, thereby expanding the relevance of the bioinfoethical debate.

The COAPS framework (Figure 1) suggests bioinfoethical questions about such a database. How should communities organize and negotiate to assure that the use and benefits of genetic databases best reflect the community interests? Should ownership of the genetic and medical data lie with the individuals or the company? What financial benefits accrue to the individuals if they do own the data? Should there be widespread access to the data to maximize the scientific benefit? Does oneway identity coding sufficiently protect individual privacy when the records carry other medically relevant but potentially traceable information? What security procedures are demanded for the centralized accumulation of immense amounts of personal and medical data? The Association of Icelanders for Ethics in Science and Medicine (Mannvernd) maintains a broad collection of information about genetic practices and the corresponding ethical considerations.

The Icelandic genetic database represents the leading edge of converging medical, social, government, and information technology practices. The associated bioinfoethical dilemmas explore frontiers of emerging ethical debates and demonstrate the relevance of information ethics to everyone.

EDWIN M. ELROD
MARTHA M. SMITH

SEE ALSO Association for Computing Machinery;Communications Ethics;Computer Ethics;Cyberspace;Digital Divide;Geographic Information Systems;Hypertext;Information;Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers;Intellectual Property;Internet;Monitoring and Surveillance;Movies;Museums of Science and Technology;Popular Culture;Privacy;Science, Technology, and Law;Science, Technology, and Literature;Security;Terrorism;Virtual Reality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brin, David. (1998). The Transparent Society. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

Floridi, Luciano. (1999). "Information Ethics: On the Theoretical Foundations of Computer Ethics." Ethics and Information Technology 1(1): 37-56.

Hauptman, Robert. (1988). Ethical Challenges in Librarianship. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Hauptman, Robert, ed. (1992). Journal of Information Ethics. Jefferson, NC: MacFarland and Company.

Lessig, Lawrence. (2001). The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World. New York: Random House.

Mason, Richard; Florence Mason; and Mary Culnan. (1995). Ethics Of Information Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Moor, James. (1998). "Reason, Relativity, and Responsibility in Computer Ethics." Computers and Society 28(1): 14-21.

Raymond, Eric S. (1999). The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary. Beijing; Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly.

Shannon, Claude E. (1948). "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." Bell System Technical Journal 27: 379-423, 623-656.

Smith, Martha M. (1997). "Information Ethics." Annual Review Of Information Science and Technology 32: 339-366.

Smith, Martha M. (2001). "Information Ethics." In Advances in Librarianship, Vol. 25, ed. Frederick Lynden. New York: Academic Press.

Tavani, Herman T. (2003). Ethics and Technology: Ethical Issues in an Age of Information and Communication Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

INTERNET RESOURCES

Capurro, Rafael. (2001). "The Field." Center for Information Ethics. Available from http://icie.zkm.de.

Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions (CSEP). Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT). "Codes of Ethics Online." Available from http://ethics.iit.edu/codes.

Jefferson, Thomas. "No Patent on Ideas," Letter To Isaac McPherson, August 13, 1813. Available from HTTP://etext.lib.Virginia.edu.

Mannvernd, Association of Icelanders for Ethics in Science and Medicine. Available from http://www.mannvernd.is/english/index.html.

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information ethicsinformation ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information

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is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music? should librarians ever remove controversial books from the shelves or monitor users' internet searching?

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INFORMATION ETHICSInformation ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information, information technology, and information systems for personal, professional, and public decision making. For example, is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music?

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Quiz

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Information technology is developing more and more, influencing our everyday life, and impacting choices and decisions at individual as well as at collective level, thus invading the social, political and economic spheres. Systems and tools that use modern computer science technologies have a clear ethical and social impact which is a key issue of our increasingly connected society that affects users, developers, researchers and governments.

On this landscape, Informatics Europe is currently a partner in the Erasmus+ Project Ethics4 EU - Ethical Computer Science Education for Europe. The Ethics4EU project aims at creating open source, widely used concrete resources for the teaching of Ethics in Computer Science higher education programs across Europe. Among the partners are TU Dublin, Mälardalen University, Institut Mines-Telecom/Télécom SudParis and D-Learn - European Digital Learning Network. The project received a near half-million Euros funding and is running from 2019 to 2022.

Informatics Europe, on 22 April 2021 (09:00-12:00), will be organizing online an event within the Ethics4EU project. Learn more about the program, speakers and registration here.

Past Activities

In 2017, Informatics Europe in cooperation with ACM Europe launched a working group on Ethics that worked on a white paper setting out a framework and recommendations on computer-based decision systems from a social, economic, educational, ethical and legal perspective. The outcome of this work, published in February 2018 "When Computers Decide: European Recommendations on Machine-Learned Automated Decision Making" made 10 key recommendations to policy leaders and was the central topic of a discussion panel held in Brussels on March 15 where authors of the report joined key members of the European Commission for an exciting debate. The event was a joint initiative of Informatics Europe, the ACM Europe Council and the ACM Europe Policy Committee.

In 2019 a new group of experts was convened with the goal of re-thinking the skills of the next generation of Informatics professionals. During their training in university courses, students are provided with the basis for designing and developing modern computer systems. A question arises, then, if they should be trained also on ethical and societal topics, thus enabling them to conceive "good" and beneficial Informatics systems for the society. The working group on "Ethical/social Impact of Informatics as a Study Subject in Informatics University Degree Programs" was trying to understand the current state of affairs and to solicit a discussion on these topics, by answering questions such as, for example: Should ethical/social impact of Informatics be a study subject in Informatics university degree programs? Why? What are the main ethical issues arising from the application of Informatics in society? In which areas ethical/social impacts of Informatics are more evident? Which topics of study at university programs should be taught to make students skilled in ethics-aware design? The report on "Ethical/social Impact of Informatics as a Study Subject in Informatics University Degree Programs" summarizing the feedback and comments from the working group members on these topics has been issued in October 2019.

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Information technology is developing more and more, influencing our everyday life, and impacting choices and decisions at individual as well as at collective level, thus invading the social, political and economic spheres. Systems and tools that use modern computer science technologies have a clear ethical and social impact which is a key issue of our increasingly connected society that affects users, developers, researchers and governments.

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The International Center for Information Ethics (ICIE) is an academic community dedicated to the advancement of the field of information ethics. It offers a platform for an intercultural exchange of ideas and information regarding worldwide teaching and research in the field. ICIE provides an opportunity for community and for collaboration between colleagues practicing and teaching in the field. It provides news regarding ongoing activities by various organizations involved in the shared goals of information ethics. ICIE has organized and co-organised since 2001 and publishes a book series in cooperation with W. Fink Verlag, Munich-Paderborn (Germany). ICIE has published the International Review of Information Ethics (IRIE) quarterly since 2004. Participation and membership in the community is free of charge. The success of the ICIE community is dependent on the efforts and participation of those involved in its formation and continual growth. It is through the sharing of related interests and knowledge with others that ICIE thrives.

Digital Ethics concerns itself with human and digital interactions, including decisions made by humans while interacting with the digital, as well as those decisions made by the digital interacting with humans. Digital Ethics includes, in order of appearance into the field, Computer Ethics, Cyberethics, and AI Ethics. It places a focus on ethical issues pertaining to such things as software reliability and honesty, artificial intelligence, computer crime, digital transparency and e-commerce. The origins of Digital Ethics are found in the adoption of ethical concerns into Computer Science, as influenced by Norbert Wiener's 1948 Cybernetics.

Media Ethics concerns itself with ethical practice in journalism and information dissemination, and includes issues as diverse as conflicts of interest, source transparency, fairness, fake news, and information accuracy. It aims to represent the best interests of the public through impartiality and balance, recognizing and addressing bias, and strives to respect individual privacy while demanding corporate and government transperency. Media Ethics makes explicit that journalism and media play a large part in shaping worldviews in society and as such demands a responsibility and personal commitment on the part of the journalist.

Alongside ethical considerations for Computer Science, the field of Information Ethics was first encapsulated under the ethical practices of Libraries and Information Science in the late 1980's and early 1990's. Library Ethics focuses on issues of privacy, censorship, access to information, intellectual freedom and social responsibility. It addresses copyright, fair use, and best practices for collection development. While Library Ethics originates, in the professional sense, in 19th-century librarianship, it finds its origins in a tradition of information ethics that stretches back to ancient Greece.

