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https://www.abc.net.au/btn/classroom/edge-of-space/13465980

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AMELIA, REPORTER: Auto sequence start. CC 2-1-2 ready to roll. Umm, can I just ask a quick question? Where is space from here exactly? Anyone?

It might sound like a silly question, but it's good to know if you're trying to get, well, up there. Something these two billionaires were also doing recently. Virgin Galactic founder Richard Branson and Blue Origin founder Jeff Bezos. First Branson and five friends went up for a few low gravity minutes.

RICHARD BRANSON, VIRGIN GALACTIC FOUNDER: For the next generation of dreamers if we can do this. Just imagine what you can do.

Followed soon after by Bezos and his mates including the oldest and youngest people ever to go to space.

JEFF BEZOS, BLUE ORIGIN FOUNDER: Best day ever.

Both companies are hoping these are the first of many tourist trips to space. Except there's one big thing these two disagree on, where space actually is. And they're not the only ones.

MIKE NEUFELD, SMITHSONIAN NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM: There's always been an argument about where does the atmosphere stop and where does space begin, because there is no neat line, there is no barrier which you break through.

Scientists divide our atmosphere into different layers, starting with the troposphere where the air's nice and thick and easy to fly through. After that is the stratosphere and then the mesosphere. For decades NASA, the US Air Force and some astrophysicists have considered that the start of space; 80 kays up. In fact, that's when US astronauts get their "wings" a badge awarded on their very first successful space flight. And Branson's Virgin Galactic flight went just over that to 86 kays.

But Blue Origin claims by international standards that wasn't quite space. It reckons you have to go 100 kays up, not 80, to the start of the thermosphere and something called the Karman Line. It's named after this guy, an engineer and physicist who, in 1957, became the first person to try to define the edge of space. Now the Karman Line is recognised by lots of scientists and international organisations, and it's what Bezos' Blue Origin was going by when it sent him 106 kays up.

JEFF BEZOS, BLUE ORIGIN FOUNDER: On how it felt? Oh my god.

AMELIA, REPORTER: Now you might be thinking, why does it even matter where space starts?

MIKE NEUFELD, SMITHSONIAN NATIONAL AIR AND SPACE MUSEUM: Does it matter? Really, only to these companies who are trying now to sell suborbital space tourism. And to title their passengers "astronauts".

BLUE ORIGIN: Copy, Astronaut Bezos.

RICHARD BRANSON, VIRGIN GALACTIC FOUNDER: This remarkable crew of mission specialists and now astronauts.

AMELIA, REPORTER: While those guys technically are astronauts, some have pointed out that there's a big difference between a 15-minute joyride and, you know, what astronauts like me are doing. What does that do?

Like travelling to the ISS 400 kays away or going on a mission to the moon which is about a thousand times further. And of course, the further from Earth you go, the more difficult and more expensive your ride gets. But I guess if you do find yourself with a spare few hundred thousand dollars to spend on space travel in the future, just make sure you're happy with how far you're going.

AMELIA, REPORTER: Come in, mission control? I think I'm in space now. Hello?

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AMELIA, REPORTER: Auto sequence start. CC 2-1-2 ready to roll. Umm, can I just ask a quick question? Where is space from here exactly? Anyone? It might sound like a silly question, but it's good to know if you're trying to get, well, up there. Something these two billionaires were also doing recently.

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https://www.abc.net.au/btn/classroom/space-tourism/13235232

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https://www.cbc.ca/kidsnews/post/billionaires-in-space-the-pros-and-cons-of-space-tourism

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Would you pay to go to space? Let us know below

⭐️HERE'S WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW⭐️

Jeff Bezos, founder of Amazon, just reached outer space.

He and 2 other billionaires are on the front lines of space tourism.

Soon space tourism might be for more than the rich.

Read on to explore the pros and cons of the new industry. ⬇️ ⬇️ ⬇️

Selfies with Saturn? Postcards from the International Space Station? Hotels on the moon?

Thanks to space tourism, those could all become realities.

On Tuesday, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos became the second billionaire within a week to reach outer space. He travelled aboard his company's Blue Origin rocket on a spaceflight that lasted 10 minutes.

Joining Bezos was a hand-picked group including his brother, an 18-year-old from the Netherlands and an 82-year-old aviation pioneer from Texas - the youngest and oldest people to ever fly in space.

Jeff Bezos, third from the left, became the second billionaire within a week to reach outer space on July 20. He flew with Oliver Daemen, left, Mark Bezos, second from left, and Wally Funk, right. (Image credit: Joe Skipper/Reuters)

Last week, Virgin Galactic founder Sir Richard Branson ﻿was the first billionaire to head up to the skies, reaching 88 km above Earth's surface and achieving weightlessness for several minutes.

Richard Branson, fourth from left, and his crew flew 88 km above Earth's surface on July 12. Some experts say he didn't go far enough. They say space officially begins 100 km above the Earth. (Image credit: Virgin Galactic)

And this fall, billionaire Elon Musk will also enter the space tourism game, as he prepares to send four people to space in one of his SpaceX rockets.

Billionaire Jared Isaacman, left, Hayley Arceneaux, Sian Proctor and Chris Sembroski are set to be SpaceX's first crew to head to space in September. (Image credit: Inspiration 4/Reuters)

It might be years before most Canadians can afford a ticket to outer space, and even then, ticket costs are likely to be many thousands of dollars.

But some planetary experts say the upcoming space launches led by billionaires could bring about a new era of space exploration, where you no longer have to be an astronaut to fly.

It's a pretty exciting idea, but what are the pros and cons of sending tourists to space?

PROS

1. ﻿It's downright cool

The biggest perk of going to space is, of course, the sightseeing.

In more than 300,000 years of human existence, only around 500 people have been able to glimpse the view from outside our atmosphere.

2. More space research

This new era of tourism could make space science more accessible, said Marc Boucher, the founder and editor-in-chief of SpaceQ Media Inc., an online Canadian space news company based in London, Ontario.

The research that's happening in space right now is "really expensive," Boucher said.

"These flights of opportunities on these new suborbital vehicles will offer a much cheaper cost to do some of this research."

3. ﻿New technologies

More space science could mean more cool, new inventions.

Many of our technologies are based on innovations that started in space, said Sara Mazrouei, a planetary scientist and educational developer at Ryerson University in Toronto.

"The last space race that we had to get to the moon gave us the technology for our running shoes, for our foam mattresses, for our bulletproof vests," Mazrouei said.

"I'm really hopeful" that once we move beyond this initial set of billionaires getting to space, there will be room for more technological innovation, she said.

4. More space exploration overall ﻿ ﻿

Back in November 2020, many space experts remarked that SpaceX's successful launch to the International Space Station marked a new era of space exploration.

In November 2020, the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket became the first privately owned spacecraft used by NASA to reach the ISS. (Image credit: Joe Skipper/Reuters)

This included Canadian astronaut David Saint-Jacques.

"This is the dawn of a new era," he said at the time. "[It] really opens up the door for cheaper, more frequent, more accessible access to Earth's orbit."

Saint-Jacques said this new level of access to space travel will allow national space agencies to "shift their focus" back to going to the Moon and eventually Mars.

Cons

1. It's expensive

Currently, space tourism is not cheap, meaning very few people can afford to do it.

For example, Oliver Daemen, one of the crew members on Bezos' flight, was a last-minute replacement for someone who paid $28 million US in an auction for their ticket.

His father bought the ticket for a lower, uncdisclosed price.

Virgin Galactic already has more than 600 reservations from would-be space tourists, with tickets initially costing $250,000 US a piece.

Musk's SpaceX plans to take tourists on more than just brief, up-and-down trips. Instead, they will orbit the Earth for days and seats will cost well into the millions.

Although tickets are likely to go down in price as space tourism becomes more common, ticket prices will still be out of reach for most Canadians for the next several years.

2. It may be bad for the environment

Some experts say rocket launches could be damaging our ozone layer.

The ozone layer, which is within Earth's stratosphere, is important for protecting us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays.

Experts say that certain chemicals in rocket fumes are getting trapped in the stratosphere and are eating away at our ozone layer.

Until now, the problem has flown under the radar, but with rocket launches becoming more frequent, the problem could become a much bigger contributor to climate change.

3. It may contribute to space junk

Any time something goes wrong in space, there is potential for spacecraft, satellites and other technology to be lost and trapped in Earth's orbit.

Currently, there are millions of microshards of space junk that have accumulated in Earth's orbit.

This illustration from the European Space Agency represents all the space debris 1 mm in size and larger that is currently orbiting Earth. (IRAS/TU Braunschweig)

Just a few months ago, one of those pieces of debris pierced through Canada's robotic arm, called Canadarm, which is a fixture on the International Space Station.

There is a risk that more collisions will create more fragments, hence more collisions, in an escalating cascade of accidents.

That would make lower Earth orbit dangerous for the satellites we have come to depend on for global communications.

By sending so many more spacecraft into space through tourism without first solving the problem of space junk, the issue could be made even worse.

﻿4. Things can still go wrong

Although we've come a long way since the 1960s in terms of space innovation and technology, there are still occasional examples of things going wrong.

Space is, after all, essentially like stepping into a microwave, with intense levels of pressure, supercharged cosmic rays, solar emissions and other dangers.

Until scientists find a way to perfect the safety of space travel, potential mishaps remain an important concern for the first space tourists of the next several years.

Submissions for our "Would you pay to go to space?" question have now closed. Thank you for submitting.

With files from Nicole Mortillaro/CBC, Stephanie Dubois/CBC, The Associated Press and Chris Iorfida/CBC

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Billionaires in space? The pros and cons of space tourism | CBC Kids News

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⭐️HERE'S WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW⭐️ Jeff Bezos, founder of Amazon, just reached outer space. He and 2 other billionaires are on the front lines of space tourism. Soon space tourism might be for more than the rich. Read on to explore the pros and cons of the new industry.

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https://www.tweentribune.com/article/tween56/robot-recreates-walk-290-million-year-old-creature/

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As of Monday, October 24, content that was on TweenTribune.com will now be available here on our new educational resources page and on our learning pages. While much of the content that you enjoyed will still exist, educators will unfortunately no longer be able to assign content to students. Tween Tribune has been a valued educational brand of Smithsonian magazine, and we appreciate your continued support.

Though the Girl Scouts of the USA initially declared itself a space for all girls, the reality was different for girls of color

Erin Blakemore

Get Smithsonian Educational Resources

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As of Monday, October 24, content that was on TweenTribune.com will now be available here on our new educational resources page and on our learning pages. While much of the content that you enjoyed will still exist, educators will unfortunately no longer be able to assign content to students.

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https://www.tweentribune.com/article/tween56/augmented-reality-app-lets-you-experience-moon-landing/

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Americans crowded around grainy televisions. The year was 1969. They witnessed
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin touch ground on the moon. That moment was
amazing for all who watched it.

The Smithsonian Channel launched the "Apollo's Moon Shot" augmented reality app.
They are betting it can bring new audiences closer to the experience of the landing
than the original footage ever could.

The AR app is available for Apple and Android devices. It places users on the surface
of the moon. It lets them virtually escape their own surroundings. Users can
moonwalk like Aldrin and Armstrong. They can witness the craters that dot the
landscape. They can jump up and down in a state of altered gravity. They can gaze
out at the darkening sky. The app also includes information about the landing. It is
integrated into its design.

"It makes the landing more interactive. It allows people to bring the Apollo program
into their own experience." says Teasel Muir-Harmony. She is a curator at the
National Air and Space Museum.

The app's developers used 3-D scans of Neil Armstrong's space suit and of the Lunar
Command Module. It placed the astronauts on the moon. They did this to replicate
the feeling and the scale of the landing. Users can do more than walk on the moon.
The app allows users to simulate the mission takeoff. It charts the Apollo's path
through the moon's airspace. It includes two games. "The Moon Shot Challenge" and
the "Lunar Landing Challenge." The games test users' ability to guide a safe landing
through a lunar terrain dotted with boulders and craters.

The Smithsonian Channel launched the app along with its six-part "Apollo's Moon
Shot" series. It premiered in June. The series features Muir-Harmony as an expert.
She narrates the story of the Apollo 11 landing. She does this by using artifacts in
the Smithsonian collection. The series also includes rare archival footage and
audiotapes.

Muir Harmony consulted on the television series. She also consulted on the app. The
goal was to highlight a side of the moon landing that much of the public hasn't
encountered.

"We often focus on the astronauts, but over 400,000 people worked on the
program," she says.

Teams of NASA scientists worked under tight deadlines. They needed to map out
ways to make day-to-day life transferrable into space. A group of engineers cobbled
together personal items like zero-gravity sleeping bags for the astronauts. They
developed exercise equipment that was later dubbed the Exergenie. It was a "rope
friction device" that let astronauts work out even in a weightless environment.

"One of the things that people don't always realize is how many details were
involved in a program like that. How many new technologies had to be developed.
And how many people had to work together to make it all possible," said Muir-
Harmony.

The point of the app is to show these forgotten shades of the Apollo landing. They
want to bring them to people who aren't easily able to visit the Air and Space
Museum.

"The series and the app do a wonderful job of exposing people to the complexities of
that program," said Muir-Harmony.

"It's exciting for us to be able use augmented reality to give people more access to
the artifacts in our national collections.
Source URL: https://www.tweentribune.com/article/tween56/augmented-reality-app-lets-you-experience-moon-landing/

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The augmented reality app that lets you experience the moon landing

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Americans crowded around grainy televisions. The year was 1969. They witnessed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin touch ground on the moon. That moment was amazing for all who watched it. The Smithsonian Channel launched the "Apollo's Moon Shot" augmented reality app.

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https://www.tweentribune.com/article/tween56/how-close-are-we-flying-cars/

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How close are we to flying cars?

How close are we to flying cars?

Assign to Google Classroom

Even before the cartoon character George Jetson entranced kids with his flying car, people dreamed of soaring above traffic congestion. Inventors and entrepreneurs have long tried and failed to make the dream a reality. But that may be changing.

Nearly a dozen companies around the globe, including some with deep pockets such as European aircraft maker Airbus, are competing to be the first to develop a new kind of aircraft. It will enable commuters to glide above crowded roadways. A few of the aircraft under development are cars with wings. They unfold for flight. But most aren't cars at all. Typically they take off and land vertically like helicopters. Rather than a single, large main rotor, they have multiple small rotors. Each rotor is operated by a battery-powered electric motor instead of a conventional aircraft piston engine.

It's no sure bet that flying-car dreams will turn into reality. There are many obstacles. These include convincing regulators that the aircraft are safe. And, figuring out how to handle thousands of new low-flying aircraft over cities without collisions and developing batteries that will keep them aloft long enough to be useful.

But entrepreneurs are moving forward. They see a vast potential market for "air taxis" and personally owned small aircraft. These would transport people from the fringes of metropolitan areas to city centers as urban areas grow more congested and people spend more time stuck in traffic. They envision tens of thousands of one or two-person flying taxis. The taxis might deliver passengers to the rooftops of office buildings in city centers and other landing pads during rush hours.

"In as little as 10 years, products could be on the market that revolutionize urban travel for millions of people," said Zach Lovering. He is the leader of Airbus' project to develop an autonomous flying taxi. It is called the Vahana. The name means the mount or vehicle of a Hindu deity.

Uber released a 98-page report in October. It made the business case for air taxis. The company sees them as the future of on-demand transportation. Uber doesn't have any plans to develop a flying car itself. But the online transportation network is advising several companies that have aircraft in the works.

"The role we want to play is as a catalyst for the entire industry," said Nikhil Goel. He is an Uber project manager for advanced programs.

Some of the aircraft are drones that will be preprogrammed for each flight. They will be monitored or operated from the ground or a command center. Others are designed for human pilots.

It's unclear yet how much the aircraft will cost. The prices are likely to vary significantly. Some of the aircraft are designed to be individually owned. Others are envisioned more for commercial use. Designers hope that demand is high. If so, prices might be kept affordable through economies of mass production.

Several recent developments could make these aircraft possible. Advances in computing power mean the rotors on multi-copter drones can be adjusted many times per second. This makes the aircraft easy to control. Drones have also benefited from advances in battery and electric motor technology. Some companies, like Chinese dronemaker EHang, are scaling-up drones. That's so they can carry people.

Another aircraft under development is the Santa Cruz, California-based Joby Aviation's S2. It looks more like a conventional plane. But there are 12 tiltrotors. These are spread along the wings and tail. And some, like the Vahana, a cockpit mounted on a sled and flanked by propellers in front and back, don't really look like any aircraft in the skies today.

"In terms of what you can make fly in a reliable manner, the solution speed gateway that (computer) chips have gone through recently have literally opened the door to a whole new world of flying machine possibilities," said Charles Eastlake. He is an Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University professor emeritus of aerospace engineering.

But he also cautioned: "My best engineering guess is that people actually using autonomous air taxis in the next 10 or 15 years is possible, but definitely not certain. The challenges are big."

Key for many of the designs will be the development of longer-lasting lightweight batteries. Currently available batteries could probably keep an air taxi aloft about 15 to 30 minutes. Then it would have to land, experts said. Depending on how fast the aircraft flies, that probably isn't quite enough to transport passengers between nearby cities or across metropolitan areas, experts said.

Another hurdle will be winning Federal Aviation Administration certification for any radical new kind of aircraft. Approval of even small changes in aviation technology can take years.

The FAA said in a statement that it is taking a "flexible, open-minded, and risk-based approach" to flying cars. FAA officials have discussed with several manufacturers the certification of aircraft. These will be flown with a pilot in the beginning. Later, they will be converted to an autonomous passenger aircraft.

Reducing noise is another challenge. Air taxis will be taking off and landing in densely populated areas. So is creating enough landing pads to handle lots of aircraft at the same time. A new air traffic control system would also likely be needed.

"It's pretty clear that the existing air traffic control system won't scale to the kind of density at low altitudes that people are talking about," said John Hansman. He is a Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor. He chairs the FAA's research and engineering advisory committee.

NASA is developing an air traffic control system for small drones. It could perhaps be expanded to include flying cars.

"There's no question we can build the vehicle," Hansman said. "The big challenge is whether we can build a vehicle that would be allowed to operate in the places where people want to use it."
Source URL: https://www.tweentribune.com/article/tween56/how-close-are-we-flying-cars/
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION

Why is it so difficult to make a flying car?

Write your answers in the comments section below

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How close are we to flying cars? How close are we to flying cars? Assign to Google Classroom Even before the cartoon character George Jetson entranced kids with his flying car, people dreamed of soaring above traffic congestion. Inventors and entrepreneurs have long tried and failed to make the dream a reality.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/05/04/new-york-police-get-rid-of-robot-dog/

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New York City's police department (NYPD) has decided to return a robot dog that it was testing. Though the robot worked well, it upset many people. Some thought it was "creepy". Others worried that it would invade their privacy.

Spot is a dog-shaped robot built by a company called Boston Dynamics. The robot has four legs which allow it to move easily over uneven ground. Instead of a head, the robot has a camera. It also has a microphone and a speaker, and can be remotely controlled by a human from a distance.

The robot is designed to go places that are difficult or dangerous for humans to go themselves. For example, Spot can easily explore in spaces that are too tight for a human to fit. It's also useful for looking into situations that could hurt or kill a person, such as a gas leak.

Boston Dynamics says that they mainly expect Spot to be used in places with dangerous working conditions, like "oil fields, construction sites, and mines".

But that doesn't mean that Spot hasn't been used for other reasons. Some health care workers used Spot last year to talk with patients without worrying about getting the coronavirus. Last May, Singapore used a version of Spot to encourage people to follow social distancing rules in its parks.

Last December, the NYPD announced that it would begin using a special version of Spot. Their robot was painted blue and had a special camera that allowed it to "see" everything on all sides of it. They called their version "Digidog".

The NYPD has used robots since the 1970s. Robots are sometimes useful in situations where police officers could be put in danger - for example, in situations where there's a bomb, or a person with a gun.

The robot dog cost the NYPD about $94,000. That may seem like a lot of money, but it's cheap for a robot. In the past, the NYPD has used robots that cost as much as $270,000.

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When it announced Digidog, the NYPD said, "This dog is going to save lives, protect people, and protect officers, and that's our goal."

They soon found out that not everyone was as excited about the robot as they were. After the robot was brought to an emergency in February, a video of it was shared widely. The video upset a lot of people.

Many people were worried that the police were using an electronic dog for spying. Others felt like it was wrong for the police to spend money on machines instead of focusing on people.

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For many people, the concern wasn't just about this robot dog, but about what future police robots might look like - for example, if the police used a robot that could control its own movements, or one that carried weapons.

When the dog was used again in late April, another video was shared on the internet. Once again, many people were upset. As a result of the strong public reaction, the NYPD decided to get rid of Digidog, and return him to Boston Dynamics.

Did You Know...?
Boston Dynamics says there are about 500 Spot robots in use. Only 4 are being used by police departments. The company doesn't allow any weapons on their robots.

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New York City's police department (NYPD) has decided to return a robot dog that it was testing. Though the robot worked well, it upset many people. Some thought it was "creepy". Others worried that it would invade their privacy. Spot is a dog-shaped robot built by a company called Boston Dynamics.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/06/07/digital-money-taking-a-look-at-bitcoin/

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/06/09/fbi-uses-trick-phones-to-catch-criminals/

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/06/22/self-driving-mayflower-ship-forced-to-turn-back/

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A self-driving ship named after the Mayflower has been forced to turn back as it tried to re-create the cross-Atlantic trip made by the original Mayflower in 1620. The group behind the effort says the journey will begin again soon.

Last Tuesday, a robotic ship called the Mayflower Autonomous Ship (MAS) took off from Plymouth, England. Its mission was to re-create the 1620 crossing of the Atlantic by the original Mayflower, which brought the first group of European settlers to what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts.

But unlike the original Mayflower, there are no people on the MAS. Everything about the ship is designed to run automatically. The ship is guided by an artificial intelligence (AI) system called "AI Captain".

The MAS is a project run by a group called ProMare along with the computer company, IBM. The ship's electric motor is powered by solar energy with a diesel generator for backup.

The goal of the project is to test different kinds of technologies for collecting information about the sea. If these can be handled by machines, it could be a big advance in ocean research. Sending humans to collect information at sea can be difficult, lonely, and dangerous.

Because the MAS didn't have to carry humans, its designers were free to think about how to make the best ship for the job. What they came up with was a 49-foot (15-meter) "trimaran", which has three floating sections.

In addition to cameras and radar to help the ship guide itself, the ship is carrying many different kinds of tools and sensors. It has special listening devices which can detect whales and dolphins. It even has a special "tongue" which can report back on the chemicals in the water.

But even though the ship is able to guide itself completely, it was humans, rather than the AI Captain that decided to turn the MAS around.

Last Friday morning, scientists tracking the ship noticed that it was going about half as fast as it should have been going. The AI Captain was working well, but there seemed to be something slowing the motor down.

Since the ship had only covered 10% of the way across the Atlantic, the team decided to bring it back to Plymouth so they could fix the problem and send it out again. They sent the MAS instructions to turn back.

When the MAS finally does put out to sea again, it is expected to take about three weeks to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The entire trip will be about 3,500 miles (5,630 kilometers).

The fastest speed for the MAS is about 10 mph (16 kph). That may seem slow, but it's about 5 times faster than the original Mayflower, which took 66 days to make the journey.

Did You Know...?
The original Mayflower was also forced to turn around more than once because of problems with another ship that was sailing with it.

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Self-Driving Mayflower Ship Forced to Turn Back

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A self-driving ship named after the Mayflower has been forced to turn back as it tried to re-create the cross-Atlantic trip made by the original Mayflower in 1620. The group behind the effort says the journey will begin again soon.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/08/17/mlb-field-of-dreams-game-brings-movie-to-life/

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Last Thursday, a Major League Baseball (MLB) game between the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox was held near fields of corn in the middle of Iowa. The "Field of Dreams" game was based on a 30-year-old movie.

In the movie, Field of Dreams, which starred Kevin Costner, a farmer hears voices that encourage him to give up his corn crop and build a baseball field in its place, even though doing this could cause him to lose his farm. The farmer hears the unusual message, "If you build it, he will come."

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The farmer builds the field, in spite of all his doubting neighbors. And, sure enough, ghosts of baseball players from the long-past 1919 World Series appear from out of the nearby corn fields. They play baseball in front of a large crowd of fans, who have also appeared, saving the man's farm.

The movie, with its clear love of baseball, was a huge hit. Decades later, MLB was looking for a way to connect with fans who live far away from the large cities where almost all MLB games are played. They decided to make the movie come to life.

The field that was used in the movie is in Dyersville, Iowa. It has been popular with tourists since 1989. But the field is too small for an MLB game. So MLB built a brand new, much larger field, close to the one used in the movie.

The Field of Dreams game was originally supposed to take place last year, but was delayed for a year because of the coronavirus.

Last Thursday, it finally happened. Just like in the movie, members of the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox baseball teams appeared from out of the nearby corn fields. They played the first MLB game ever held in Iowa, wearing special uniforms designed to look like those used in 1919.

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The game was an exciting one, with eight home runs in all. And just like a movie, it all came down to a surprising ending. Coming into the final inning, the New York Yankees were down 7-4. But with two two-run homers in the first half of the ninth inning, the Yankees took the lead 8-7.

But when the White Sox had their turn at bat, Tim Anderson had different plans. He slammed a two-run homer way out into the corn. He was so sure it was a home run that he didn't just run around the bases. He walked and danced, too. Chicago won the game 9-8. Anderson said, "The fans came to see a show, and we gave them a show."

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The game was a huge hit. Nearly six million people watched it on TV. MLB says that 7,832 people showed up in person. That's about double the number of people who normally live in Dyersville. Though tickets were limited to people from Iowa, some tickets were resold online for prices as high as $10,000.

MLB says the game was such a great success that they plan to hold another Field of Dreams game next year.

Did You Know...?
Because it's been so hot and dry in Iowa this summer, a special watering system had to be put in place to make sure the corn around the baseball field was tall and green.

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MLB Field of Dreams Game Brings Movie To Life

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Last Thursday, a Major League Baseball (MLB) game between the New York Yankees and the Chicago White Sox was held near fields of corn in the middle of Iowa. The "Field of Dreams" game was based on a 30-year-old movie.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/08/24/first-known-rain-at-top-of-greenlands-ice-sheet/

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On August 14, it rained at the highest point of Greenland's ice sheet. This is normally the coldest part of the ice sheet - a place where rain has never been seen before. It's another big weather change that seems to be connected to the climate crisis.

Greenland's ice sheet is a layer of ice about two miles (3.2 kilometers) thick. It covers a huge area - a little over 650,000 square miles (1,683,500 square kilometers). It's one of the planet's two ice sheets. The other one is in Antarctica.

Greenland's ice sheet is normally an extremely cold place. The ice sheet's summit, or highest point, is normally even colder. It's two miles above sea level and 500 miles (800 kilometers) above the Arctic Circle.

It's extremely unusual for the temperature to be above freezing at the summit. And though scientists have been studying the summit closely for over 40 years, they have never seen rain there.

Still, that's exactly what happened on August 14. The temperature rose to just above freezing at the summit, and it rained for several hours. The event was so surprising that the scientists didn't even have the proper tools to measure how much rain fell.

Ted Scambos, a scientist who studies glaciers, said, "...it's something that's hard to imagine without the influence of global climate change."

The unexpected rain was caused by "blocking" - when warm air is pushed to the area and gets stuck there, causing temperatures to rise.

These blocking air patterns have been happening more often in recent years, and they have caused serious melting of the ice sheet. These are known as "melt events".

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Melt events used to only happen about once every 150 years. But there have been three serious melt events in the last 10 years - in 2012, 2019, and this year.

There were two melt events in July. There was also the August melt event, in the days leading up to the rain at the summit. The August melt event was a surprise, since temperatures are normally dropping in Greenland by that time of year.

In general, the surface of Greenland's ice sheet gets thicker every year, since the amount of snow that falls is greater than the amount that melts. But overall, the sheet is losing ice, since larger chunks are breaking off at the edges where the ice sheet meets the sea.

The high temperatures and melt events of recent years are causing greater loss of ice. Temperatures at the poles are warming up faster than in other parts of the world. Scientists say Greenland could be near a "tipping point", after which there might be no way to stop huge amounts of Greenland's ice sheet from disappearing.

Though it's highly unusual, the rain at the ice sheet's summit isn't expected to cause major problems. Most of the rain is likely to refreeze.

But the pattern of warming temperatures is leading to melt events and ice loss, which is a problem. Greenland's ice sheet holds enough frozen water to raise the world's sea levels by as much as 20 feet (6 meters).

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First Known Rain at Top of Greenland's Ice Sheet

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On August 14, it rained at the highest point of Greenland's ice sheet. This is normally the coldest part of the ice sheet - a place where rain has never been seen before. It's another big weather change that seems to be connected to the climate crisis.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/09/01/china-limits-online-gaming-for-children/

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/09/16/inspiration4-sends-ordinary-people-to-space/

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Last night, a group of four "ordinary" people blasted off into space in the first space mission with no professional astronauts. The four will remain in space, circling the Earth for three days before splashing down this weekend.

The mission, called Inspiration4, was the idea of billionaire Jared Isaacman, who paid the company SpaceX to arrange the flight. Mr. Isaacman has long been interested in flying. He's a pilot who has flown many different kinds of airplanes, including fighter jets.

Mr. Isaacman decided to use the trip to raise money for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. That's an organization that works to help children who have cancer.