Intercultural Information Ethics considers perspectives on information dissemination, ICTs and digital culture from the point of view of both globalization and localization. It provides an account of information culture as originating from all cultures, envisaged through comparative philosophies such as Buddhist and western-influenced information ethics traditions to African Ubuntu and Japanese Shinto ethics traditions in ICTs. In its applied sense, Intercultural Information Ethics strives to move beyond the presumed biases of western and greek-influenced ethical foundations for the field of Information Ethics to include globally diverse information ethics traditions. Philosophically, it endeavors to bridge a notable chasm in the field of information ethics, namely the foundational divide between information ecology and hermeneutics.

Bioinformation Ethics explores issues of information pertaining to technologies in the field of biology and medicine. Traditional concerns in Bioethics such as abortion, organ donation, euthanasia, and cloning form the basis of Bioinfomation Ethics, but are supplemented by questions regarding the influence of digital and information & communication technologies. Bioinformation Ethics addresses rights to biological identity, the use of DNA and fingerprints, the dissemination of biomedical information and equal rights to insurance and bank loans based on genetics.

Business Information Ethics is the convergence of two separate fields of applied ethics: Information Ethics and Business Ethics. Business Information Ethics addresses informational considerations of the dissemination of goods and services, including information as a commodity, and provides ethical guidance in the analysis of the use of goods and services, including discourse on the impact they have on society. Business Information Ethics also addresses concerns for journal and information management, and includes the subfield of Organisational Information Ethics, as represented by the Centre for Business Information Ethics (CBIE).

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International Center for Information Ethics

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The International Center for Information Ethics (ICIE) is an academic community dedicated to the advancement of the field of information ethics. It offers a platform for an intercultural exchange of ideas and information regarding worldwide teaching and research in the field. ICIE provides an opportunity for community and for collaboration between colleagues practicing and teaching in the field.

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European Commission - European Commission

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European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies (EGE)

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The EGE provides the Commission with high quality, independent advice on all aspects of EU legislation and policies, where ethical, societal and fundamental rights issues intersect with the development of science and new technologies. The EGE is an independent advisory body of the President of the European Commission.

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Health Informatics: Practical Guide for Healthcare and Information Technology Professionals (Sixth Edition)

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Health Informatics (HI) focuses on the application of information technology (IT) in healthcare to improve individual and population health, education and research. The goal of the textbook is to stimulate and educate healthcare and IT professionals and students about the key topics in this rapidly changing field.

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ALPHABÉTISATION INFORMATIONNELLE (AI)

ALFABETIZACIÓN INFORMACIONAL (AI)

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FUNREDES has been
a pioneer in this area, organizing since 1991 the first workshops for network users in parallel with its building of national networks (Peru, Dominican Republic, Haiti), and at the regional level in Rio de Janeiro in collaboration with UNESCO/CRESALC and actors from the world of information.

Between 1991 and 2007 FUNREDES has organized dozens of Internet education workshops with a strong IL componen t, in Spanish, French or English and in a dozen countries.

In 2006, Daniel Pimienta participated on behalf of FUNREDES in the meeting that laid the foundation for this discipline in the Hispanic world with the . Toledo declaration for ALFIN

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FUNREDES a été un pionnier dans ce domaine, organisant, niveau régional à partir de 1991, les premiers ateliers pour les utilisateurs du réseau en parallèle avec son travail de mise en route de réseaux nationaux (Pérou, République Dominicaine et Haïti) et au à Rio de Janeiro en collaboration avec l'UNESCO/CRESALC et des acteurs du monde de l'information.

Entre 1991 et 2007, FUNREDES a organisé des dizaines d' ateliers d'éducation à l'Internet avec une forte composante AI, en espagnol, français ou anglais et dans une douzaine de pays.

En 2006, Daniel Pimienta a participé au nom de FUNREDES à la réunion qui a posé les bases de cette discipline dans le monde hispanique avec la déclaration de Tolède pour l'ALFIN .

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FUNREDES ha sido un pionero en esa temática organizando, nivel regional desde 1991, los primeros talleres para usuarios de redes en paralelo con su trabajo de creación de redes nacionales (Peru, Republica Dominicana y Haití)y a en Rio de Janeiro en colaboración con UNESCO/CRESALC y actores del mundo de la información.

Entre 1991 y 2007 FUNREDES ha organizado decenas de talleres de educación a la Internet con fuerte componente de AI en español, francés o inglés y en una docena de países.

En 2006, Daniel Pimienta participó en nombre de FUNREDES en la reunión q ue sentó la base de esta disciplina en el mundo hispano con la declaración de Toledo para la ALFIN .

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ICT FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT : THE HURDLES TO OVERCOME

Digital Divide, Social Divide, Paradigmatic, Divide (DOC, PDF, PPT) - 2007

This document offers definitions of all associated concepts to IL and present a demonstration of the importance of information literacy in the struggle against the digital divide. It concentrates many years of Funredes team reflections and experience, especially around the MISTICA project. The concepts shown has received and keep receiving a large international impact. A lthough from 2007 this document is in large proportion still up to date.

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Fracture numérique, fracture sociale, fracture paradigmatique, ( DOC , PDF , PPT ), 2007
Ce document offre des définitions à tous les concepts associés à l'AI et présente une démonstration de l'importance de l'AI dans la lutte contre la fracture numérique. C'est un condensé des réflexions et de l'expérience de l'equipe de FUNREDES, particulièrement autour du projet MISTICA . Les concepts exposés ont connu et continue de connaitre un fort impact international. Quoique de 2007 ce document est en grande mesure toujours d'actualité.
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Brecha digital, brecha social, brecha paradigmática, ( DOC , PDF , PPT ), 2007
Este documento ofrece definiciones de todos los conceptos asociados a la AI y presenta una demostración de la importancia de la AI en la lucha contra la brecha digital. Es un concentrado de las reflexiones y experiencias del equipo de FUNREDES, especialmente alrededor del proyecto MISTICA . Los conceptos expuestos han tenido un notable impacto international. Aunque del 2007 ese documento esta en larga medida aun de actualidad.
ROCK THE INTERNET BLUES

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Rock the Internet Blues : A critical vision of the evolution of the Internet from civil society, SEE, 2020
This document written with Luís Germán Rodríguez brings a very critical vision of today situation of the Internet and advocate for a true worldwide emergency at the same level as global warming towards an education centered in AI.
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Rock the Internet Blues : Une vision critique de l'évolution de l'Internet depuis la perspective de la soci eté civile, VOIR , 2020
Ce document écrit avec Luís Germán Rodríguez propose une vision très critique de l'état actuel de l'Internet et recommande une véritable urgence internationale autour d'un effort éducatif centré sur l'AI.
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¡Va de retro Internet! Una visión crítica de la evolución de la Internet desde la soci edad civil, VER , 2020

Este documento escrito con Luís Germán Rodríguez propone une visión muy crítica del estado hoy de la Internet y aboga por una verdadera emergencia internacional en dirección de un esfuerzo de educación cntrado en la AI.

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DIGITAL NATIVE VS. DIGITAL DINOSAUR
This document advocates for AI in front of current technological evolution and related ethical challenges.
IL vs. AI: Information Literacy vs Artificial Intelligence , ( DOC, PDF, PPT), 2020

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AI vs. IA : Alphabétisation informationnelle vs. Intelligence Artificielle, ( , DOC PDF, PPT), 2020

Ce document est un plaidoyer en faveur de la AI face aux évolutions technologiques en cours et des défis éthiques associés.

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AI vs. IA : Alfabetización informacional vs. Inteligencia Artificia l, ( , DOC PDF, PPT ), 2020

Este documento es una abogacia en pro de la AI frente a las evoluciones tecnológicas en marcha.