The crew will be carried into space in the same SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule that carries NASA astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS). But the door that normally docks with the ISS has been replaced with a huge window.

The capsule has room for four crew members. Mr. Isaacman's company held a contest to fill one of the spots. The position was won by Dr. Sian Proctor, a college professor who was nearly chosen as a NASA astronaut in 2009.

St. Jude got to hand out the other two places on the flight. Haley Arceneaux will be taking one. Ms. Arceneaux, 29, was a cancer patient at St. Jude when she was a child. She recovered fully, though now she has some prosthetic bones in one leg.

Ms. Arceneaux now works at St. Jude as a physician's assistant, helping patients and assisting doctors. Ms. Arceneaux is the youngest American to fly into orbit. She's also the first person with a prosthetic body part to go into space.

The final spot on the flight went to Chris Sembroski. Mr. Sembroski used to be part of the US Air Force and now works at the aerospace company Lockheed Martin.

Though this is the first "all amateur" flight, it's clear that the crew members have a lot of knowledge and experience that will be helpful. They have also had a quick and intense astronaut training course, to help prepare them.

The Inspiration4 mission will orbit 360 miles (575 km) above the Earth. That's about 93 miles (150 kilometers) higher than the ISS.

It's also more than five times higher than missions launched earlier this year by billionaires Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. Though all of these trips focused on "space tourism", Inspiration4 doesn't have professional astronauts running the mission. Instead, the entire trip will be run automatically.

Mr. Isaacman sees this mission as opening up space for ordinary tourists. Though it costs far too much for anyone but billionaires to fly to space now, many people expect the price to drop. They point out that plane travel used to be very expensive, but now many people can afford it.

Though the crew of the Inspiration4 will have some minor experiments to work on during the trip, they will also have three days together in a very small space. Some people think of the Inspiration4 itself as an experiment, but with people.

The Inspiration4 is expected to splash down sometime Saturday.

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Inspiration4 Sends "Ordinary People" to Space

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Last night, a group of four "ordinary" people blasted off into space in the first space mission with no professional astronauts. The four will remain in space, circling the Earth for three days before splashing down this weekend. The mission, called Inspiration4, was the idea of billionaire Jared Isaacman, who paid the company SpaceX to arrange the flight.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/10/13/energy-shortage-boosts-dirty-fuels-despite-climate-crisis/

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Energy Shortage Boosts Dirty Fuels Despite Climate Crisis

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A sudden energy shortage following the coronavirus pandemic has led to increased demand for highly polluting fossil fuels. The demand comes at a time when the world’s countries are trying hard to cut pollution and slow down the climate crisis.

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/10/19/nasas-lucy-mission-will-visit-eight-asteroids/

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https://newsforkids.net/articles/2021/11/10/companies-develop-new-pills-to-treat-covid-19/

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https://www.dogonews.com/2021/8/5/billionaires-jeff-bezos-and-richard-branson-blast-off-to-space

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Billionaires Jeff Bezos And Richard Branson Blast Off To Space!

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Billionaires Jeff Bezos And Richard Branson Blast Off To Space! has 67 reviews and 0 ratings. Reviewer ali123hi wrote: "nice"

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https://www.dogonews.com/2021/9/21/spacexs-all-civilian-inspiration4-crew-completes-historic-mission

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SpaceX’s All-Civilian Inspiration4 Crew Completes Historic Mission

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Hawthorne, California-based SpaceX is known for making history. It was the first private spaceflight company to transport astronauts to the International Space Station and the first to develop a reusable rocket booster. On September 18, 2021, the American aerospace company did it again by completing…

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https://www.dogonews.com/2021/10/12/russian-crew-is-the-first-to-film-a-fiction-movie-in-space

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Yulia Peresild, Anton Shkaplerov,, and Klim Shipenko (L-R) arrived at the ISS on October 5, 2021 (Credit: NASA)

Space-related films have come a long way since A Trip to the Moon - a silent movie with no camera movement or close-ups - was released in 1902. Filmmakers now use the extensive technology at their disposal to immersively transport fans to alien worlds. However, no one has attempted to shoot a feature film in space - until now! On October 5, 2021, astronauts at the International Space Station (ISS) welcomed their first fiction film crew - Russian actress Yulia Peresild and director Klim Shipenko.

The two civilians and veteran cosmonaut Anton Shkaplerov arrived at the ISS aboard the Soyuz- 2 rocket. Peresild and Shipenko will spend 12 days filming a 35-to-40 minute segment for a feature film dubbed Vyzov ("The Challenge"). The movie tells the story of a surgeon - played by Peresild - going to space to operate on a sick cosmonaut, whose medical condition prevents him from returning to Earth for treatment.

Peresild and Shipenko are filming scenes for a Russian movie called Vyzov aboard the ISS ( Credit: "The Challenge") ( Credit: Roscosmos)

Prior to blasting off into space, Peresild - who beat out more than 3000 candidates for the role - and Shipenko underwent an intense, four-month-long "cosmonaut" training. They were subjected to conditions such as zero gravity suspension and high-speed acceleration inside a centrifuge. "It was difficult psychologically, physically, and emotionally ... but I think when we reach our goal, all the challenges won't seem so bad," Peresild said at a pre-flight press conference on October 4, 2021.

In addition to being the first actress to film a movie in orbit, Peresild is also only the fifth Russian woman to travel to space. Shipenko is making his own history as the first director, make-up artist, sound editor, and cinematographer of a feature film shot in space. Meanwhile, Shkaplerov and Russian cosmonauts Oleg Novitskiy and Pyotr Dubrov, who are currently at the ISS, will make their acting debut in a cameo appearance as the space station's crew.

Peresild and Shipenko will return to Earth on October 17, 2021. This time around, they will be accompanied by Novitsky, who will have completed his term at the ISS by then. He will be replaced with Shkaplerov, who will remain there until March 2022.

Though this is the first science-fiction movie filmed in space, it will probably not be the last. American actor Tom Cruise is rumored to be collaborating with SpaceX founder Elon Musk for a yet-to-be-revealed project. William Shatner will also be heading to space. However, the famed actor - best known for his role as Captain Kirk in the Star Trek series - will not be working. He will be enjoying the spectacular views of Earth aboard Blue Origin's second crewed spaceflight scheduled for launch on October 13, 2021. The 90-year-old will also make history as the oldest person to fly in space!

Resources: theGuardian.com, CNN.com,NASA.gov

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Russian Crew Is The First To Film A Fiction Movie In Space

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Space-related films have come a long way since A Trip to the Moon - a silent movie with no camera movement or close-ups - was released in 1902. Filmmakers now use the extensive technology at their disposal to immersively transport fans to alien worlds.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/sports-has-recently-shown-a-dark-side-but-that-doesnt-mean-kids-should-stop-playing/2021/10/27/58985734-3105-11ec-a1e5-07223c50280a_story.html

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Fans at a September 28 Washington Spirit game hang banners related to recent news that National Women's Soccer League players reported abuse by coaches for years without any action taken. (Craig Hudson/For the Washington Post)

It's been a tough couple of months for sports.

The Summer Olympics were fun, but superstar gymnast Simone Biles dropping out of several competitions shows the extreme pressure some athletes are feeling. Then several American female gymnasts testified before Congress about how they were abused by the Olympic team doctor, Larry Nassar.

Members of the National Women's Soccer League stopped playing during their games to protest what they say is years of abuse and harassment by coaches.

Most recently, Las Vegas Raiders football coach Jon Gruden resigned because of emails he wrote that said mean things about women, Black people and gay people. The emails were discovered during an investigation of the Washington Football Team (WFT) and claims that the WFT organization treated its female employees badly.

There has been so much terrible behavior happening in sports that one father wrote an article last week in The Washington Post saying that he would no longer encourage his 7-year-old son to play sports.

I admit there are plenty of problems in sports - from the playground to the pro leagues. Abuse and harassment should not be part of sports at any level. But sports are still mostly good for kids. Maybe this is a good time to review why.

The first reason, and it's a big one, is that sports are a great way for kids to get exercise. Exercise is one of the least-expensive ways to stay healthy, according to the Aspen Institute, a group that studies issues including youth sports. In addition, studies show that kids who play sports are much more likely to be physically active when they are older than kids who do not play sports.

That physical activity helps people avoid becoming obese (very overweight). Obese people generally have more health problems.

Exercise can help in school. A study that followed kids from kindergarten to fourth grade found that more physical activity is associated with better grades. In addition, teenagers who play sports in high school are more likely to go to college and get a degree than kids who do not play sports in high school.

In addition, male and female students who play sports in high school are less likely to smoke cigarettes or feel lonely. These athletes also have higher self-esteem, meaning they feel better about themselves.

These findings about sports make sense, especially when considering team sports. Sports provide opportunities for kids to meet and work with teammates and friends toward a common goal - getting better as a player and as a team.

As I said, there are problems with sports. But there is also plenty that is good about sports and especially for kids playing sports.

That's good to remember during tough times.

Youth sports experience needs a do-over. Will the pandemic help bring change?

Tennis star Naomi Osaka revealed mental health struggles many people face

Sarah Fuller makes a mark for women in football, but her story is for everyone

Why should U.S. women's soccer team be paid less than the men's team?

A reminder from the KidsPost team: Our stories are geared to 7- to 13-year-olds. We welcome discussion from readers of all ages, but please follow our community rules and make comments appropriate for that age group.

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Perspective | Sports has recently shown a dark side, but that doesn't mean kids should stop playing

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It's been a tough couple of months for sports. The Summer Olympics were fun, but superstar gymnast Simone Biles dropping out of several competitions shows the extreme pressure some athletes are feeling. Then several American female gymnasts testified before Congress about how they were abused by the Olympic team doctor, Larry Nassar.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/nasas-perseverance-rover-collects-two-samples-from-mars/2021/09/10/c335a540-1258-11ec-bc8a-8d9a5b534194_gallery.html?itid=sf_lifestyle-kidspost

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NASA's Perseverance rover collects two samples from Mars

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The rover will hold onto samples until a future mission returns them to Earth.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/volcano-erupts-on-spains-canary-islands/2021/09/27/4d686aa6-1d47-11ec-a99a-5fea2b2da34b_gallery.html?itid=sf_lifestyle-kidspost

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Volcano erupts on Spain's Canary Islands

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Learn more about this eruption and volcanoes around the world.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/10-treasured-forests-produce-more-greenhouse-gases-than-they-absorb/2021/10/29/15bbcac2-3821-11ec-91dc-551d44733e2d_story.html

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A firefighter watches flames of a 2013 fire that burned hundreds of square miles in Yosemite National Park in California. Yosemite is one of 10 of the world's most treasured forests and nature reserves that produce more carbon dioxide - a greenhouse gas - than they trap, a new United Nations-backed report shows. (Jae C. Hong/AP)

Sites containing some of the world's most treasured forests, including Yosemite National Park and Indonesia's Sumatra rainforest, have been emitting more heat-trapping carbon dioxide than they have absorbed in recent years, a United Nations-backed report said.

According to the report released Thursday, factors such as logging, wildfires and clearance of land for agriculture are to blame. The added carbon involves just 10 of 257 forests classified as World Heritage sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

The Switzerland-based International Union for Conservation of Nature and UNESCO said their report provides the first assessment of greenhouse gases produced and absorbed in UNESCO-listed forests. The study was based on information collected through on-site monitoring and from satellites.

The climate crisis needs kids' help. Show us what saving the planet looks like.

The study adds to growing signs that human activities and the fallout from climate change have in the past 20 years transformed some places that naturally absorb carbon dioxide (CO ₂) from the air into sources that produce more of it than they absorb (net sources). Scientists say that climate change has made weather extremes such as drought and wildfires more likely.

"All forests should be assets in the fight against climate change," said Tales Carvalho Resende, a co-author of the report who works at UNESCO. "Our report's finding that even some of the most iconic and best-protected forests, such as those found in World Heritage sites, can actually contribute to climate change is alarming."

The 10 sites that were net sources of carbon from 2001 to 2020 were the Tropical Rainforest Heritage in Sumatra; the Río Platano Biosphere Reserve in Honduras; Grand Canyon National Park and Yosemite National Park in the United States; Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park in Canada and the United States; the Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains in South Africa; Kinabalu Park in Malaysia; the Uvs Nuur Basin in Russia and Mongolia; the Greater Blue Mountains Area of Australia; and Morne Trois Pitons National Park in Dominica.

However, the net carbon emissions from the 10 sites together amount to little compared with the roughly 190 million tons of carbon dioxide that are absorbed each year by all 257 UNESCO-listed forests. Of those, about 80 sites were net neutral, while the rest were net absorbers of carbon.

The 10 sites accounted for nearly 5.5 million tons of net carbon emissions. The most impactful was the Tropical Rainforest Heritage in Sumatra, which removed about 1.2 million tons from the atmosphere, but released 4.2 million - making for net emissions of about 3 million tons. That was from logging, wood harvesting and the impact of agriculture, the study found.

In the United States, Yosemite generated a net of approximately 700,000 tons of carbon, largely because of devastating wildfires in the area in recent years.

Carvalho Resende pointed to four "really huge wildfires" over the past decade at World Heritage sites.

"World Heritage sites serve as a laboratory - as observatories for environmental changes," he added. "What is happening at World Heritage sites is just the tip of the iceberg . . . in terms of emissions, it represents only a small portion of the whole picture."

Climate change threatens Yellowstone's natural splendor

National Park Service marks 100 years of preserving natural treasures

12 kids who are changing their communities and our world

A reminder from the KidsPost team: Our stories are geared to 7- to 13-year-olds. We welcome discussion from readers of all ages, but please follow our community rules and make comments appropriate for that age group.

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10 treasured forests produce more greenhouse gases than they absorb

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Sites containing some of the world's most treasured forests, including Yosemite National Park and Indonesia's Sumatra rainforest, have been emitting more heat-trapping carbon dioxide than they have absorbed in recent years, a United Nations-backed report said. According to the report released Thursday, factors such as logging, wildfires and clearance of land for agriculture are to blame.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/kids-get-coronavirus-vaccine/2021/11/04/ac65ea26-3d25-11ec-a493-51b0252dea0c_story.html

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Carter Giglio, 8, joined by service dog Barney of Hero Dogs, shows off the bandage over his injection site after being vaccinated against the coronavirus Wednesday at Children's National Hospital in Washington, D.C. Kids ages 5 to 11 became eligible Wednesday to receive their first dose of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. (Carolyn Kaster/AP)

Hugs with friends. Birthday parties indoors. Pillow fights. Kids who got their first coronavirus shots Wednesday said these are the pleasures they look forward to as the United States enters a major new phase in fighting the pandemic.

Health officials hailed shots for kids ages 5 to 11 as a major breakthrough after more than 18 months of illness, hospitalizations, deaths and disrupted education.

Kid-size doses of the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine cleared two final hurdles Tuesday - a recommendation from CDC advisers, followed by a green light from Rochelle Walensky, director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

At a Decatur, Georgia, pediatrician's office, 10-year-old Mackenzie Olson took off her black leather jacket and rolled up her sleeve as her mother looked on.

"I see my friends but not the way I want to. I want to hug them, play games with them that we don't normally get to," and have a pillow fight with her best friend, Mackenzie said after getting her shot at the Children's Medical Group site.

With the federal government promising enough vaccine to protect the nation's 28 million kids in this age group, pediatricians' offices and hospitals began giving shots to children. Schools, pharmacies and other locations plan to do so in the days ahead.

The atmosphere surrounding the launch of shots for elementary-age students was festive in many locations. California vaccine sites welcomed children with inflatable animals and handed out coloring books and prizes.

Brian Giglio, 40, of Alexandria, Virginia, brought his 8-year-old son, Carter, in for vaccination at Children's National Hospital in Washington, where kids with underlying conditions got first dibs. Carter has Type 1 diabetes, which puts him at risk for complications if he were to become infected.

Vaccines are like giving your body's defenses a cheat sheet

Giglio said the vaccine was "like a hallway pass for us to begin living life again." And Carter said he can't wait to smell the things he used to be able to smell before he started wearing a mask.

"I'm ready to trash it," he said, though the CDC still recommends masks in schools and indoor public spaces where virus activity is high, even for the fully vaccinated.

The vaccine - one-third the dose given to older children and adults and administered with kid-size needles - requires two doses three weeks apart, plus a two-week wait for full protection. That means children who get vaccinated before Thanksgiving will be covered by Christmas.

"This age group will be able to spend holidays with friends and family more safely than they have been able to since the start of the pandemic," said Jennifer Shu, whose Children's Medical Group office in Decatur began vaccinating early Wednesday.

Pfizer said it expects to make 19,000 shipments totaling about 11 million doses in the coming days, and millions more will be available to order on a weekly basis.

Asked about parents having trouble finding vaccine appointments, White House coronavirus coordinator Jeff Zients said the vaccines.gov website will be updated by Friday for parents to search for locations near them. He said the kid vaccination campaign will be at full speed next week.

More than 6,000 vaccination clinics are being planned at schools around the country before winter break, he said.

Walgreens planned to start kids' vaccinations Saturday and said parents could sign up online or by calling 800-925-4733. CVS was also accepting appointments online and by phone at select pharmacies starting Sunday.

A Pfizer study of 2,268 children found the vaccine was almost 91 percent effective at preventing symptomatic coronavirus infections. The FDA examined 3,100 vaccinated kids in concluding the shots are safe.

Some skeptics have questioned the need for kids to get vaccinated since they are less likely than adults to develop severe covid-19. But with the delta variant, they get infected and transmit "just as readily as adults do,'' Anthony Fauci said at a recent White House briefing.

Kye'vontay Jordan, 7, has diabetes and got his shot at Children's National. The vaccine gave his dad peace of mind.

"Now I can sleep not worrying about him going to school," said Brian Jordan. "Being exposed to the coronavirus could really affect him and mess him up."

Kids' poems reflect lives shaped by the pandemic

The coronavirus outbreak: What kids want to know

Kids use art to tell the story of the coronavirus outbreak

A reminder from the KidsPost team: Our stories are geared to 7- to 13-year-olds. We welcome discussion from readers of all ages, but please follow our community rules and make comments appropriate for that age group.

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First elementary school-age kids receive coronavirus vaccine

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Hugs with friends. Birthday parties indoors. Pillow fights. Kids who got their first coronavirus shots Wednesday said these are the pleasures they look forward to as the United States enters a major new phase in fighting the pandemic.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/will-climate-change-affect-sports-it-already-has/2021/11/03/fd5c7d52-36b1-11ec-9bc4-86107e7b0ab1_story.html

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Rising average temperatures around the world are a problem for the Winter Olympics. Not as many places may be able to host the Games in the future because they will be too warm for snow sports. (AFP/Getty Images)

President Joe Biden met this week with world leaders at the United Nations climate change conference in Glasgow, Scotland. KidsPost is publishing stories about the worldwide climate problem.

I'm the sports guy at KidsPost. So what does climate change have to do with sports? A lot.

Climate change is the change in the world's average temperatures and weather patterns caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas and others).

As a result of climate change, places are experiencing rising temperatures that may cause droughts and wildfires such as those in California and Australia. Climate change may also be causing more severe weather such as heavy rainstorms and hurricanes. In addition, ocean levels are rising.

All this affects sports in many ways. Rising temperatures mean shorter winters. This threatens winter sports such as downhill and cross-country skiing.

Are you looking forward to the Winter Olympics in February? A recent study estimated that because of rising temperatures only 11 of the 20 sites that have hosted a Winter Olympics would be able to host the Winter Games in 2050. Nine of the sites may become too warm for snow sports.

I like golf. Some of the world's greatest golf courses are built near an ocean. Rising sea levels may threaten these courses in the coming years.

Some climate consequences are happening now. Officials at this summer's Olympic Games moved the marathons and distance-walking events to a more northern city because of the heat in Tokyo, Japan. Tennis players at the 2020 Australian Open were affected by the smoke from nearby wildfires.

More storms and heavy rains will mean more canceled games and events. This may affect high school and kids' games more, because their athletic fields typically do not drain as well as fields where professionals play.

Some sports people are trying to do something about the problem.

The United Nations on Wednesday urged sports teams to meet the environmental targets they signed up for at the 2015 climate conference.

The Climate Pledge Arena in Seattle, Washington, is the new home of the Kraken of the National Hockey League and the Storm of the Women's National Basketball Association. It's the first sports venue in the world with a pledge to be "carbon-neutral," meaning that it won't pollute the environment like other sports venues.

The arena's owners plan to achieve its carbon-neutral status in part by using only renewable electric energy and recycled water. The ice that the Kraken teammates play on, for example, is made of recycled water.

The majority of food served at the arena comes from local farmers, and leftovers are donated to food banks.

The arena plans to stop using single-use plastics by 2024. The teams also urge spectators to use electric cars and public transportation and not fuel-burning cars to travel to games and concerts.

The owners plan to make public the progress toward their goal in the years to come.

Climate change is a big problem. It will take everyone working together - as players on winning sports teams do - to make things better.

Sports has shown a dark side, but that doesn't mean kids should stop playing

Washington Capitals have proven stars, but they need to look to the future

The Wizards gave up a star, but they got 4 role players this season

A reminder from the KidsPost team: Our stories are geared to 7- to 13-year-olds. We welcome discussion from readers of all ages, but please follow our community rules and make comments appropriate for that age group.

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Perspective | Will climate change affect sports? It already has.

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President Joe Biden met this week with world leaders at the United Nations climate change conference in Glasgow, Scotland. KidsPost is publishing stories about the worldwide climate problem. I'm the sports guy at KidsPost. So what does climate change have to do with sports? A lot.

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/nasa-bumps-astronaut-moon-landing-to-2025-at-earliest/2021/11/10/605db5b8-36b4-11ec-9bc4-86107e7b0ab1_story.html

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He's the billionaire businessman who inspired Robert Downey, Jr's version of Tony Stark!

But how did Elon Musk become so successful?

Before his company Space X sent cars and astronauts into space on board the world's most powerful rocket ship, Elon Musk had a quieter start to life.

Born in South Africa, the young Elon had a tough time growing up and was bullied. But that didn't stop him from dreaming of success.

As a boy Elon was a keen reader and learnt how to code computers. He even made his own video game called Blastar.

Later he moved to Canada and then the United States setting up his first company with his brother Kimbal in 1995 which he later sold to create a company called X.com.

X.com became PayPal, a website that allows you to pay for things online which is used by adults all over the world.

Elon Musk sold PayPal for $1.5billion, and received personally received $165million from its sale.

With that $165million Elon Musk looked to the stars and created another new company called Space X. It's long term plan was to help people live on other planets.

"You want to do projects that are inspiring and that make people excited about the future," Musk says.

"Life's got to be more than just solving problems. You want to get up in the morning and say, 'yes I'm looking forward to that thing happening!'

Elon Musk has also turned his attention to renewable energy, a solution to harmful emissions that are bad for the environment.

In 2004 he helped set up the electric car company Tesla. In the 16 years that have followed the company has had major ups and downs, losing billions of dollars.

But in 2020, Tesla's value is more than $500bn, making Elon Musk the world's second-richest person with a $128bn (£97bn) fortune.

As for the future, Elon Musk and SpaceX plans to send the humans to the Moon for the first time 50 years.

Meanwhile, the company plans to send billionaire passenger Yusaku Maezawa around the Moon in 2023.

But Elon Musk's ultimate aim is to enable humans to land on Mars. Something he hopes to achieve within the next decade.
However Elon Musk hasn't always been talked about for the right reasons. Here are eight times he's made the news.
Eight times Elon Musk made the news

In 2018 Twelve boys and their football coach became trapped in a flooded cave in Thailand

They were trapped there for more than two weeks, Elon Musk had offered to use technology developed by his companies to help with the crisis.

Mr Musk sent Tesla engineers and a small submarine to help free the boys during the Thai rescue effort - but it was never used.

He later made nasty comments about one of the eventual rescuers, British diver Vernon Unsworth.

Mr Unsworth said that comments Mr Musk made were "very hurtful".

Elon Musk set up another company called the Boring Company which has the aim of making it easier and faster to travel between big cities.

One of the methods would involve cars being lowered into a tunnel where they would run on tracks, travelling at speeds of 150mph.

Not only has Space X created the world's most powerful rocket ship, it made history in 2019.

The Falcon Heavy took off, delivered a satellite into space and then, incredibly, landed all three of its booster rockets back to Earth.

As part of the Falcon Heavy's test flights, Space X sent a car made by Elon Musk's other company, Tesla into space.

Inside the car was a mannequin dressed in a space suit. He became known as Starman who is now on a journey around the Solar System.

5. Even more space missions

The successful test flights mean that Space X is now flying Nasa astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS).

Using a commercial company like Space X has cut the cost of space travel and makes missions cheaper for Nasa.

There are now plans to use a commercial company to send humans back to the Moon in the next few years.

6. Smashing a new car window

Getty Images

When Elon Musk revealed Tesla's brand new electric Cybertruck, things didn't go quite to plan...

Musk said the car, inspired by the James Bond movies, had shatterproof windows, made out of something called armoured glass, which is meant to be a lot stronger than the usual material that's used.

However, when he challenged a colleague to smash the door with a sledgehammer, expecting it wouldn't break - it did, oops!

Elon Musk is in a relationship with singer Grimes.

They caused quite the stir in May 2020 after revealing the name of their first child.

The couple shared that they'd named their baby X Æ A-12 on social media, leaving lots of people very confused about how to pronounce the choice of name.

However, when it comes to the American state of California's rules regarding names, they can only be officially registered if they use any of the 26 letters of the English alphabet, hyphens and apostrophes. Numbers can't be included.

But, the couple came up with a clever way to get around the rules. Swapping out the number 12 for roman numerals Xii and the roman symbol for 10 which is X.

8. Did aliens build the pyramids?

Egypt invited Elon Musk to visit its pyramids in August 2020 - after the billionaire said aliens built the landmarks.

In what was probably a joke tweet, Space X boss Musk said: "Aliens built the pyramids obv".

But Egypt's Minister of International Co-operation, Rania al-Mashat, replied saying: "I follow your work with a lot of admiration, I invite you & Space X to explore the writings about how the pyramids were built and also to check out the tombs of the pyramid builders. Mr. Musk, we are waiting for you."

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He's the billionaire businessman who inspired Robert Downey, Jr's version of Tony Stark! But how did Elon Musk become so successful? Before his company Space X sent cars and astronauts into space on board the world's most powerful rocket ship, Elon Musk had a quieter start to life.

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Amazon billionaire Jeff Bezos blasted off for a short trip into space - and he took some guests with him.

On 20 July 2021 Jeff, his brother Mark, Wally Funk and Oliver Daemen were on board the first manned flight of his rocket ship, New Shepard as it lifted off at 14:12 BST from a private launch site near Van Horn, Texas.

At 18, Oliver was the youngest astronaut ever and at 82 Wally was the oldest.

The passengers experienced about four minutes of weightlessness, and were able to unstrap from their seats to float around and enjoy the views of our Earth far below.

All four passengers have now parachuted safely back to Earth after their 10-minute, 10-second trip.

Getty Images

The flight comes after billionaire Sir Richard Branson successfully reached the edge of space on board his Virgin Galactic rocket plane last week.

New Shepard was built by Bezos' company Blue Origin, and is designed for the growing market for space tourism.

They travelled in a capsule with the biggest windows flown in space, offering stunning views of the Earth.

After the capsule touched down, Bezos said: "Astronaut Bezos [his callsign]: Best day ever!"

He later said: "My expectations were high and they were dramatically exceeded."

The oldest member of the four-person crew, Mary "Wally" Funk has been involved in flying ever since becoming the first female flight instructor at a US military base at the age of 20.

In the 1960s, Ms Funk was one member of a group of women called the Mercury 13, who underwent the same screening tests as male astronauts, but never got to fly into space.

She went on to become the first female Air Safety Investigator in the United States and broke down lots of barriers for women who wanted to get involved in flying. That included beginning the fight to get women into space.

Before the flight, she had said she was looking forward to performing somersaults and tumbles in microgravity.

Afterwards she said: "It was great, I loved it, I can hardly wait to go again."

The youngest astronaut on the trip, Oliver, is a physics student and got the seat after his dad won an auction and gave it to him.

According to Blue Origin the flight has been a lifelong dream for the teenager "who has been fascinated by space, the Moon and rockets since he was four".

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Jeff Bezos: Youngest and oldest astronauts join billionaire on space adventure - CBBC Newsround

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Amazon billionaire Jeff Bezos blasted off for a short trip into space - and he took some guests with him. On 20 July 2021 Jeff, his brother Mark, Wally Funk and Oliver Daemen were on board the first manned flight of his rocket ship, New Shepard as it lifted off at 14:12 BST from a private launch site near Van Horn, Texas.

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Nasa are pausing their probe missions that are currently roaming Mars because of communication problems caused by the Sun.

The pause will affect all six Mars missions, including the Perseverance rover.

Earth and Mars are orbiting to opposite sides of the sun, something that happens every two years.

The Sun's hot atmosphere can interfere with signals that are sent between the probes on Mars and Nasa's base on Earth.

"That could corrupt commands and result in unexpected behaviour from our deep space explorers," Nasa said in a statement.

Any of the machines that are on Mars will enter a "go slow" mode, which means they will not send any signals, but instead status updates.

Signals are still able to travel between Earth and Mars, but because they have to pass through the Sun's hot atmosphere, they can become scrambled and confuse the robots on Mars.

Roy Gladden, manager of the Mars Relay Network, said: "Each mission has been given some homework to do until they hear from us again."

The break will take place from 2 October - 16 October, but scientists expect there could be a day or two delay.