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SOME FUNREDES PAST IL ACTIONS - ALGUNAS ACCIONES PASADAS DE FUNREDES SOBRE AI - QUELQUES ACTIONS AI PASSÉES DE FUNREDES

- Conferencia inaugural "TIC y universidad: el estado de emergencias" en Tercer Congreso Internacional de TIC y educación a distancia, CITICED 2005, Boca Chica, 8/2005

- " Politicas Publicas para ALFIN", keynote speec h, Biblioteca, aprendizaje, ciudadanía y alfabetización informacional (ALFIN), Toledo 2/2006

- Conferencia en Brecha digital y nuevas alfabetizaciones: el papel de las bibliotecas, Curso de verano de Complutense, 6/2007

- " La biblioteca accesible : Pasarela accesible, abierta e inclusiva al dominio público", conferencia inaugural del IV CONGRESO NACIONAL DE BIBLIOTECAS PÚBLICAS, La Coruña, 24-26 de Septiembre de 2008

- Conferencia inaugural, II Colloquio Internacional Documentos Electrónicos Principado de Asturias EDOCPA, Oviedo, Junio de 2008

- Digital Divide, Social Divide, Paradigmartic Divide: the case of FUNREDES and MISTICA Projects, 9th Namur Award Lecture, Namur, February 2008

- " TIC e Educación", Seminario Regional TIC y Educación, GAID, CEPAL, @LIS, La Habana, 2/2009

- Conferencia de clausura "Los retos para la educación virtual desde la perspectiva de la sociedad de la información caribeña" en CITICED 2009, UNIBE, Santo Domingo, 8/2009

- Conferencia inaugural "TIC en educación - Educación en TIC", III Encuentro nacional de experiencias de Computadora Para Educar, Bogota, 11/2009

- " Nativos digitales vs. dinosaurios digitales", Conversatorio 15 años de Internet dominicano, Santo Domingo, ROCK, julio 2010

- " An advanced MOODLE based platform with linguistic intercomprehension support", CaribRiskCluster, Martinique, 2012

- " Jóvenes y medios digitales" en Cuarto Seminario acerca de la Información en la Internet, Brasilia, Panel 4, IBICT, 20 de noviembre 2012

- " Redefining Digital Divide around information literacy and linguistic diversity in a future context of access provision", Proc. of IFAP/UNESCO Conference on Internet and Socio-Cultural Transformations in Information Society, Sakhalin, 8/2013

- Sensibilización a la Alfabetización Informacional (ALFIN), Charla en el marco de la semana de la investigación científica e innovación tecnológica de la Universidad Abierta para Adultos (UAPA) , UAPA, Recinto de Santo Domingo, 16 de julio 2016.

- " The Disinformation Society: the last MIL...", Tangible and Intangible Impact of Information and Communication in the Digital Age, UNESCO/IFAP, Khanty-Mansiysk, Russian Federation, June 3-8, 2018.

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ALGUNOS DE LOS TALLERES Y CONFERENCIAS ORGANIZADOS POR FUNREDES CON FUERTE COMPONANTE AI

QUELQUES ATELIERS ET CONFÉRENCES ORGANISÉS PAR FUNREDES Á FORT IMPLICATION AI

SOME WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES ORGANIZED BY FUNREDES HIGHLY RELATED TO IL

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TALLERES DE EDUCACIÓN DE USUARIOS DE REDID, Santo Domingo, 7/92...

Seminario Internet, desde 1997, actualiazado hasta 2007 e impartido en español, frances o inglés en numerosas oportunidades.

CARDICIS meetings, St Lucia, 8/04 & Juan Dolio 12/05

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ALPHABÉTISATION INFORMATIONNELLE (AI) ALFABETIZACIÓN INFORMACIONAL (AI) . FUNREDES has been a pioneer in this area, organizing since 1991 the first workshops for network users in parallel with its building of national networks (Peru, Dominican Republic, Haiti), and at the regional level in Rio de Janeiro in collaboration with UNESCO/CRESALC and actors from the world of information.

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In the industrialized nations of the world, the "information revolution" has significantly altered many aspects of life (banking and commerce, work and employment, medical care, national defense, transportation and entertainment). Consequently, information technology has begun to affect community life, family life, human relationships, education, freedom, and democracy. Information ethics in the broadest sense can be understood as the branch of applied ethics, which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of information technology.

A very useful resource:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Generally speaking, ethics is the conscious reflection on our moral beliefs and attitudes. Ethics is the field of study concerned with questions of value. That is, judgments about what human behavior are "good" or "bad". An ethical issue is said to arise whenever one party in pursuit of its goals engages in behavior that significantly affects the ability of another party to pursue its goals. If the actions are helpful then it is determined to be a good and just pursuit. However, if the behavior is harmful then the pursuit becomes bad and unjust, or in other words, unethical.

Throughout relatively recent history, the development of technology has drastically changed life and thought. It is evident that new technologies have completely transformed society and in turn have affected the moral values of people. The uniqueness of human beings in society relies on the progress and expansion of technology. This reflected in the fact that an ever-growing number of life activities are heavily tied to technology.

The rapid development of technology often gives rise to previously unknown ethical dilemmas. Under these circumstances, the traditional ethical role becomes more difficult because technology also transforms human beings often altering their belief systems in profound ways. Although distribution and free access to information has a positive value, it also has negative consequences, including problems of information security, individual privacy, spammed-email-folder, improper webpages, software piracy and computer virus, to name a few. It is not the introduction of these technological developments that raise a moral issue, but the lack of concern over what happens to the people involved. Technological development tends to imply change, and often this ultimately is for the better, but we need to be concerned about what happens to the individual during such a period of change.

Technology seems to have no limit and the power of technology affects so many areas including politics, economics, business, culture, education, health service, work, leisure, and sports. Since there is no physical obstacle to the spread of information, what lingers is the appeal to both integrity and social justice. Therefore, understanding the role of moral values in information technology is essential to the design and use of these technologies.

Although technology helps humans to understand, change, and improve, the improper use and development of technology results in significant negative effects. Technology enriches life and improves living conditions, but its swift development and strong power may lead to ethical controversies such as information misuse, computer crime, and so much more. Technology brings new ethical considerations and issues to human society, necessitating that the public review and reflect on technology in order to maintain personal and social harmony.
Five Moral Dimensions of the Information Age
Information rights and obligations
What information rights do individuals and organizations possess with respect to themselves?
What can they protect?
What obligations do individuals and organizations have concerning this information?

Property rights and obligations
How will traditional intellectual property rights be protected in a digital society?

Accountability and control
Who can and will be held accountable for the harm done to individual?
Who can and will be held liable?

System quality
What standards of data/system quality should we demand to protect individual rights and the safety of society?

Quality of life
What values should be preserved in an information and knowledge based society?
Which institutions should we protect from violation?
Which cultural values and practices are supported by the new information technology?

There is little argument surrounding the belief that technology brings new ethical controversies and issues to human society. People trust technology and agree that technology results in great benefits. In fact, a vast amount of literature exists on technology development, product, and innovation. However, little exists on the review and reflection from personal and moral ethical perspectives.

Early in the information technology revolution Richard Mason suggested that the coming changes in information technologies would necessitate rethinking the social contract ( Mason 1986). This change is rapid and new technologies often give rise to previously unknown ethical problems and conflicts. This is due partly to an unclear knowledge of the limits and consequences each new innovation will bring. The combination of speed and unknowns reinforces the need to deeply question the ethics of the emerging technologies as well as the entire development process. Technology ethics must also as provide a foundation for advancing and using technology in the future.

The legal theorist Larry Lessig warns that the pace of change in information technology is so rapid that it leaves the slow and deliberative process of law and political policy behind and in effect these technologies become lawless, or extralegal. This is due to the fact that by the time a law is written to curtail, for instance, some form of copyright infringement facilitated by a particular file sharing technology, that technology has become out of date and users are on to something else that facilitates copyright infringement ( Lessig 1999).

Ethical problems involving computers and technology pose a special challenge for a number of different reasons. First off, there is less personal contact. Without the typical face-to-face interaction, we run the risk of becoming disjointed from the issue at hand and often see it as less important. Another issue arises due to the speed of computers. The rapid processing rate means that we are more likely to disregard the repercussions of our actions leading to possible devastating consequences. It is also important to point out that information in electronic form is more fragile than in paper form. Meaning, information in electronic form can easily be changed causing it to be vulnerable to unauthorized access and making it easy to reproduce.

Another challenge is the ethical investigation itself. Some ethical issues can be analyzed and interpreted using existing policies. However, sometimes situations arise in which adequate policies are not yet in place to guide evaluation. This is why it is important to anticipate possible consequences ahead of time in hopes to establish procedures that will minimize the damaging effects. It is difficult, or nearly impossible, however to foresee the future and to anticipate every issue that will arise. Nonetheless, a vigorous effort to expose the potential consequences needs to occur. Undeniable is the difficulty in formulating new policies from a unique situation. Without a relevant counterpart, a new ethical issue forces a new reflection and way to understand the matter in hopes to devise an appropriate policy. Collaborations among ethicists, scientists, social scientists, and technologists must be strengthened to ensure a multi-disciplinary approach when dealing with developing technology in order to provide a well-rounded analysis.