During the two-week break, the Perseverance and Curiosity rovers will sit still and record weather and radiation measurements.

The Perseverance rover will also use its microphone to listen for environmental sounds - the rover recently tweeted that it has found the perfect spot to rest!

NASA/twitter

The Ingenuity Mars helicopter will be grounded until it is safe to begin flying again - Nasa haven't announced its take-off date yet.

The InSight lander will begin running small experiments that are hunting for any marsquakes.

The three spacecrafts; Odyssey, Reconnaissance Orbiter and MAVEN will send status updates from the probes that are on the surface back to Earth.

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Mars: Why are Nasa planning to pause their Mars missions for two weeks? - CBBC Newsround

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Nasa are pausing their probe missions that are currently roaming Mars because of communication problems caused by the Sun. The pause will affect all six Mars missions, including the Perseverance rover. Earth and Mars are orbiting to opposite sides of the sun, something that happens every two years.

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The home of news and fun facts for kids. Find out what is going on, with stories, pictures and videos. Try a quiz or one of our free games.

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A near-Earth asteroid could actually be a chunky piece of moon rock say scientists.

The asteroid named Kamo`oalewa remains close to the Earth and follows its orbit around the Sun.

Not big enough to be a second moon, the asteroid is known as a 'quasi-satellite' because of the way it travels through space alongside the planet.

Earth has five quasi-satellites, but Kamo`oalewa is different, leading scientists to believe it's a broken shard from the Moon's surface.

Moon rock is traditionally white in appearance, but experts looking at the asteroid found it was unexpectedly red.

"It doesn't look like what we would have expected if it was just a 'regular' asteroid," says Benjamin Sharkey from the University of Arizona in America.

"We think it came off the Moon," adds Dr Vishnu Reddy another scientist at the University.

It's not unusual for asteroids to be red and it often means they contain metal.

But, by analysing telescope images of Kamo`oalewa, the research team found that the only other space rock that's similar is a sample of Moon rock brought back by the Apollo missions in the 1970s.

The asteroid is expected to remain in its current orbit following the Earth for the next 300 years.

Floating at about nine million miles away from planet - which is much further away than the Moon (239,000 miles), but pretty close in space terms - scientists have still found it really hard to analyse Kamo`oalewa properly.

The space rock is about the size of a Ferris wheel, but is also very faint in the night sky, about 4 million times darker than the faintest star.

What does 'Kamo`oalewa' mean?

Kamo`oalewa is a Hawaiian word that roughly means "the oscillating celestial fragment". Oscillating means to move back and forth. Celestial means positioned in space or the sky.

Getty Images

Scientists had to use two powerful telescopes, both in Arizona, to look at the asteroid and it can only be seen for a few weeks, every April.

The project began in 2016 but the team missed the chance to look at Kamo`oalewa in 2020 because of coronavirus restrictions.

Now after more research, they are able to say with some degree of certainty that the space rock has indeed broken off from the Moon.

"We doubted ourselves," said Dr Reddy, while Sharkey added: "This spring, we got much needed follow-up observations and went, 'Wow it is real.' It's easier to explain with the Moon [theory] than other ideas."

"Finding out when it came off the Moon or where on the Moon it came off of is a tall order - The only way to do that would be to get a sample back," said Dr Reddy.

A mission to the asteroid is currently in development by the Chinese space agency planned for launch by the mid-2020s.

And there's another question left to answer: Why did the asteroid break off from the Moon in the first place?...

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Is a broken piece of the Moon floating next to the Earth? - CBBC Newsround

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A near-Earth asteroid could actually be a chunky piece of moon rock say scientists. The asteroid named Kamo`oalewa remains close to the Earth and follows its orbit around the Sun. Not big enough to be a second moon, the asteroid is known as a 'quasi-satellite' because of the way it travels through space alongside the planet.

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https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/59272862

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Harry Kane has become England's top competitive goal scorer, after bagging a hat-trick in his side's 5-0 win against Albania.

The epic goals pushed England closer to qualifying for the 2022 World Cup who are now just one point away from confirming their place in Qatar.

England made light work of Albania on Friday scoring all five of their goals before half-time.

Kane is now level with Jimmy Greaves on 44 England goals and has scored 39 goals in competitive matches for his country, breaking Wayne Rooney's record of 37. Nice work Harry!

All England have to do now is secure one point against lowly-ranked San Marino on Monday and they are through to the finals in Qatar next year.

San Marino have not won a single competitive game in 29 years of trying.
'Good position'
After the match, England boss Gareth Southgate told the BBC: "The first-half performance in the main was outstanding.

"I felt we did all the things we'd talked about after the last game. We pressed really well which made life so uncomfortable for the opposition, our movement was good. Harry gave a fantastic centre-forward's performance.

"His all-round game was excellent.

"We are in a really good position now and now owe it to our supporters to travel to San Marino and finish the group off."

How did Scotland do?

Scotland secured a World Cup play-off spot after a win over Moldova.

Goals from Nathan Patterson and Che Adams, as well as a vital penalty save from keeper Craig Gordon, saw the Scots claim a 2-0 victory.

Scotland head coach Steve Clarke told Sky Sports: "It was a good performance, aggressive going forward and trying to create chances.

"A lot of shots but only two goals. The penalty could have made it nervy but when you need him, Craig [Gordon] is always there. All focus is Denmark now."

Scotland's final match of the qualifiers is against Denmark on Monday.

What about Northern Ireland?

Northern Ireland moved to third in Group C, beating Lithuania 1-0 in Belfast.

The game's only goal came from Lithuania's Benas Satkus heading the ball into his own net.

17-year-old striker, Dale Taylor, came off the Northern Ireland bench late in the game to make his first appearance for his country.

Northern Ireland, whose hopes of qualification were ended last month after defeats to Switzerland and Bulgaria, play their final game against European Champions, Italy, at Windsor Park on Monday.

Wales host Belarus in Cardiff on Saturday, with Gareth Bale set to make his 100th appearance for his country.

Having won their Nations League group last year, Wales are guaranteed at least a place in the play-offs.

But, The Dragons could still top Group E if the group's leaders Belgium, lose to Estonia and then Wales in the following game in Cardiff.

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World Cup 2022: Harry Kane breaks record as England smash qualifier - CBBC Newsround

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Harry Kane has become England's top competitive goal scorer, after bagging a hat-trick in his side's 5-0 win against Albania. The epic goals pushed England closer to qualifying for the 2022 World Cup who are now just one point away from confirming their place in Qatar.

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TFK Kid Reporter Sophia Hou cares about sea turtles. She talked to experts about why these animals are in danger and how people can help.
TAKUMA OAWA-GETTY IMAGES

Sea turtles live in coastal areas and open waters all over the world. Six species live in United States waters. All of them are vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered.

AI ANGEL GENTEL-GETTY IMAGES

Ashleigh Bandimere is the sea turtle program coordinator at the Oceanic Society. I asked her what the greatest threat to sea turtles is. She said it's industrial-scale fisheries. Marine animals like sea turtles get caught in nets intended to catch other animals. Ghost gear, or abandoned gear, also entangles the reptiles.

And sea turtle populations have been affected by climate change. It has caused more storms and a rise in sea levels. These have destroyed nesting habitats.

RICH CAREY-GETTY IMAGES

Coastal development has affected sea turtles, too. Pollution harms the animals. Vehicles pack down beach sand. This makes it hard for female sea turtles to dig nests. And lights from buildings and roads confuse the hatchlings and lead them away from the ocean. "Very few sea turtle hatchlings will make it to adulthood, so each adult turtle is extremely special," Bandimere says. "One turtle will be responsible for laying thousands of eggs every few years."

MARK CONLIN-VW PICS/UIG/GETTY IMAGES

Many people and organizations are working to reverse the decline in sea turtle populations. Leigh Henry is director of wildlife policy at the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). She told me that WWF "works with fisheries to help them switch to more turtle-friendly fishing hooks and nets." She also says installing LED lights inside of nets can help "alert sea turtles to their presence," so the animals can swim around them.

What does the future hold for sea turtles? Bandimere is confident we can save them. "We know what threats they face," she says. "And we know what's needed to eliminate or decrease these threats. It's just a matter of making it happen."

SIJORI IMAGES/EYEEM/GETTY IMAGES

You Can Help, Too

Here are five ways you can help sea turtles.
Avoid single-use plastic. Pick up trash on the beach. Dispose of it properly.
SOLSTOCK-GETTY IMAGES
Flatten old sand castles and fill in holes in the sand. That way, female sea turtles will have a place to dig their nests and hatchlings will have a clear path to the water. Turn off flashlights on the beach during nesting season so hatchlings are not confused. Don't buy souvenirs made of sea turtle shells.

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TFK Kid Reporter Sophia Hou cares about sea turtles. She talked to experts about why these animals are in danger and how people can help. Sea turtles live in coastal areas and open waters all over the world. Six species...

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The United States government announced on August 16 that it has declared a water shortage on the Colorado River. The shortage is the result of a drought in the Southwest. Scientists say it is one of the worst droughts in 1,200 years.

"It's a historic moment where drought and climate change are at our door," Chuck Cullom says. He's a manager with the Central Arizona Project. That's a system that carries water from the Colorado River to homes and farms in Arizona.

Starting next year, the supply of water to Arizona, Nevada, and parts of Mexico will be reduced. Farmers in Arizona will see the biggest decreases, about 20%.

Extreme hot weather is causing water from melting snowcaps to dry up before it reaches the river. Lake Mead is the largest reservoir on the Colorado River. It's expected to be only 34% full by the end of 2021. If its levels continue to fall, the U.S. government could make further cuts. These could affect 40 million people in seven states and Mexico.

Tanya Trujillo, of the U.S. Department of the Interior, says the communities that depend on the Colorado River will have to work together to conserve the area's resources. "Now is the time to take action," she says.
How do the photograph and caption support the information in the article?

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The United States government announced on August 16 that it has declared a water shortage on the Colorado River. The shortage is the result of a drought in the Southwest. Scientists say it is one of the worst droughts in...

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Emergency response crews have been hard at work in Louisiana and Mississippi after Hurricane Ida tore through the region. Ida barreled into Louisiana's coast on August 29, as a Category 4 hurricane. It was one of the most powerful storms ever to hit the United States.

Winds reached 150 miles per hour, and rain brought major flooding. At press time, four people had died and many more were injured.

More than a million homes and businesses lost electricity. Damage to the power system was so bad that electricity may not be back on for weeks, officials say. "We have a lot of work ahead of us, and no one is under the illusion that this is going to be a short process," John Bel Edwards says. He's Louisiana's governor.

Some 440,000 people in Louisiana were without water after treatment plants flooded or lost power. When the storm was over, temperatures topped 85°F. High humidity made the heat feel worse.

Those who returned after evacuating have faced challenges. Stephanie Blaise lives in New Orleans, Louisiana. Her power was still out, so she hoped to stay for a short time only. "I'm going to have to convince him to leave," she said of her father, who came with her. "Can't stay in this heat."
Stop and Think! Who are the people quoted in this article? What makes them reliable sources? Who else could the author have quoted, and why?

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Emergency response crews have been hard at work in Louisiana and Mississippi after Hurricane Ida tore through the region. Ida barreled into Louisiana's coast on August 29, as a Category 4 hurricane. It was one of the most powerful storms...

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The SpaceX Crew Dragon is nearly 27 feet tall. A powerful rocket lifts it into space. Dragon made its first crewed flight in 2020. It will carry Inspiration4 astronauts to space this month. Read on to learn about the parts of the craft.

1. Nose Cone
This opens to a windowed cupola, where astronauts can see into space.
2. Capsule
This is the pressurized section of the craft. It carries the crew.
3. Windows 4. Side hatch 5. Engines 6. 16 thrusters
These help position the craft.
7. Modernized instrument panels
Three large touch screens face the four astronauts. Each screen is capable of calling up 10 sets of displays.
8. Launch abort system
This separates the capsule from the rocket in case of emergency.
9. Heat shield 10. Unpressurized trunk section
Half of this is covered in solar panels to provide power. The trunk detaches shortly before reentry. It is also used to hold cargo and has a capacity of 1,300 cubic feet.
11. Four fins
These fins are the base of the trunk. They help stabilize the Dragon in the event that the mission must be cut short.

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The SpaceX Crew Dragon is nearly 27 feet tall. A powerful rocket lifts it into space. Dragon made its first crewed flight in 2020. It will carry Inspiration4 astronauts to space this month. Read on to learn about the parts...

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This month, four civilian astronauts are scheduled to launch into orbit aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft. Their mission is called Inspiration4. Here’s what you need to know about this historic moment in space travel. Where is the crew going?…

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How do you fly a SpaceX Crew Dragon? Climb aboard, strap yourself in, close the hatch, and fly into space. The Dragon takes care of everything, so relax and enjoy the ride. Unless something goes wrong. And in space, something always can.

How do you prepare for that? Spend months training. Master hundreds of pages of procedures. Learn the many systems aboard the spacecraft. And train for emergencies.

"In a multiday mission, there is a lot of time for a lot of things to go wrong," Jared Isaacman says. He's the CEO of the online payment service Shift4 Payments. Isaacman will be commanding the Inspiration4 mission. It is scheduled to launch on September 15. He and three other civilian, or nonprofessional, astronauts will spend three days in orbit.

PHILIP MONTGOMERY FOR TIME

Inspiration4 is the world's first all-civilian mission to orbit Earth. Isaacman will be joined by three others. They are Chris Sembroski, Sian Proctor, and Hayley Arceneaux. (See "Meet the Crew.") Isaacman hopes the Inspiration4 mission will raise money and awareness for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. The hospital researches and treats childhood cancers and other life-threatening diseases.

A New Kind of Training

The astronauts have practiced for all the possibilities of what can happen in space. This takes a new kind of training. Older space capsules were designed differently. Their instrument panels had hundreds of buttons. Their simple onboard computers were controlled by a keyboard. The commander flew those ships similarly to how you'd fly a plane. He or she used a control stick. The Dragon 's designers replaced almost everything with three large touch screens. Even the control stick. Each screen can call up 10 sets of displays.

COURTESY SPACEX

Ideally, the spacecraft helps the astronauts so much that they have almost nothing to do. It runs on its own. "And if the automation doesn't take care of a problem, then the ground is your next layer of defense," Doug Hurley says. He was commander of the first crewed SpaceX mission. He's talking about the SpaceX ground controllers. They solve problems. And they issue commands to the spacecraft from mission control on Earth. Only if the Dragon fails to look after itself would the astronauts take over.

That's also the case when it comes to flying the craft. The manual × manual Dragon has a program that requires no help from the astronauts. On Hurley's flight, he took over near the International Space Station (ISS). But only to make sure the MIKE HARRINGTON-GETTY IMAGES by hand (adjective) I spent the summer doing manual labor on my family's farm. systems worked.