Technology/Computer Crimes

Internet and digital technologies make it easier than ever to assemble, integrate, and distribute information, unleashing new concerns about the appropriate use of customer information, the protection of personal privacy, and the protection of intellectual property. Insiders with special knowledge can "fool" information systems by submitting phony records, and diverting cash, on a scale unimaginable in the pre-computer era.

Very simply put privacy is the claim of individuals to be left alone, free from surveillance or interference from other individuals or organizations, including the state. Information technology and systems threaten individual claims to privacy by making the invasion of privacy cheap, profitable, and effective. There new technologies are available to protect user privacy during interactions with websites. Many of these tools are used for encrypting email, for making email or surfing activities appear anonymous, preventing client computers from accepting cookies, or for detecting and eliminating spyware.

Identity fraud is when one person pretends to be someone else, therefore taking on a fake identity, in order to gain his victim's trust. Often, the perpetrator of this crime convinces his victim to send money to another country.

Identity theft is a type of fraud involving a criminal that uses false pretenses to obtain sensitive information about his victim, such as credit card and bank account numbers. Typically, this is accomplished by making the victim believe he is providing this information to a company he knows and trusts. The criminal then uses the information he has gained for his own benefit, such as by purchasing products with the victim's credit card.

Normally considered to be intangible property created by individuals or corporations. Information technology has made it difficult to protect intellectual property because computerized information can be so easily copied or distributed on networks. Intellectual property is subject to a variety of protections under three different legal traditions: trade secrets, copyright, and patent law.
The proliferation of electronic networks, including the Internet, has made it even more difficult to protect intellectual property. Before the widespread use of networks, copies of software, books, magazine articles, or films had to be stored on physical media, such as paper, computer disks, or videotape, creating some hurdles to distribution. Using networks, information can be more widely reproduced and distributed.

Plagiarism is when the work of others is copied, but the plagiarizer presents it as his or her own work. This is a highly unethical practice, but happens quite frequently, and with all the information that is now available on the Internet it is much easier to do and is happening more often.

Piracy is the illegal copying of software and has become a very serious problem, and it is estimated that approximately 50% of all programs on PCs are pirated copies. Programmers spend hours and hours designing programs, using elaborate code, and surely need to be protected. Although some might argue that some pirating at least should be permitted as it can help to lead to a more computer literate population. But, for corporations, in particular, this is a very serious issue, and can significantly damage profit margins.

Hackers break into, or 'hack' into a system. Hacking can be undertaken for a variety of reasons and several subcultures of hackers have emerged. The hacker culture began in the 1960s and 1970s as an intellectual movement exploring the unknown and doing what others cannot. Many hacker subcultures developed independently and in parallel at various universities throughout the United States including Stanford, MIT, CalTech, Carnegie Mellon, UC Berkeley, and many others. The completion of the ARPANET linked these campuses and they were able to share their collective experiences, their knowledge, humor and skills. Together, they formed the first hacker culture. Many hackers are true technology buffs that enjoy learning more about how computers work and consider computer hacking an "art" form. They often enjoy programming and have expert level skills in one particular program. For these individuals, computer hacking is a real life application of their problem-solving skills. It's a chance to demonstrate their abilities, not an opportunity to harm others.

Clearly writing and spreading virus programs are unethical acts because they have very serious consequences and cause systems to crash and organizations to cease operating for certain periods. One of the most concerning consequences of such actions is when viruses interrupt the smooth functioning of an organization such as a hospital, which could in extreme cases even cause people to die. Logic bombs are also sometimes planted. A computer virus or malware is a commonly used term to describe all types of malicious software including Trojans, worms, adware, and spyware. Each have slightly different functions, but usually either try and damage the software on your computer, or send information about your computer usage to an outside source over the internet.

> Trojans: Pretends to be something good, like virus scanning software or other useful applications but in reality they run malicious programs in the background that can perform any number of functions, like allowing an outside user to copy your files, see your browsing history, or even take remote control of your computer.

> Worms: A self-replicating computer program. It uses a network to send copies of itself to other computers on the network, and it may do so without any user intervention. It does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms almost always cause at least some harm to the network, if only by consuming bandwidth.

> Adware: Advertising-supported software is any software package, which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used. The developer usually sees Adware as a way to recover development costs, and in some cases it may allow the software to be provided to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. As a result, the user may see the advertisements as interruptions, annoyances or as distractions from the task at hand.

> Spyware: Computer software that is unknowingly installed on a personal computer to collect information about a user, their computer or browsing habits without the user's informed consent. Spyware programs can collect various types of personal information, such as Internet surfing habits and sites that have been visited, but can also interfere with user control of the computer in other ways, such as installing additional software and redirecting Web browser activity. Spyware is known to change computer settings, resulting in slow connection speeds, different home pages, and/or loss of Internet or functionality of other programs.
The Internet Crime Complaint Center
The IC3 was established as a partnership between the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the National White Collar Crime Center to serve as a means to receive Internet related criminal complaints and to further research, develop, and refer the criminal complaints to federal, state, local, or international law enforcement and/or regulatory agencies for any investigation they deem to be appropriate. The IC3 was intended, and continues to emphasize, serving the broader law enforcement community to include federal, as well as state, local, and international agencies, which are combating Internet crime and, in many cases, participating in Cyber Crime Task Forces.

Information technology is now ubiquitous in the lives of people across the globe. New and developing technologies take many forms such as personal computers, smart phones, the Internet, social networks, mobile phone applications, digital assistants, and cloud computing. In fact the list is growing constantly and new forms of these technologies are working their way into every aspect of daily life so much so that these technologies are even opening up new ways of interacting with each other.

Value for life is a basic concept of traditional ethics and now technological developments influence and change life, thought, moral values, and ethical principles of people. Some technological advancements have even caused natural life to become somewhat synthetic. Today technology is not only a passive instrument at our disposal, but also an active agent that affects and transforms both the scenario and the people involved in it.

The benefits of technology have not spread evenly around the world and to all socioeconomic demographics. Certain societies and social classes have little to no access to the information easily available to those in more well off and developed areas. Computers, information, knowledge and access to these resources either through personal ownership, educational institutions or via public libraries are inequitably distributed along ethnic and social class lines. This disproportionate gap of access is referred to as the digital divide. According to Edutopia, a similar situation exists in U.S. schools. Schools in high-poverty areas are less likely to have computers, high-quality educational technology programs, or Internet access available for their students. Left uncorrected, the digital divide could lead to a society of information haves, computer literate and skilled, versus a large group of information have-nots, computer illiterate and unskilled.

Social networking is a term given to sites and applications that facilitate online social interactions that typically focus on sharing information with other users. Along with privacy concerns, there are a number of moral values that these sites call into question including security concerns, anonymity, inappropriate marketing tools and use, on-line bullying, stalking, and they can even change or challenge our notion of friendship.

A recent USA Today article addressed the issue of the social media's influence and concluded, "Just as our daily lives are becoming more technologically connected, we're losing other more meaningful relationships. Yes, we're losing our friends." In other words, electronic "friends" are replacing the joys of real human contact. Possibly questioning or eliminating the kind of true friendships described and espoused by Aristotle who described a friend as being "a single soul dwelling in two bodies". In our post-modern society, there is evidence that while we have plenty of acquaintances, more and more of us have few individuals to whom we can turn and share our authentic selves, our deep intimacies. Another potential worry is that in the midst of a socially-networked world we are falsely reassured or justified as we seek to navigate the sea of so-called "friends" that we've been promised through various social networking sites.

At the turn of the century the term web 2.0 began to surface and it referred to the new way that the World Wide Web was being used as a medium not only for information sharing and collaboration, but also referred to the change in mindset of web designers to include more interoperability and user-centered experiences on their websites. This term has also become associated with "social media" and "social networking." While the original design of the web by its creator Tim Berners-Lee was always one that included notions of meeting others and collaboration, users were finally ready to fully exploit those capabilities by 2004 when the first web 2.0 conference was held by O'Reilly Media.

This change has meant that a growing number of people have begun to spend significant portions of their lives online with other users experiencing an unprecedentedly new kind of lifestyle. Social networking is an important part of many people's lives now where massive numbers of people congregate on sites like Facebook and interact with friends old and new, real and virtual. The Internet offers the immersive experience of interacting with others in virtual worlds where environments constructed from information.

The computer has evolved from a tool used solely for business, research and governmental purposes to an instrument characterized by social interaction in virtual worlds. In this context, like-minded people can converse and interact online in a way that is both enjoyable and satisfying. While most activities carried out over the Internet are innocuous, others could be considered questionable. These activities are characterized by user-initiated actions frequently detached from the fear of consequence that might be realized in the physical world. Illegal file-sharing, the possibility of sending spam to millions, and the accessibility of explicit adult-oriented materials are examples of potentially devastating behaviors that can adversely affect millions of users, businesses and organizations.

Social interaction online is clearly changing and changing at a rapid pace. There is a growing shift of information presented online with a strong emphasis on visualization, user created content and social interaction. Many users are turning towards virtual worlds to collaborate, share information and spend time online. This movement is facilitated by the improvements in hardware and rise of new applications and technologies. Much like most technologies, these environments have potential for immense advantages over traditional methods. On the flip side, issues of security and several other concerns associated with virtual environments are present and unfortunately remain overlooked.

Virtual worlds engage millions of people and the avatars they create can inherently be problematic. The embodiment of a user through an avatar and its experiences in a synthetic environment are essentially considered to be real by many users. The avatar is essentially who and what the user is, and a representation on how they wish to be perceived online. One benefit is that avatars can help eliminate human inequalities such as race, disabilities or economic standings. They can even elevate social anxieties such as shyness or other insecurities. A concern however is that an inflated or false representation could lead to mistrust such as an adult appearing as a child to solicit inappropriate behavior.

Massively Multiplayer Online Games

Massively multiplayer online games provide an example of a combined online game and virtual world in which social dynamics are central to the popularity. Probably the most popular, well-known example is World of Warcraft. Such games allow thousands of individuals to play simultaneously in a tireless online world. An integral part of the gaming experience involves strategic navigation through shared space while competing with and against each other for shared resources.

In these online game worlds, players gain and lose points, abilities, and resources as they work alone or together in order to accomplish goals within the game. Consequently, this expands social context of electronic play to include identity development, community building, establishing rules of conduct, and efforts to manage conflict that occurs within game communities. The complex organization of these social structures raises ethical questions regarding personal responsibility, behavior, and expectations of each other, as well as how conflict is managed.

When contemplating online games there is a tendency for these games to portray violence. While violence is easy to see in online games, there is a much more substantial moral value at play and that is the politics of virtual worlds. Commonly, the players in massive online worlds will form assemblies and guilds often with little commitment to democracy or egalitarianism. This raises concern and needs to change if more and more people are going to spend time living in these virtual worlds. They must mimic activities of the real world so that punishments, laws, and ethical actions are not too disconnected from those of the real world.

So who is responsible for ensuring a more realistic environment? Some believe the responsibility lies on the designers of these worlds. However, many times the players create and manipulate the game in such a way to go above and beyond the original structure. Also, designers rarely realize that they are creating a space where people intend to live large portions of their lives and engage in real economic, social and political activity. Still, some believe this bequeaths certain moral duties onto designers equivalent to those who may write a political constitution ( Ludlow and Wallace 2007 ).

One factor behind the rise of computer ethics is the lingering suspicion that computer professionals may be unprepared to deal effectively with the ethical issues that arise from their design, influence or even in their workplace. Another area of concern has to do with the power computer professionals have because of their knowledge of computer systems. The power poses a threat because it is entirely centralized. Most people currently do not posses even an introductory level of understanding when it comes to emerging technologies. Information and computer professionals who design and implement these tools represent the elite few who fully understand and can manipulate them. This creates fear because having power in the hands of some often leads to exploitation of others. Computer professionals should have an obligation to use the information they have access to in a proper manner, but some chose to use this information immorally to the detriment of others.
Five rules to guide those who design, develop, deploy, evaluate or use computing products:

1. The people who design, develop, or deploy a computing artifact are morally responsible for that artifact, and for the foreseeable effects of that artifact.

2. The shared responsibility of computing artifacts is not a zero-sum game. The responsibility of an individual is not reduced simply because more people become. Instead, a person's responsibility includes being answerable for the behaviors of the artifact and for the artifact's effects after deployment, to the degree to which these effects are reasonably foreseeable by that person.

3. People who knowingly use a particular computing artifact are morally responsible for that use.

4. People who knowingly design, develop, deploy, or use a computing artifact can do so responsibly only when they make a reasonable effort to take into account the people, relationships, surroundings, customs, assumptions and protocols within the system that the artifact is embedded.

5. People who design, develop, deploy, promote, or evaluate a computing artifact should not explicitly or implicitly deceive users about the artifact or its foreseeable effects.

Social aspects of informatics are becoming more and more important as computers are a persuasive element in our daily life. The study of computer ethics is an important aspect in the education of future professionals. Some of the worries of the society involving computers only reflect the most noticeable aspects on the use of informatics. Besides the issue of the privacy of the data and the consequences of severe defects in software, there are ethical issues in many aspects of software development. For example, the decisions of when to stop testing, or when to release a software product convey a certain amount of subjectivity which can be decided by making use of ethical criteria.

Teaching computer ethics helps to view software development from a professional perspective. The general feeling is that moral principles and ethical behavior should be taught whenever a profession wants to be established. The analysis of the professionals' behavior complements the technical education. But the underlying issue is how to fit the ethical concepts within the rest of the topics. Ethics can fill the holes and teaching computer ethics is a way of improving the human factors in software development and that it is worth the effort.

'Most of the unethical activity that does occur has resulted because individuals did not realize an act was unethical or did not know how to make ethical decisions'
Kallman and Grillo[1993]

Computers and other informatics technologies and techniques have developed that relate specifically to healthcare and health management. Some of these advancements are the use of electronic health records, clinical decision support and prognostic systems, internet-based consumer health information, outcome measurement, and data mining.

Important ethical questions surround the use these advancements and are heavily debated since they pose a more harmful risk to the individual. Electronic health records are changing the way health information is managed, but implementation is a difficult task in which social and personal issues must be addressed. Advice produced by decision support systems must be understood and acted upon in the context of the overall goals and values of health care. Empowering health care consumers through readily available health information is a valuable use of the Internet, but the nature of the Internet environment increases the range of abuse of vulnerable patients. Data mining may impact confidentiality or lead to discrimination by identifying subgroups. All of these issues require careful examination as more and more health information is captured electronically.

Electronic Health Records

A strong incentive to adjust all forms of health care related documents, files, etc. to a digital format lies in the fact that it is much less expensive and cuts costs dramatically. For example, it is much more effective to move digital information than it is to move actual patients or laboratory samples. Proper medical treatment depends on timely access to accurate patient medical histories, laboratory results, and many other pieces of data. Problems such as missing or misplaced charts, paper-based laboratory reporting, and illegible handwriting are common roadblocks to care in which digital systems may be the answer. While the use of informatics can have enormous benefits, it is important not to degrade the quality of care received by a patient and to protect their privacy.

The fundamental basis of the doctor-patient relationship is the priority of the patient's best interests. When a provider suggests a course of treatment, the patient can reasonably expect that the provider is suggesting what is best for the patient. Sometimes there are several reasonable courses of action that may be appropriate in a given situation and the provider will assist the patient in making choices through the process of informed consent. The concepts of best interest and informed consent derive directly from the principles of autonomy, beneficence, and non-maleficence.

As increasing amounts of health data become computerized, it is easy to imagine that data mining of electronic records will become the primary form of clinical research. The purpose of data mining is to identify significant patterns that would otherwise go undetected. Data mining is used in outcomes research, epidemiology, drug and genome discovery, biomedical literature searching, and many other areas. Data mining can also be used to detect unusual data patterns, which might be indicative of disease outbreaks or fraudulent activities. Electronic records containing patient information need proper protections. The HIPAA regulations incorporate procedures for such research and recognize that a breach of privacy is a form of harm. Data mining will undoubtedly provide important information for epidemiology, clinical decision support, and the practice of evidence-based medicine. As with any health informatics technique, data mining must be used with a clear understanding of the underlying goals of health care and not be used to exploit or harm patients.

The development of modern bioethics has been strongly influenced by technology. But technology itself does not determine the ethics of medicine. Technological advances need to be seen in, and judged by, the light of health care goals. The digital imperative must be resisted unless a clear benefit of computerization can be demonstrated. Technology cannot give us answers to questions that require personal and social value judgments.

Computer, information and communications technologies are indications of human civilization involving different technical, scientific, social, ethical, and cultural perspectives. Each of these technologies will become a key element of society in the near future making it easy to imagine that the ethical issues resting on each will sooner or later affect all areas, procedures, and structures.