JOHN KRAUS-INSPIRATION4

Learning to fly the Dragon by hand can take some doing. Removing the control stick and replacing it with a touch screen might make for a more elegant spacecraft. But it also removes a physical connection a pilot has to his or her vehicle. "When you're flying off soft keys on a touch screen, it's a totally different feel," says Isaacman. "A lot of muscle memory is lost." Isaacman is a licensed jet pilot. So he knows what he's talking about. He says moving the stick creates an instant response. But with the touch screen, there's some delay.

Risks and Rewards

Some emergencies require in-person human action. And they need it right away. Fires can break out. Crew members on Russia's Mir space station had to battle a blaze in 1997. This can happen when a battery overheats. And there are a lot of batteries aboard the Dragon.

COURTESY SPACEX/NASA

There's also the risk of depressurization. This is when the air inside the craft changes. Some of it escapes into space. If this happens, crew members need to find the leak. They must seal it off while scrambling into their suits. A launch emergency might happen, too. And the Dragon 's guidance system could fail.

Finally, there are risks in the simple number of days the Inspiration4 crew will spend in orbit. Crews heading for the ISS fly there directly. They are usually aboard within a day or so of launching. The Inspiration4 crew will be in orbit for three days. But the passengers won't join the ISS. Their craft will orbit above it. Every day on their own will be another day when something can go wrong.

PHILIP MONTGOMERY FOR TIME

Ideally, no problems would occur on any mission. So far, SpaceX's Dragon has made three flights with crews. Nothing major has gone wrong on any of those flights. But space is a dangerous place. The Inspiration4 crew has to be as prepared as possible.

Isaacman understands the risks. But he feels good about the progress that the Inspiration4 crew has made. "I think we've definitely arrived at the point where we're ready," he says. "This is going to be a well-executed mission."

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How do you fly a SpaceX Crew Dragon? Climb aboard, strap yourself in, close the hatch, and fly into space. The Dragon takes care of everything, so relax and enjoy the ride. Unless something goes wrong. And in space, something...

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Emma Raducanu, 18, won the Grand Slam women's final at the U.S. Open on September 11. The tennis player from the United Kingdom beat 19-year-old Canadian Leylah Fernandez 6-4, 6-3. It was the first time since 1999 that two teens competed in a major tennis tournament final.

When she entered the U.S. Open, Raducanu was largely unknown to tennis fans. Then she won 10 matches to finish undefeated. Now she has people's attention. Queen Elizabeth II wrote to Raducanu to applaud her "remarkable achievement at such a young age."

Tennis star Billie Jean King handed Raducanu the championship trophy at Arthur Ashe Stadium, in New York City. Raducanu celebrated by carrying it around the court. "I can't believe it," she said.

ELSA-GETTY IMAGES

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Emma Raducanu, 18, won the Grand Slam women's final at the U.S. Open on September 11. The tennis player from the United Kingdom beat 19-year-old Canadian Leylah Fernandez 6-4, 6-3. It was the first time since 1999 that two teens...

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The Inspiration4 mission has officially begun. On Thursday, September 15, at just after 8:00 p.m. ET, four civilian astronauts blasted off from Kennedy Space Center, in Florida. This is the first time an all-civilian crew has gone into orbit.

The launch was live-streamed for people around the world to see. There's a camera inside the Crew Dragon spacecraft. As they traveled away from Earth, the astronauts could be seen giving thumbs-up and fist-bumping.

The Crew Dragon will orbit the Earth for three days before splashing down off the coast of Florida. While on board, the crew members plan to perform health experiments. They'll also call loved ones and hospital patients back at home. One of the astronauts, an artist, will do some painting, to learn how watercolors behave in zero gravity.

With a top altitude of 360 miles, the Crew Dragon is orbiting even higher than the International Space Station. "We want to get outside of our comfort zone," billionaire Jared Isaacman told TIME. He's the mission's commander. "If we ultimately want to go to the moon and Mars, we should start taking steps today so we can eventually make life interplanetary."

JOHN KRAUS-INSPIRATION4

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The Inspiration4 mission has officially begun. On Thursday, September 15, at just after 8:00 p.m. ET, four civilian astronauts blasted off from Kennedy Space Center, in Florida. This is the first time an all-civilian crew has gone into orbit. The...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/saving-monarchs-3/?rl=en-830

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In the 1980s, about 4.5 million monarchs spent winter on the coast of California and northern Mexico every year. "There would be these forests full of monarch butterflies looking like leaves on trees," Elizabeth Crone told TIME for Kids. Crone is a professor at Tufts University, in Massachusetts. She studies the species.

GEORGE ROSE-GETTY IMAGES

In 2020, fewer than 2,000 monarchs were counted in California. This means their population has dropped more than 99%. "The decline has been pretty staggering," says Hillary Sardiñas of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW). In the West, "folks haven't seen monarchs in a number of years."

To change that, CDFW, River Partners, and other groups began last year to plant 30,000 milkweeds in California. Monarchs need milkweed to survive. Will this plan save the insect from extinction?

Monarchs and Milkweed

Monarchs have a "very specific relationship" to milkweed, Sardiñas says. They breed only where milkweed is growing. Females lay eggs on it, and monarch caterpillars eat it. The plant is poisonous to many animals, but not to monarchs. Its toxins build up in the butterfly's body, making the monarch deadly to predators.

COURTESY CHERYL SCHULTZ

In California, milkweed is "virtually gone" because of farming, says Cheryl Schultz, of Washington State University. She's an adviser on the project. The goal, Schultz says, "is to get enough milkweed into the landscape so that when monarchs are migrating and leave the coast, they can find places to breed." Wildflowers such as lupine have also been planted. They provide the nectar monarchs need to fuel their migration.

COURTESY RIVER PARTNERS

In North America, there are two groups of monarch butterflies. Eastern monarchs live east of the Rocky Mountains. They migrate south to Mexico in the fall and fly back north in the spring. Western monarchs live west of the Rockies. In the fall, they migrate to California and northern Mexico. In the spring, they fly inland × inland SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY-NASA/GETTY IMAGES away from the coast (adverb) As the hurricane approached, we traveled inland. .

Both groups are in decline. Scientists blame habitat loss, climate change, and pesticides. But monarch butterflies aren't on the endangered-species list. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service said last year that monarchs deserved protection but that other species needed more help.

In the Field

On a windy day in March, Asia Jones, of River Partners, led a 15-person crew at the Yolo Bypass Wildlife Area. The Northern California site is one of eight planting locations. Each person carried a bucket of 100 milkweed rhizomes × rhizome NUJALEE-GETTY IMAGES a thick plant stem that grows underground and has shoots and roots growing from it (noun) People use a ginger plant's rhizome to spice up their dishes. . "They'd walk in a straight line down a row, and every three feet, they'd dig a quick hole and throw in a rhizome," Jones says. Together, they planted 4,500 rhizomes. They also spread lupine seeds.

COURTESY RIVER PARTNERS

COURTESY RIVER PARTNERS

Data from the next western monarch count, by the Xerces Society, is due in January. "People like to see these bright-colored orange butterflies," Crone says. But Schultz thinks it will take "at least a decade" to note a significant increase in their numbers. "Restoring the habitat takes time," she says. "We're not going to see results overnight. . . . But I have an incredible sense of hope that we can do this."

You Can Help

TEDDI YAEGER PHOTOGRAPHY/GETTY IMAGES; MARKO GEBER-GETTY IMAGES (INSET BUTTERFLY); COMPOSITE BY STEPHEN BLUE FOR TIME FOR KIDS

Do your part to protect monarch butterflies. "What I want kids to do is get engaged," says Hillary Sardiñas, of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Plant native milkweed. Grow wildflowers. If you are in the West and see a monarch, take a photo. Upload it to the Western Monarch Milkweed Mapper. "You can help track the migrating monarchs and understand where they are during the year," Sardiñas says. "That's super valuable information to us."

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In the 1980s, about 4.5 million monarchs spent winter on the coast of California and northern Mexico every year. "There would be these forests full of monarch butterflies looking like leaves on trees," Elizabeth Crone told TIME for Kids. Crone...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/giants-danger/?rl=en-960

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California's KNP Complex wildfire forced the evacuation of Sequoia National Park on September 14. The blaze threatened the park's giant sequoia trees. These trees are some of the largest in the world.

By September 17, the fire had reached the edge of the park's Giant Forest, a grove of 2,000 sequoias. Firefighters covered the bases of trees with heat-resistant aluminum. This helped keep the fire from reaching farther into the area. "The fire perimeter kind of wraps around the Giant Forest," fire spokesperson Rebecca Paterson says.

A blaze called the Windy Fire burned through other sequoia groves. These included Peyrone and Red Hill. It also struck the Trail of 100 Giants, at the Giant Sequoia National Monument. At press time, the fire had burned almost 50 square miles and was just 7% contained.

According to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, more than 7,000 wildfires have destroyed or damaged 3,000 homes or other buildings in the state this year. Scientists say climate change is causing warmer and drier conditions in the West. These conditions will lead to more-frequent wildfires.
Stop and Think! How do the headline and photo work together to grab your attention? How do they help you understand the story?

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California's KNP Complex wildfire forced the evacuation of Sequoia National Park on September 14. The blaze threatened the park's giant sequoia trees. These trees are some of the largest in the world. By September 17, the fire had reached the...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/reef-relief/?rl=en-900

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Tony Fontes first went scuba diving at the Great Barrier Reef in 1979. A native Californian, he was so amazed by the experience that he decided to stay in Australia and work as a dive instructor. "The marine life and the quality of coral [were] unmatched," he told TIME.

REINHARD DIRSCHERL-GETTY IMAGES

Over the decades, Fontes has seen the reef's health decline. So he was disappointed on July 23, when the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) made an announcement. It had decided to delay labeling the reef as "in danger." This label would have granted the reef "the kind of protection it needs," Fontes says. Could a delay in protections cost the Great Barrier Reef its future?

Behind the Decision

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef ecosystem × ecosystem JAMESPHOTOGRAPHY.COM.AU-GETTY IMAGES the living and nonliving things that make up an environment and affect one another (noun) The rainforest's ecosystem includes many unique plants and animals. . It stretches for 1,430 miles along the northeast coast of Australia. It can be seen from space. The reef is a UNESCO World Heritage site (see "Around the World").

On June 21, UNESCO recommended that the reef be placed on a list of "in danger" World Heritage sites. UNESCO called climate change × climate change PAUL SOUDERS-GETTY IMAGES changes in the Earth's weather patterns (noun) The sea ice that polar bears hunt from is melting due to climate change. "the most serious threat" to the reef. But Australia's government argued against the "in danger" label. The reef is one of the country's top tourist spots. Before the pandemic, it attracted nearly 3 million visitors a year. That may change if the reef is listed as endangered.

CAVAN IMAGES/GETTY IMAGES

The day after UNESCO's announcement, Sussan Ley made a statement. Ley is Australia's minister for the environment. "This draft recommendation has been made without examining the reef firsthand and without the latest information," she said. Ley pointed out the country's investment of $3 billion Australian (about $2.2 billion U.S.) in reef protection.

In response, UNESCO announced on July 23 that it would delay its decision. It asked the Australian government to deliver a report on the state of the reef. That report is expected by February 2022.

Climate Change Concerns

Environmentalists and scientists are worried about UNESCO's delayed decision. For years, many have warned of the danger that climate change poses to the reef.

In 2020, researchers from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, in Queensland, Australia, released a study. It found that from 1995 to 2017, the Great Barrier Reef had lost more than half of its corals. And there were three mass bleaching events from 2016 to 2020. (Bleaching happens when corals are stressed by changes in conditions, such as warming waters.)

BRETT MONROE GARNER-GETTY IMAGES

In July, several top scientists sent a letter to UNESCO. They said the reef should be considered "in danger" partly because Australia "has so far not pulled its weight" in the fight against climate change. Now, with its reef report due early next year, Australia has a short time to prove its commitment to taking action.

Fontes hopes action comes quickly. "It's still the most incredible reef," he says. "But it's in serious trouble."

Around the World

The Great Barrier Reef is one of 1,154 World Heritage sites. UNESCO says a place must be "of outstanding universal value" to make the list. It must meet at least one of 10 criteria. These are natural, cultural, and historical reasons a site can be seen as important. The Porticoes of Bologna (below), in Italy, were one of the sites UNESCO added in 2021. Being on the list attracts tourism. It also draws attention to places that are environmentally important.

STR/XINHUA/GETTY IMAGES

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Tony Fontes first went scuba diving at the Great Barrier Reef in 1979. A native Californian, he was so amazed by the experience that he decided to stay in Australia and work as a dive instructor. "The marine life and...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/8-questions-chris-cassidy/

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Among the Stars is a new documentary series. It follows astronaut Chris Cassidy on his final mission to the International Space Station (ISS). TFK Kid Reporter Creedence Peterson spoke with Cassidy.

1. What's the scariest moment you've experienced on a space mission?

It has to be a spacewalk with Luca Parmitano. Water started coming into his helmet. I think if you watch the documentary, it's the opening scene.

2. Civilians have now gone to space on privately funded missions. How common do you think it'll be for kids in my generation to go to space?

I think it's going to become much more common for nonprofessional astronauts to go to space. Certainly, in your lifetime, a family could decide to take a space vacation. Right now the price is still pretty expensive for somebody to buy a ticket to space. But eventually, the price will come down to the point where more people can seriously consider that as an option.

3. Have you ever been scared you'll float away while walking in space?

Becoming untethered is something that we train hard to not do. If you do, there's a mini jet pack that doesn't have a lot of gas in it, but it has some. We train on how to use that to get back to the space station. It's still scary when you go outside the spacecraft your first time, or even your 10th time, like I have.

4. I saw in the series that you were responsible for repairing the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS). What is it, and why is it important to the study of space?

The AMS is a device that studies the origins of the universe. The documentary goes into a nice explanation on how it does its thing. It's a piece of equipment that gives scientists around the globe so much data to learn from.

5. How did COVID-19 have an impact on your mission?

In terms of our day-to-day life on board the space station, nothing really changed for us. We understood that the people we were talking to on the ground, however, had a great deal of new things to experience. But aboard the space station, it was largely life as normal.

6. Have you ever gotten spacesick?

It doesn't matter if you're used to flying in airplanes upside down and sideways. Space sickness can happen to anyone. It happens soon after the rocket engines cut off. You go from Earth gravity to g-force through the acceleration of launch, and then boom: You're floating. Many of us take motion-sickness medication on the launchpad. But it happens to all of us eventually.

7. Is it hard to sleep in space?

It's a little hard when you're not used to it. What do you do with your arms when you sleep in bed? You can have them on your side or around your pillow. But you have no pillow up there, and you have no side. You're just floating. But you get used to it.

8. Does food taste different in space?

No. Tastes the same.
This interview has been edited for length and clarity. Among the Stars is available on Disney+.