New technologies are increasingly more complex, and typically produce new unexpected problems or ethical controversies. To satisfy desires and demands, people develop and use technology to reform and control the world. However, its influence and presence in daily life has gone beyond the imagination. Although technology improves human survival, it also causes many complicated controversies, crises, and ethical dilemmas. Reflecting and analyzing technology and its possible implications are essential. When faced with technical decisions we need to learn all we can about the issue, analyze the issue from both a technical and ethical viewpoint, and then choose a course of action that best satisfies the requirements of both. We must always remember that our choices will create change and we need to consider that possibility in all we do. Simply deciding to implement a new technology because it makes our life easier may not be the best choice.
Related Information and Links Articles

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In the industrialized nations of the world, the "information revolution" has significantly altered many aspects of life (banking and commerce, work and employment, medical care, national defense, transportation and entertainment). Consequently, information technology has begun to affect community life, family life, human relationships, education, freedom, and democracy.

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The computer engineering education at the Istanbul Technical University has started as a division of the "Control and Computer Engineering Department" which was formed as a part of the Electrical and Electronics Faculty in 1980. The division was re-organized as a department of the same faculty in 1997, in order to meet the requirements of modern computer engineering education. In 2010, related programs and departments are transferred after the Computer & Informatics Faculty founded.

Departments

Computer Engineering

Informatics Engineering

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The computer engineering education at the Istanbul Technical University has started as a division of the "Control and Computer Engineering Department" which was formed as a part of the Electrical and Electronics Faculty in 1980. The division was re-organized as a department of the same faculty in 1997, in order to meet the requirements of modern computer engineering education.

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Information ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information, information technology, and information systems for personal, professional, and public decision making. For example, is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music? Should librarians ever remove controversial books from the shelves or monitor users' Internet searching? Should a scientist post the genome for the Ebola virus on the Internet?

Information ethics provides a framework for critical reflection on the creation, control, and use of information. It raises questions about information ownership and access to intellectual property, the rights of people to read and to explore the World Wide Web as they choose. Information ethicists explore and evaluate the development of moral values, the creation of new power structures, information myths, and the resolution of ethical conflicts in the information society (Capurro 2001). If bioethics addresses living systems, then information ethics similarly covers information systems. Where bioethics evolved from medical ethics after World War II to engage the broader implications of societal changes such as informed consent and reproductive rights, information ethics grew out of the professional ethics traditions of librarians and early information professionals in order to describe and evaluate the competing interests that sought to control the information assets of a high-tech society (Smith 1997). Like other areas of applied ethics in science and technology, information ethics focuses on social responsibility and the meaning of humanity in relation to machines.

Built from the codes and commitments of professional librarians to protect the right to read, fight censorship, protect patron privacy, assure confidentiality of library records, and provide service for everyone, information ethics has extended these traditions into cyberspace. The term information ethics first appeared in the literature of library and information science in the late 1980's (Hauptman) alongside other terms such as information technology ethics, cataloging ethics, and archival ethics. In the next few years, information ethics grew to encompass dilemmas facing librarians and information professionals (Mason, Mason, and Culnan 1995) as they introduced new information and communications technologies (ICTs) to public, academic, and special libraries and also into publishing, healthcare, and the new information industry.

Today information ethics encompasses a wide range of issues involving the creation, acquisition, organization, management, translation, duplication, storage, retrieval, and any other processes involving printed or digital texts, graphics, voice, and video. Information ethics can address any issue relating to the Information Society or the Knowledge Economy. As a field of applied ethics, it draws upon historical and philosophical insights (Floridi 1999) in order to describe current problems such as bridging the digital divide and to craft normative solutions for personal and professional conduct and for public policy (Tavani 2003).

The Historical Context

In the mid-fifteenth century, Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the movable type printing press altered the parameters of information access and control and began to change the world. Widespread dissemination of printed information helped to change the balance of power in Europe, notably contributing to the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation, disruptions to the political power of the Roman Catholic Church, and the rise of the nation-state.

In the mid-twentieth century, Claude Shannon (1948) and others developed elegant mathematical theories that made modern information technologies possible while other advances, such as the development of the atomic bomb, made the risks and rewards of widespread scientific and technological knowledge more significant and more visible in everyday life. Since then the increasing volume of digitized information and the exponential improvements in digital processing, storage, and communication have again altered the landscape of information access and control.

Alongside the technological advances that have occurred since the mid-twentieth century, formal consideration of the uses and abuses of information began even before it was designated information ethics, or infoethics. The UN General Assembly raised many infoethical themes in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) including information access (Article 19), intellectual property (Article 27), privacy (Article 12), security (Articles 17 and 27), community (Article 27), and education (Article 26). Since then, the role of information in government, healthcare, and business, and concerns about the uses of that information, have continued to fuel public policy debates. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) uses the term information ethics to focus attention on global problems ranging from literacy, including cell phone access in the developing world, the need to protect local cultures and languages from the dominance of English on the Internet, and the ramifications of expanding databases of genetic information.

In the last fifteen years, information ethics has also evolved within and beyond its early professional and academic communities. Its academic vitality is evident in the formation of scholarly associations such as the International Society for Ethics and Information Technology (INSEIT), scholarly websites such as the International

Center for Info Ethics (ICIE), and journals such as The Information Society (1981), Journal of Information Ethics (1992), Science and Engineering Ethics (1995), Ethics and Information Technology (1999), and International Review of Information Ethics (2004). The growing number of books and journal articles that address ethics in academic and professional literature indicates the expanding recognition of and participation in the field.

Key Ethical Themes

From the perspective of information ethics, there are five important themes to be considered: community, ownership, access, privacy, and security (COAPS; see Figure 1). As a framework, the COAPS themes help to guide ethical analysis and aid the discovery of underlying conflicts, as illustrated by ethical questions that have emerged since the mid-twentieth century.

Does the anonymity of the web encourage or detract from community formation online?

Who owns e-mail messages on a corporate e-mail server, and who can read them?

Do patients have a right of access to information about a terminal illness?

Do libraries and librarians have an obligation to protect the privacy of patron records?

Does personal security warrant the widespread use of surveillance cameras in public places?

Community

In an 1813 letter, Thomas Jefferson distinguished goods that are lessened and ideas that are multiplied when shared:

He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine receives light without darkening me.

The distinction has become increasingly salient over time. Future creative work builds on past creative work. All branches of science have flourished since the Royal Society of London first published the Philosophical Transactions in 1765, establishing a creative commons of scientific work for scrutiny, criticism, and derivation.

SOURCE: Defense Advanced Research Program Agency (DARPA), http://www.darpa.mil; Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC), http://www.epic.org; American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), http://www.aclu.org.

Terrorism Information Awareness Program (TIA)

.. "search[ing] for indications of terrorist activities in vast quantities of data."

Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (USA PATRIOT)

Grants law enforcement broad rights of search and surveillance with limited judicial oversight.

Computer Assisted Passenger Pre-screening System II (CAPPS II)

Focused on identifying and computing risk score for airline passengers.

While ideas on paper may be expensive to reproduce and awkward to distribute, they have demonstrated great power. Creativity requires a balance of access, to make future creative work possible, and control to make creative work worthwhile. The U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Section 8, establishes such a balance by granting inventors limited-term, exclusive rights to exploit their inventions, in exchange for full disclosure for the benefit of future inventors. Lawrence Lessig (2001) has written and spoken extensively about the intellectual and creative commons. In 2002, Lessig and others founded Creative Commons (http://www.creativecommons.org), "devoted to expanding the range of creative work available for others to build upon and share."

For software, the open source movement, described by Eric Raymond (1999), encourages community and collaboration by requiring programmers to share software source code and to allow the creation of derivative works. The widely deployed Linux operating system and Apache web server demonstrate the multiplicative benefits of a creative software commons.

Ownership

Modern technology, practice, and law allow tight control over the communication of and access to ideas, threatening the creative commons and future creative works. For example, while Charles Dickens's Oliver Twist (1837) exists in the public domain, digital rights management technology allows a publisher to prevent a buyer from sharing, copying, or printing the e-book version, a level of control that becomes more significant when fewer printed copies of a work exist. In practice, librarians balance owning paper journals against licensing electronic journals. Web-based, electronic journals offer economy and powerful access capabilities but also carry the risk of complete loss when the license expires. In law, the United States has extended the period of copyright protection, once fourteen years after publication, to seventy years after the author's death, seriously restricting the creation of derivative works.

The Internet hosts a dynamic evolution of morals, ethics, and laws related to information ownership and use. Freed from the limitations of identity, distance, and substance, Internet users have not always transplanted their behavioral norms directly from the real to the virtual world. Individuals and legislators face novel situations when the concept of theft is separated from both physical location and physical loss. Peer-to-peer file-sharing networks allow complete strangers to share perfect copies of digitized songs across vast distances while a presumed anonymity frees them from social constraints they might feel off-line.

Access

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws "abridging the freedom of speech or of the press." The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 19, begins "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression." These declarations codify ethical principles that recognize the value of expressing multiple points of view.

But freedom of speech, while widely recognized as a fundamental right, remains controversial in detail and execution. Because members of a pluralistic society may hold different values, there are frequent conflicts about what information should be publicly available and what information should not be. The American Library Association (ALA) Code of Ethics states, "We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources." That commitment conflicts with the values of those who challenge the availability of some books in school and public libraries. The ALA Office for Intellectual Freedom reports over 6,000 book challenges (that is, " an attempt to remove or restrict materials, based upon the objections of a person or group") between 1990

and 2000. Table 1 lists the most frequently challenged books of 2002 and the reasons for the challenge.

Privacy and Security

Competing values and interests in public policy and government activities also lead to ethical tensions. Terrorist attacks, whether in Madrid, London, Tel Aviv, Kashmir, Tokyo, or New York, place governments in unfamiliar ethical territories as they develop responses in the form of new laws, policies, and programs that are in turn subject to the critical appraisal of civil liberties and human rights groups. James Moor (1998) describes such circumstances in terms of conceptual muddles and policy vacuums that arise when new situations (such as terrorism) and emerging capabilities (data mining) lead to new behaviors (widespread surveillance) with concomitant ethical questions of whether familiar concepts (privacy) apply and whether the new behaviors are acceptable. Table 2 presents a selection of U.S. government actions that have raised serious ethical dilemmas of privacy versus security and that illustrate an ongoing struggle between secrecy and accountability.

To the extent that such programs occur in secrecy, they leave their scope, policies, methods, activities, and even underlying data insulated from review and criticism. They leave the participants unaccountable outside their bailiwicks. As Joseph Pulitzer observed,

There is not a crime, there is not a dodge, there is not a trick, there is not a swindle, there is not a vice which does not live by secrecy. (Brin 1998)

While secrecy does not presuppose malicious intent, it reduces the opportunity for accountability and opens the door for individual and institutional misuse of information.

Information professionals face dilemmas when balancing their ethical and legal obligations. For example, the USA PATRIOT Act grants law enforcement agencies broad rights to examine the records of library patrons. The ALA Privacy Toolkit describes privacy as "essential to the exercise of free speech, free thought, and free association" and urges libraries to adopt routine patron privacy and record retention policies in support of the library mission. At the same time, library policies may conflict with fulfilling the surveillance mission of law enforcement agencies.

Government responses to terrorism provide the opportunity for both practical and philosophical consideration. Practically it is reasonable to consider how much these actions enhance security, how much they impinge upon privacy, and what are the relative weights to be applied on either side of the equation. Philosophically it is valuable to ponder how government efforts to ensure security conflict with guaranteed civil rights.

Information Ethics in Popular Culture

Fiction and films frequently illustrate information ethical dilemmas, illuminating significant points that may not be apparent in everyday life. The entertainment value of emphasizing particular dilemmas and their consequences in fictional settings does not reduce the value of ethical exploration by way of popular culture.

Machines have long mimicked and extended human physical capabilities. But a physical aid such as a snow shovel presents few consequential dilemmas and appears only infrequently as the dramatic centerpiece of a film or book. At the other extreme, information technologies mimic and extend the human mind-popularly regarded as the essence of being human. The role of self-aware creations in fiction and film has increased as information and information technology permeate everyday life. Consider the Terminator (1984, 1991, 2003) and Matrix (1999, 2003, 2003) trilogies which project the ethical dilemmas that arise when the roles of information processing machines conflict with the needs, even the survival, of human society. Table 3 lists examples of films and fiction that highlight infoethical dilemmas drawn from the COAPS framework.

Professional Ethics

Ethical dilemmas also arise in the course of professional activities. When individuals adopt professional roles, they assume obligations beyond and sometimes in conflict with their personal beliefs. Librarians who order

SOURCE: Courtesy of Ed Elrod and Martha Smith.

American Association of University Professors (CSEP)

Resolution on covert intelligence.

American Library Association (http://www.ala.org)

Explicit commitment to intellectual freedom, privacy, and service.

American Medical Association (CSEP)

Patient right to receive information.

American Society for Information Science and Technology (http://www.asist.org)

Multiple responsibilities to employers, clients, users, profession, and society.

American Society for Public Administration (CSEP)

Whistle blower policy statement.

Association for Computing Machinery (http://www.acm.org)

Identifies 24 imperatives as the elements of a personal commitment to ethical professional conduct. Supported by detailed guidelines.

Chartered Institute of Libraries and Information Professionals-UK (http://www.cilip.org.uk)

Statement of principles and multi-dimensioned responsibilities.

Dutch Association of Information Scientists (CSEP)

Multiple responsibilities to self, profession, employer, and society.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://www.ieee.org)

Commitment "to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, ..."

International Federation of Journalists (CSEP)

Primacy of respect for truth.

only books and materials supporting their political views about capital punishment are not exercising their professional obligations to build balanced collections and to provide services for a diverse, multicultural public. Professional neutrality refers to the commitment to separate professional obligations and personal beliefs.

Many professional groups have developed formal statements to guide decision making and behavior in situations common to their professions. These are often called codes of ethics to reflect their deliberate and conscious origins. Table 4 presents a sample of professional organizations with published ethical codes in fields related to the use of information.

Ethical decision making is neither straightforward nor predictable. Codes provide public statements of ideals and intentions. However they are only the starting point for decision making in professional activities. Codes cannot foresee every situation, yet professionalism often calls for decision making and action in unclear situations. Such ambiguity can require a delicate balancing act among stakeholder beliefs and priorities, the demands of professional obligations, and short-term, long-term, and unintended consequences.

Future Prospects for Information Ethics

The published literature of information ethics intertwines with other areas of applied ethics such as computer ethics, cyberethics, journalism, communications, and media ethics, image ethics, Internet ethics, engineering ethics, and business ethics, reflecting its broad philosophical underpinnings and practical applications far beyond academia. Information ethics contributes to society when it addresses problems that affect the quality of life. Looming ethical questions may seem to arise more from science fiction than science and technology, but science fiction quickly becomes everyday fact. For example, witness the confluence of technology, biology, and national security in the increasing use of biometric identification methods. Looking forward to future technologies and ethical debates:

Will single-issue, virtual communities focused on abortion or animal rights, for example, reduce the tolerance for other points of view?

What new business models will arise if intellectual property ownership withers in the face of unstoppable copying?

Who will have access to the research information about cloning a human?

Will the privacy rights of consumers be renegotiable with every credit card transaction?

After the poliovirus has been successfully synthesized from its constituent chemical building blocks, does publishing the gene sequences for deadly viruses on the Internet pose a threat to worldwide security?

The future is arriving quickly in the emerging field of bioinfoethics. It signals a fresh arena for exploration using the combined insights of bioethics and information ethics. It encompasses recent discussions of reproductive ethics, genetics ethics, healthcare ethics, and computer ethics. Bioinfoethics promises to shape personal decisions, professional practice, and public policy. Beyond that, new infoethical domains will continue to emerge wherever new technologies and practices raise new dilemmas that might include applications of robots, nanotechnology, and artificial intelligence. Figure 2 illustrates the contributions of many, diverse domains of ethical analysis to bioinfoethics and to other emerging ethical domains in the future.

An Icelandic genetic mapping project illustrates such a bioinfoethical dilemma. With parliamentary approval, a private company has begun collecting and analyzing genealogical, medical, and genetic data about the people of Iceland in the hope of uncovering diseases with genetic bases and then developing profitable new drugs to treat those diseases. Such research holds the potential for immense medical benefit and immense privacy intrusion. Genetic mapping is likely to become more widespread, thereby expanding the relevance of the bioinfoethical debate.