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Among the Stars is a new documentary series. It follows astronaut Chris Cassidy on his final mission to the International Space Station (ISS). TFK Kid Reporter Creedence Peterson spoke with Cassidy. 1. What's the scariest moment you've experienced on a...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/repairing-the-planet/?rl=en-900

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On October 17, the winners of the first annual Earthshot Prize were announced in London, England. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, is a founder of the award. His aim is to inspire new ideas and technologies for helping the environment and fighting climate change.

"We need everyone, from all parts of society, to raise their ambition and unite in repairing our planet," William says.

Each of the five winning groups will receive about $1.4 million to expand on its idea. The winners include the government of Costa Rica. It's paying citizens to restore local ecosystems. Milan, Italy, was recognized for reducing food waste. Coral farms in the Bahamas won for their work restoring reefs.

Other winners developed technologies. A group in India invented a machine that creates fuel and fertilizer from farming waste. And a group based in Europe and Asia created a device that uses emissions-free hydrogen. This can power buildings and heat homes.

The Earthshot Prize will be given every year until 2030. "The actions we choose or choose not to take in the next 10 years will determine the fate of the planet for the next thousand," William says. "The future is ours to determine."
Stop and Think! WHO is the person quoted in the article? Are the quotes meant to inform, persuade, or entertain?

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On October 17, the winners of the first annual Earthshot Prize were announced in London, England. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, is a founder of the award. His aim is to inspire new ideas and technologies for helping the environment...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/tfk-explains-covid19-vaccine-kids/

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On November 2, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for children ages 5 to 11. This vaccine helps protect against COVID-19. Here's what you need to know.

How does the vaccine work?

The vaccine works to boost the body's immunity to COVID-19. It uses something called mRNA technology. The m is for messenger. The vaccine teaches cells in your body how to attack the virus that causes COVID-19.

Will children get the same dose that adults and people ages 12 to 17 get?

No. The dose for kids ages 5 to 11 is smaller. But to be fully vaccinated, anyone who gets the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine needs two doses, given three weeks apart.

Are the vaccine side effects for kids ages 5 to 11 similar to those that other age groups might experience?

So far, yes. Some people who get the vaccine might experience fever, chills, and headache. They might also feel tired and have muscle pain. These might be signs that your immune system is working. They could last one to three days after the shot. In very rare cases, people get more-serious side effects that involve the heart. Some people experience no side effects.

Do I need to wear a mask if I'm fully vaccinated?

The CDC recommends that people who are vaccinated wear a mask indoors in places where COVID-19 is spreading at a high rate. At press time, that was the case in 73% of the U.S. The CDC also says people should follow masking rules set by state and local governments.

Don't children have a lower risk of getting a serious case of COVID-19 than adults?

Yes. But unvaccinated children can still spread the virus to people who are at greater risk for severe illness. Plus, the highly contagious Delta variant of the virus is sending more children to the hospital than early forms of the virus did.

Why did it take so long for kids ages 5 to 11 to be able to get the COVID-19 vaccine?

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reviewed the scientific data to make sure the vaccine was safe and effective for kids in this age group. Once the FDA gave its authorization for emergency use, on October 29, the CDC had to review the FDA decision.

Will vaccinating kids help control the pandemic?

Yes. There are 28 million kids in the U.S. ages 5 to 11. The government says it has enough vaccine for everyone in this age group. This will help stop the spread of the disease.

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On November 2, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine for children ages 5 to 11. This vaccine helps protect against COVID-19. Here's what you need to know. The vaccine works to boost the body's immunity to COVID-19. It uses something called mRNA technology.

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/on-this-land-2/?rl=en-850

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On a sunny day in September, about 50 people gathered to break ground for a new school building in Everett, Washington. The city sits on the homeland of the Tulalip Tribes. The president of the school board acknowledged this in his opening remarks. Then members of the tribes did a land blessing. "It was a very touching moment for us," Chelsea Craig, a Tulalip tribal member, told TIME for Kids.

EDMUND LOWE PHOTOGRAPHY/GETTY IMAGES

Around the country, schools and other organizations are starting public events and gatherings with a land acknowledgment. This is a statement meant to honor the Indigenous people who have traditionally lived in a particular area.

Gerry Ebalaroza-Tunnell is director of equity for the Mukilteo School District. She and Craig worked together to write the district's land acknowledgment. "It is part of our commitment to our community, to acknowledge the people who came before us," Ebalaroza-Tunnell says.

Uplifting History

Land acknowledgment is a common practice in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. It's becoming more widespread in the United States. Several U.S. cities have created land acknowledgment statements. These include Flagstaff and Tempe, Arizona; Eden Prairie, Minnesota; and Denver, Colorado.

Land acknowledgment has also become part of popular culture. In Illinois, the Chicago Blackhawks ice-hockey team does a land acknowledgment before every home game to honor the state's Native tribes. In New York City, a land acknowledgment was done at the 2020 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.

Brienne Colston is with the United States Department of Arts and Culture, or USDAC. (Despite its name, the group is not part of the U.S. government.) "Land acknowledgment is meant to uplift a history that's been ignored," Colston says.

CORBIS/GETTY IMAGES

In 1855, the Tulalip Tribes' ancestors gave up much of their land to the U.S. government. They moved to a reservation. This happened to other tribes, too. "For me, it's about making the invisible visible," Craig says of land acknowledgment. "It is about telling the story of people who have been silenced."

NATALIE FORBES-GETTY IMAGES

At the event in September, Tulalip tribal members shared a traditional song. "When we began to sing, we could literally feel our ancestors with us," Craig says. "It was very healing."

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On a sunny day in September, about 50 people gathered to break ground for a new school building in Everett, Washington. The city sits on the homeland of the Tulalip Tribes. The president of the school board acknowledged this in...

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https://www.timeforkids.com/g56/fighting-for-change-2/?rl=en-870

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Government officials from 196 countries gathered for the United Nations Conference of the Parties in Glasgow, Scotland, from October 31 to November 12. The conference brings world leaders together every year to address climate change.

Officials had several goals. One was to figure out how to limit the rise in global temperatures to 1.5°C above preindustrial levels. Any higher, scientists say, and the world will see a sharp increase in natural disasters. (The Earth has already warmed 1.1°C.)

At the conference, more than 100 countries agreed to cut methane emissions by 30% this decade. Methane is a planet-warming gas. More than 130 pledged to stop deforestation within that time.

But many young people say promises are not enough. They want a formal agreement. They say it's needed to make sure countries keep their promises.

On November 6, some 100,000 people attended a rally in Glasgow. "Leaders keep praising young people for standing up and protesting," Vanessa Nakate, a climate activist from Uganda, told TIME. "But saving the world needs decisions from the leaders."

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Government officials from 196 countries gathered for the United Nations Conference of the Parties in Glasgow, Scotland, from October 31 to November 12. The conference brings world leaders together every year to address climate change. Officials had several goals. One...

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Construction is the process of erection or assembly of any building or infrastructure on a site. In general, there are three types of construction:

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component.

The first buildings were huts and shelters, constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators and bulldozers.

Modern construction is consistently made of materials such as glass, steel, concrete and bricks. So it is easy to build simple forms like simple cubic forms. The new style of architecture is based on the economic basic principle:

Social economics: The need to build houses results in having too many houses to build and to create fewer special houses. Decorations and ornaments were not important.

Constructive economics: The reduction of needing points and areas allows new possibilities. That results in more free forms with the same work.

Stylistic economics: The houses represent universality and objectivity and they are a product of art.

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Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan

At-risk workers without appropriate safety equipment

Roofing requires appropriate personal protective equipment.

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Construction is the process of erection or assembly of any building or infrastructure on a site. In general, there are three types of construction: Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. Industrial construction, though a relatively small part of the entire construction industry, is a very important component.

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Introduction
New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZ62-120927)

In prehistoric times people built simple shelters to protect themselves from inclement weather, predatory animals, and other humans. As time passed and they learned more about building materials and methods, humans began to construct first huts, then castles and cathedrals, and ultimately skyscrapers and factories.

Humankind's building skills today range from the construction of tall buildings, such as the 110-story Sears Tower (now called Willis Tower) in Chicago, to sprawling structures, such as the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. Construction workers have also created countless single-family houses, apartment buildings, schools, hospitals, and other specialized structures. The science of designing and creating buildings is called architecture.

The Changing Building Industry
Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz

The construction industry is a brawny giant. Each year, projects totaling more than 100 billion dollars are undertaken in the United States alone. Building tradesmen make up the largest single group of craft workers in the country.

Mass production methods in housing and construction learned during World War II brought a new era to building construction in the postwar years. Builders began using more power tools and equipment. The use of huge cranes eliminated the backbreaking work of moving bricks, mortar, and cement from floor to floor in high-rise buildings. Methods of prefabricating building components were developed so that many types of structural components, such as pre-hung doors and manufactured stairs, could be mass produced in factories and shipped to construction sites. In addition to new techniques of construction, such new building materials as aluminum siding, tinted glass window panels, and laminated wooden beams, came into vogue during the postwar years.

Residential Construction
Most single-family houses are of standard-frame, lumber construction. Apartments and condominiums are often constructed of brick, concrete, or masonry.

Foundation and Subfloor
Foundations are usually made of cement blocks, cinder blocks, or poured concrete. They must be properly laid to keep them from sinking, shifting, cracking, or allowing excessive moisture to enter and possibly damage the completed structure.

First, concrete footings are poured into forms. A footing must extend below the frost line of the ground so that frost will not cause it to heave and crack. The width and thickness of the footing are determined by the weight of the building and the nature of the soil. Most building codes in the United States require concrete foundations, though wood foundations treated with wood preservatives are allowed in some areas.

When concrete is used for foundation walls, it is poured into forms placed on top of the footings. The forms are then secured to the footing by fitting them into a narrow slot along the length of the footing. The footings and foundation walls are sometimes poured in one operation, and steel reinforcing rods are included to strengthen the walls. Foundation walls may also be made of hollow concrete blocks joined with mortar. For added strength, reinforcing rods may be placed through the blocks and the spaces filled with mortar. Anchor bolts are placed into the wet concrete foundation. After the concrete has hardened, lengths of lumber, called sills, are fastened to the bolts, anchoring a house to its foundation.

In houses without basements or crawl spaces, the area between the foundation walls may be a continuous slab of concrete. Houses on slabs are mostly found in warm climates, where outside temperatures do not often drop below freezing. In slab preparation, the subsoil is first covered with a fill of sand, stone, gravel, or a mixture of the three. This layer is covered with a waterproof membrane, perhaps a sheet of polyethylene plastic. Insulating material and metal reinforcing rods or wire mesh are laid atop the membrane, and then concrete is poured on top of this.

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz

In houses that have basements or crawl spaces, lumber joists extend across the foundation walls to serve as the base for subfloor decking. In most styles of framing, the joists butt up against joist headers, or lengths of lumber placed on edge along the sills completely around the foundation walls.

In some houses, the supporting joists and girders may be of steel, usually I beams. Wooden joists usually have cross bridging, or light strips of lumber nailed diagonally between the joists to distribute their weight.

© Thinkstock Images/Jupiterimages

The framing for a one-story or two-story structure may be constructed from 2-inch by 4-inch pieces of lumber, called 2-by-4s. Heavier lumber is used for load-bearing joist headers over windows and doors, stair stringers, roof rafters, floor joists, and other supporting structures.

Platform-frame construction
In platform-frame construction, the system most commonly used for residential construction today, the framing of the structure is similar at all floor levels. It begins with bottom plates, usually of 2-by-4s, laid along walls and nailed through the subfloor into the joist headers. Studs of 2-by-4 lumber are nailed upright from the bottom plates. They extend to the base of the floor above, where they are topped with horizontal sets of 2-by-4s, called double top plates.

In load-bearing walls, the studs are notched for let-in strips of light lumber, which function as sway braces. Often fire-stopping, or fire-blocking, material-such as short wood pieces, gypsum board, or mineral or glass fiber-are placed between studs, joists, or rafters.

Mass-production framing
Buildings of wood construction have traditionally been cut and assembled in place, piece by piece, at the job site. Now, however, other techniques are often employed. For example, the wall sheathing, or framing, may be constructed in units using the already-installed subfloor of the building as an assembly area.

The sections may consist only of bottom plates, studs, and double top plates, or they may include insulation board, siding, and other wall parts. When the entire wall frame is assembled, the work crew raises the section into an upright position, and the frame is nailed into place. Lumber for framing is often precut for rapid assembly or prefabricated in units as a packaged home.

Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz

Roofs serve to protect against rain, snow, sunlight, wind, and extremes of temperature. They have been constructed in a wide variety of forms and are classified according to shape. Among the most common are gable, hip, gambrel, shed, mansard, and flat roofs.

In a sloping roof, such as a gable roof, the peak of the roof is created by a long horizontal length of heavy lumber called a hip rafter. Rafters extend downward on either side of the hip rafter to rest on the double top plates of the surrounding walls. The rafters are nailed to the double top plates atop the wall studs. Collar beams are sometimes nailed to each end of opposing rafters for added rigidity.

Roof trusses, prefabricated rafters assembled into triangular or bow shapes with added cross bracing, are used in many houses today. Sheathing made of 1-by-4-inch or 1-by-6-inch plywood boards is nailed horizontally or diagonally over the trusses or rafters, covering the entire roof. Insulating board may be applied in large sheets over the sheathing. Metal flashing is nailed around chimneys and in any valleys of the roof to help keep water from seeping into the house.

Of the various types of roof coverings that are available, shingles are among the most popular. These are small sections of roofing material that are nailed in overlapping rows or patterns. Shingles are made of such materials as asphalt, clay tile, concrete tile, wood, slate, fiberglass, and metal.

Exterior Walls
The outside walls of a conventional residence support much of the weight of the structure, but a facade must usually be added to give the residence an attractive appearance. Before these additions can be made, the exterior walls must be closed in. Houses constructed of standard wood frames have sheathing nailed over the studs. This sheathing may be lengths of flat lumber, sheets of plywood, or composition panels. The sheathing adds strength and insulates the house. Vapor barriers applied to the walls prevent the passage and condensation of moisture, which could damage the structure. Asphalt-impregnated building paper, rolled out and tacked to the sheathing, is a typical barrier. Sheets of plastic or metal foil are also used. These may come laminated to the sheathing.

Insulating materials, usually fiberglass or mineral wools, are applied in rolls, blankets, or in loose form between the studs. Packaged insulation is fastened to the studs with stapling guns.

Once all this is done, exterior siding can be installed over the sheathing and vapor barrier. Builders can apply several types of materials, such as brick veneer, siding, and shingles, to the exterior surface. Siding may be constructed from woods such as cedar or from aluminum, vinyl, steel, or stucco (a rough-textured finish of cement, sand, and lime). Caulking is applied around windows and doors to seal them against the weather, and paint or stain is applied to wood exteriors.

Interior Walls
© vita khorzhevska/Shutterstock.com

The interior walls of many of the finer homes in the United States and other countries of the Western Hemisphere were once made of gypsum plaster. To make gypsum plaster, builders mixed plaster in powdered form with water and then applied this mixture over lath made of wire mesh or gypsum.