The COAPS framework (Figure 1) suggests bioinfoethical questions about such a database. How should communities organize and negotiate to assure that the use and benefits of genetic databases best reflect the community interests? Should ownership of the genetic and medical data lie with the individuals or the company? What financial benefits accrue to the individuals if they do own the data? Should there be widespread access to the data to maximize the scientific benefit? Does oneway identity coding sufficiently protect individual privacy when the records carry other medically relevant but potentially traceable information? What security procedures are demanded for the centralized accumulation of immense amounts of personal and medical data? The Association of Icelanders for Ethics in Science and Medicine (Mannvernd) maintains a broad collection of information about genetic practices and the corresponding ethical considerations.

The Icelandic genetic database represents the leading edge of converging medical, social, government, and information technology practices. The associated bioinfoethical dilemmas explore frontiers of emerging ethical debates and demonstrate the relevance of information ethics to everyone.

EDWIN M. ELROD
MARTHA M. SMITH

SEE ALSO Association for Computing Machinery;Communications Ethics;Computer Ethics;Cyberspace;Digital Divide;Geographic Information Systems;Hypertext;Information;Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers;Intellectual Property;Internet;Monitoring and Surveillance;Movies;Museums of Science and Technology;Popular Culture;Privacy;Science, Technology, and Law;Science, Technology, and Literature;Security;Terrorism;Virtual Reality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brin, David. (1998). The Transparent Society. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

Floridi, Luciano. (1999). "Information Ethics: On the Theoretical Foundations of Computer Ethics." Ethics and Information Technology 1(1): 37-56.

Hauptman, Robert. (1988). Ethical Challenges in Librarianship. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.

Hauptman, Robert, ed. (1992). Journal of Information Ethics. Jefferson, NC: MacFarland and Company.

Lessig, Lawrence. (2001). The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World. New York: Random House.

Mason, Richard; Florence Mason; and Mary Culnan. (1995). Ethics Of Information Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Moor, James. (1998). "Reason, Relativity, and Responsibility in Computer Ethics." Computers and Society 28(1): 14-21.

Raymond, Eric S. (1999). The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary. Beijing; Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly.

Shannon, Claude E. (1948). "A Mathematical Theory of Communication." Bell System Technical Journal 27: 379-423, 623-656.

Smith, Martha M. (1997). "Information Ethics." Annual Review Of Information Science and Technology 32: 339-366.

Smith, Martha M. (2001). "Information Ethics." In Advances in Librarianship, Vol. 25, ed. Frederick Lynden. New York: Academic Press.

Tavani, Herman T. (2003). Ethics and Technology: Ethical Issues in an Age of Information and Communication Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

INTERNET RESOURCES

Capurro, Rafael. (2001). "The Field." Center for Information Ethics. Available from http://icie.zkm.de.

Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions (CSEP). Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT). "Codes of Ethics Online." Available from http://ethics.iit.edu/codes.

Jefferson, Thomas. "No Patent on Ideas," Letter To Isaac McPherson, August 13, 1813. Available from HTTP://etext.lib.Virginia.edu.

Mannvernd, Association of Icelanders for Ethics in Science and Medicine. Available from http://www.mannvernd.is/english/index.html.

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information ethicsinformation ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information

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is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music? should librarians ever remove controversial books from the shelves or monitor users' internet searching?

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INFORMATION ETHICSInformation ethics is a field of applied ethics that addresses the uses and abuses of information, information technology, and information systems for personal, professional, and public decision making. For example, is it okay to download someone else's intellectual property like pictures or music?

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Chapter 10 - Ethics and Health Informatics - StuDocu

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10 Ethics and Health Informatics Users Standards and Outcomes KENNETH W GOODMAN AND RANDOLPH A MILLER After reading this chapter you should know the answers to

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Administrative roles in health care can be specialized. Today we will take a look at two distinct roles: Health Care Ethics and Informatics. Both offer niche specialties within the health care sector, as well as excellent professional pathways. Each makes its own impact, and determining the track best suited is the first step in developing a successful, enjoyable career in health administration.
Health Administration

Today's medical field includes frequently updated technical processes and the storage and transfer of copious amounts of information. A digital health care environment offers rapid transfer of communication between key players, positively influencing the quality and speed of care professionals can provide. The flow of the medical organization is dependent upon knowledgeable and quick-thinking administrators to handle the storage and transfer of sensitive medical records, remain current on newly implemented technologies, and make executive-level decisions involving ethical issues in patient care within the organization.

The health administration course of study can include:

Health Services Research

Health Administration

Health Care Organization

Health Care Law

Accounting and Financial Management for Health Care Organizations

Managed Health Care

These courses and their content will help to prepare you for a rewarding career in the field, covering multiple areas in healthcare. A career in health administration can reach even higher levels of success when focused into one of two specialties: Health Care Ethics and Health Care Informatics. Health care administrators play a critical role in the structure of health care organizations, and individuals in Ethics and Informatics equally contribute to the success of the entire health care workforce. Choose one that best fits your professional interests and goals.

Health Care Ethics

For those looking for a highly specialized field that calls for polished decision-making skills and a desire to make a difference in the future of medical practice, Health Care Ethics is a valuable course within health administration. Matters of health and quality of life are often delicate, deep-rooted issues that require knowledgeable decisions to set the standard for future procedures and long-term policies. The overarching goal of pursuing a track that teaches ethics is to develop into a thoughtful and morally responsible health care practitioner who is equally aware of ethical issues and empowered to act in a manner that best represents the health care organization on issues of moral and ethics.

While in school, in addition to the health care administration course areas mentioned above, additional study within Health Care Ethics can include:

Epidemiology and Community Health: The Greek derivation of "Epidemiology" is the study (ology) upon (epi) the people (demos). The basic principle of epidemiology is that a disease's patterns within a population reveal information about the underlying process of the disease, which is imperative to the development of public health care programs and policies. Ethical decisions are often at the forefront of decisions involving the diagnosis and treatment of obesity, substance abuse, AIDS and other life-threatening illnesses and diseases, and an expert's knowledge can prevent incorrect treatment decisions and ultimately lawsuits involving negligence or wrongful death.

Health Policy: Relating to "the decisions, plans, and actions that are undertaken to achieve specific health care goals within a society," health policy knowledge is valuable and necessary for Health Care Ethics administrators. Health policies can involve patient care and treatment, but can also include policies involving medical research, the health workforce, and foreign and global health. Specific health care policies can involve the delivery or financing of health care, as well as access to care and health equity.

Careers for Health Care Ethics administrators can include:

Health Oversight Director

Medical Journalist

Staff Bioethicist

Hospice Coordinator

Clinical Social Worker

Health Care Chaplain

Health Care Ethics Professor

Health Care Transition Coach

Health Care Informatics

A career in Health Care Informatics offers a way to combine two very strong interests: logic and care, focusing on the business and information systems behind the healthcare system. The Health Informatics fields have seen a strong climb in available careers since the 2009 Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act was signed into law. This allowed the United States Department of Health and Human Services to spend $25.9 billion in the advancement and expansion of health information technology. Informatics finds a place in administration, diagnosis and treatment, each offering a valuable piece to the overall pace and structure of a health care organization.

A Health Care Informatics education can include such courses as:

Health Care and the Internet: The Internet continues to evolve, and with its constant change comes new opportunities for health care. Staying current on the Internet and its relationship to health care, for treatment and information exchange, is a critical part of health administration, particularly in Informatics.

Health Information Management Systems Data and Infrastructure/ Management Systems Applications: Progressive systems in information management call for specialized knowledge. A well-versed administrator is always necessary when dealing with patient records, medication management, and information storage and transfer.

Computer-based Patient Record (CPR): In health care today, most data is stored and transferred electronically, and skilled informatics administrators are charged with the confidential handling of sensitive records.

Careers for Health Care Informatics Administrators include:

Health Care Database Administrator

Network Security Specialist

Clinical Informatics

System Project Manager

Clinical Systems Analyst

Understanding the individual tracks for a health care administrator can make the difference in choosing a career path that will be lasting, enjoyable and profitable. Choose one today, we are waiting to hear from you!
If your career goals include a successful career in health administration, now is a wonderful time to take the first step: earning your Master's in Health Administration degree from Saint Joseph's University Online. Returning to school is easier than ever, with a convenient online platform that will allow you to take classes on your time, regardless of family and work commitments. Saint Joseph's University, founded in 1851, is a college steeped in tradition and time-honored excellence, whose students strive to improve the common good and promote a better future, for everyone.

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Administrative roles in health care can be specialized. Today we will take a look at two distinct roles: Health Care Ethics and Informatics. Both offer niche specialties within the health care sector, as well as excellent professional pathways. Each makes its own impact, and determining the track best suited is the first step in developing a successful, enjoyable career in health administration.