Today drywall, or plasterboard, is most commonly used. It consists of pre-dried panels of plaster sandwiched between sheets of heavy paper or other facing material. Drywall sections are screwed or nailed directly to studs, and the seams between the panels are sealed with a joint compound and covered with a porous paper or vinyl tape to give a smooth surface to the finished drywall. Other interior panels are made of wood, plywood, or composition board. ( See also plaster and wallboard.)

In laying a floor, a layer of large sheets of plywood or composition board is installed above the subflooring. This is done to cover the ridges and seams of the subflooring and to provide a smooth surface for the floor covering.

Floors and floor coverings are made from a variety of materials. Wood floors coated with varnish have been popular ever since frame construction was first developed. Other floor coverings include sheets or tiles of vinyl, asphalt, rubber, ceramic, stone, or carpeting. Some floors are combinations of these materials.

Plumbing, Ventilating, and Wiring
The pipes that can be installed for plumbing and heating and the wiring that can be used for electrical fixtures are controlled by local building codes. Pipes, for example, may be constructed only of galvanized steel or of copper, brass, or plastic tubing.

Pipes and wiring are concealed within walls and floors or in the attic, basement, or crawl space. All of this must be in place before kitchen, bathroom, and laundry room fixtures can be installed.

The heating units most popular today are central furnaces, which usually burn gas or fuel oil. In the walls and floors of most homes the heat is circulated by means of sheet metal ducts, which go to openings, called registers, in each room.( See also heating and ventilating.)

In homes heated by hot-water systems, heated water circulates through pipes to radiators or baseboard convectors. Heat pumps are electrically operated air conditioning units that are used for both heating and cooling. For heating, the air flow is reversed from that used for cooling in such a way that the pump cools the outside air and discharges the heat thus absorbed into the home.

Since the 1960s, when energy costs began to surge, interest in solar energy has grown. Solar collectors, devices that absorb the sun's heat and either reradiate it immediately into the home or store it for use at a later time, have proved useful for residential hot-water heating, particularly in warm climates.

Other Kinds of Construction
Buildings designed for the manufacture, processing, storage, or sale of goods generally must be constructed of materials much heavier than those used for family dwellings. Sturdy construction is also required in large office buildings and in such institutional structures as schools and hospitals.

Many problems must be solved by design engineers before construction can begin on a large building. Factors that must be considered include dead load, or the weight of the building and its attachments, and live load, or the load to which the building will be subjected in addition to its own weight. Stress and strain; torsion, or twisting; and shear, or force, which tends to cause deformation by sliding action, are other factors that must be considered. They are determined by mathematical formulas or actual tests. The effect of possible seismic, or earthquake, activity must also be evaluated.

Foundations and Framing
Extensive studies of soil mechanics must be made before foundations are laid for skyscrapers. Facts about the ground are determined by drilling or boring holes for soil samples and by transmitting sound waves and electric currents through the soil.

Foundation piles, long columns usually made of steel or creosote-impregnated poles, are pounded deep into the ground by pile drivers. Most of these machines use air pressure to operate their huge hammers, though more recently developed models drive piles by applying to them a constant vibration. These newer drivers are quiet and do not create shock waves.

Foundation soil may also be made rigid by packing it down with heavy machines or by flowing grout, a watery concrete, into voids and spaces in the soil. Caissons, which are shells of timber, steel, or concrete, are often placed deep into the ground-usually down to bedrock or some firm base-and filled with reinforced concrete. They are used as pillars to support footings.

The framework of large buildings is made of heavy fireproof material, such as structural steel or reinforced concrete. Concrete in combination with steel is also used for roofs and for interior walls, floors, and ceilings. Some of these concrete elements are both precast and prestressed and are placed into position by cranes. Most concrete, however, is poured into place at the building site. Slip forms, which may be slipped (or drawn) upward as each section of wall hardens, help speed the construction of skyscrapers.

Several types of steel framing are used in the construction of light buildings. One example is wall-bearing framing, which allows the weight of a building to be carried on both its exterior and interior walls, as it is in residential houses. This method is used in buildings of three stories or less.

A skyscraper is constructed with a steel skeleton framework that supports the weight of the entire building. Credit for inventing this type of structure is usually given to William Le Baron Jenney, who planned the Home Insurance Building constructed in Chicago during 1884-85.

Long-span framing distributes loads over large roof areas through the use of girders, trusses, arches, rigid frames, or cantilever-suspension spans. Cantilevers overhang the sides of walls and distribute and balance loads on the opposite sides. Steel posts are often enclosed in fire-resisting terra-cotta or in concrete. This restrains them from twisting under extreme heat.

A steel framework is joined together by bolting, riveting, or welding. A new method permits the pieces to be joined by fasteners that interlock and are sealed by the blows of a hammer.

Cranes and derricks are used to lift the steel beams and other materials to various floor levels. Some derricks are fastened to the structures and jumped, or repositioned, through a process by which the derrick lifts itself to the floor above.

Sometimes a central supporting service core of steel and concrete is included in tall buildings. This core contains such utility equipment as elevators, plumbing, electrical cables, and stairways. The core is built first, and the remainder of the building is constructed around the core. Embedded in some cores are permanent steel cables that help support the surrounding structure.

The non-load-bearing exterior areas of modern high buildings are called curtain walls. These large expanses are covered by glass and such other decorative materials as steel, aluminum, and plastic.

After World War II, prefabricators constructed one-room apartments as complete modular units. With cranes, they then assembled the apartments, one on top of another, into larger buildings. Such construction is no longer popular.

Helicopters have been used to transport and set into place some building components, but this also has limited usage because of the tremendous weight involved. Sometimes prefabricated steel stairway units are placed one above the other to give workers easier access to a structure.

Trusses and Domes
In gymnasiums, churches, stores, and factories, the interior areas are usually kept clear of posts or supporting walls. Trusses and arches of wood, metal, or reinforced concrete are used to span the large open areas and support the roofs.

Instead of trusses, many modern buildings, such as sports arenas, have domes of reinforced concrete, plastic, glass, iron, and aluminum. The domes may be formed into various geometrical patterns. In the United States domed roofs are notable for their use in enclosing huge stadiums. The first of these was the Houston Astrodome, completed in 1965. Others include the New Orleans Superdome, the Seattle Kingdome, and Detroit's Silverdome.

Modular Construction
Modular construction, or modular measure, is a system in which buildings are so designed that their dimensions are multiples of a given figure. Modular measure simplifies the problem of producing standard building components and materials that will fit together in a wide variety of applications.

The American National Standards Institute promotes a module based on a three-dimensional grid with 4-inch spacings. Cooperating architects design buildings with material dimensions in multiples of 4 inches. For example, linear dimensions might be 8 inches (20 centimeters), or 5 feet (1.5 meters)-both evenly divisible by 4 inches.

Additional Reading
Bates, R.L. Stone, Clay, Glass: How Building Materials are Found and Used (Enslow, 1987). Ellison, Donald C. and others. Building Construction: Materials and Types of Construction, 6th ed. (Wiley, 1987). Flint, Russ. Let's Build a House (Ideals, 1990). Marsh, P.M. Illustrated Dictionary of Building (Wiley, 1986). Robbins, Ken. Building a House (Macmillan, 1983). Wood, Leslie. My House (Oxford, 1988).

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Introduction In prehistoric times people built simple shelters to protect themselves from inclement weather, predatory animals, and other humans. As time passed and they learned more about building materials and methods, humans began to construct first huts, then castles and cathedrals, and ultimately skyscrapers and factories.

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How Do People Become Infected With Germs?

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How Do People Become Infected With Germs?

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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Nobody likes getting a shot. They can hurt, and it's weird knowing that the nurse is about to jab you with that needle.

But shots called vaccines keep you from getting some serious diseases. These diseases could make you very sick. The pinch of a shot isn't nearly as bad as those illnesses.

How Do Shots Protect Kids?

Shots protect you by giving you only a tiny piece of a disease-causing germ or by giving you a version of the germ that is dead or very weak. Giving a whole germ that's alive would give you a disease (like measles or chickenpox).

But giving only this tiny, weakened, or dead part of the germ does not give you the disease. Instead, just the opposite happens. Your body responds to the vaccine by making antibodies. These antibodies are part of your immune system, and they can fight the disease if you ever come in contact with that nasty germ.

When your body is protected from a disease in this way, it's called being immune to an illness. In most cases, it means you won't get the illness at all. But sometimes, you can still get a mild case of the illness. This can happen with chickenpox. Even kids who get the shot to prevent chickenpox can still get a case of it. The good news is that they usually don't get a very bad case of it. Milder cases mean fewer spots and less itching.

Shots are given by injection with a needle. A syringe (say: seh-RINJ) holds the liquid vaccine, and the needle has a hole in it for the liquid to squirt through. Shots are usually given in your arm or sometimes your thigh.

First Shots

The good news is that kids get a lot of the shots they need by age 2. So if you're old enough to read this article, you've already had most of your shots! After that, a kid doesn't need many more.

Kids get a few shots when they're between 4 and 6 years old. The next set of shots isn't usually until kids are about 11 or 12 years old.

Most kids should get the flu vaccine each year. Now, instead of a shot, many kids can get it as a nasal spray. This is a mist that is sprayed into the nostrils, so there's no needle. The shot and the nasal spray work equally well. Your doctor will suggest which is best for you.

Why Do Kids Need Shots?

Shots are great for individual kids because it means that they won't get those serious diseases. But shots are great for the health of the country and world too. How? When almost all kids have had these shots, it means that these illnesses don't have much of a chance to make anyone sick.

Because most kids in the United States get all their shots, you rarely meet anyone who has had diseases like measles or mumps. Your mom or dad has probably had to show your school that you've had all your shots. Schools and camps do this because they don't want the kids spreading or catching serious illnesses.

Does Getting a Shot Hurt?

OK, it's true. Getting a shot can hurt a little. But the pain usually comes and goes pretty quickly. If you cry, don't worry about it. Lots of kids do.

To make shots easier to take, try bringing your favorite teddy bear or asking your mom or dad to hold your hand while you're getting a shot. Afterward, you may even get a little treat! Maybe your doctor gives out stickers or your mom and dad will take you to the playground.

Sometimes after a shot, your arm will be sore, look red, or have a small bump where the needle went in. You also could have a low fever. Your mom or dad can talk to the doctor about any problems you have. Usually, the soreness and fever go away quickly or after you take some pain reliever, like acetaminophen or ibuprofen.

It's OK if you don't like shots. But remember that they are your best shot at staying healthy!

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Nobody likes getting a shot. They can hurt, and it's weird knowing that the nurse is about to jab you with that needle. But shots called vaccines keep you from getting some serious diseases. These diseases could make you very sick. The pinch of a shot isn't nearly as bad as those illnesses.

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Babies are born with protection against some diseases because antibodies (proteins made by the body to fight disease) were passed to them by their mothers through the placenta. After birth, breastfed babies get the continued benefits of more antibodies in breast milk. But in both cases, the protection is temporary.

Immunization (vaccination) is a way to create immunity to some diseases. This is done by using small amounts of a killed or weakened microorganism that causes the disease.

Microorganisms can be viruses (such as the measles virus) or they can be bacteria (such as pneumococcus). Vaccines stimulate the immune system to react as if there were a real infection - it fends off the "infection" and remembers the organism so that it can fight it quickly should it enter the body later.

What Are the Types of Vaccines?

There are a few different types of vaccines. They include:

Attenuated (weakened) live viruses are used in some vaccines such as in the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine.

Killed (inactivated) viruses or bacteria are used in some vaccines, such as in IPV.

Toxoid vaccines contain an inactivated toxin produced by the bacterium. For example, the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines are toxoid vaccines.

Conjugate vaccines (such as Hib) contain parts of bacteria combined with proteins.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that kids get combination vaccines (rather than single vaccines) whenever possible. Many vaccines are offered in combination to help reduce the number of shots a child receives.

What Vaccines Do Kids Need?

The following vaccinations and schedules are recommended by the AAP. Some variations are normal and recommendations change often as new vaccines are developed. Your doctor will talk to you about the right vaccinations and schedule for your child.

Recommended vaccinations:

Vaccine Concerns

Some parents may hesitate to have their kids vaccinated because they're worried that the children will have serious reactions or may get the illness the vaccine is supposed to prevent. But because the components of vaccines are weakened or killed - and in some cases, only parts of the microorganism are used - they're unlikely to cause any serious illness.

Some vaccines may cause mild reactions, such as soreness where the shot was given or fever, but serious reactions are rare. The risks of vaccinations are small compared with the health risks of the diseases they're intended to prevent.

Immunizations are one of the best means of protection against contagious diseases.

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Babies are born with protection against some diseases because antibodies (proteins made by the body to fight disease) were passed to them by their mothers through the placenta. After birth, breastfed babies get the continued benefits of more antibodies in breast milk. But in both cases, the protection is temporary.

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Built on a collection of 40,000+ popular, high-quality books from 250+ of the world's best publishers, Epic safely fuels curiosity and reading confidence for kids 12 and under.

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Built on a collection of 40,000+ popular, high-quality books from 250+ of the world's best publishers, Epic safely fuels curiosity and reading confidence for kids 12 and under. Get Started

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Mars and Earth have a lot in common. They're both rocky planets. Though Mars is smaller, both planets have a similar length of day. They both have ice, and Mars might even have liquid water like Earth. Mars may have earthquakes - er, well, Marsquakes. And scientists have been gathering evidence that Mars, too, may hold life, in the form of microbes.

The Red Planet, like Earth, is in the Goldilocks zone around the sun. That's a zone where water can exist as a liquid - which means temperatures are right for life to potentially exist. But that doesn't mean Mars would be a fun place for humans. Mars' thin atmosphere doesn't have the oxygen we need to breathe. Temperatures get very, very cold. And wind storms can be devastating.

Still, Mars is a prime target for future astronauts, even if getting to Mars and back is no easy task. Mars is relatively close to Earth, at least for an object in space. At its closest, Mars is only 62.07 million kilometers (38.6 million miles) away. That's far enough that any messages will take 20 minutes to travel back home. And a space trip would take six to nine months to get there, and another six to nine to return home.

That trip would be full of danger. Radiation in space can damage astronauts' brains. Spending time with so little gravity can leave muscles and bones very weak. And then there's the social issues. As one scientist says: ""The mission to Mars is likely going to be four to six individuals [living] together in a can the size of a Winnebago for three years." With so much time together and so few people, astronauts heading to Mars will need to be very careful to keep their cool.

Scientists are working hard to keep astronauts safe on the trip to the Red Planet. They're finding ways to mimic gravity and figuring out what to feed people to keep them healthy. They're even developing tools to help astronauts diagnose and treat their own diseases.

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Want to know more? We've got some stories to get you started:

Surviving Mars missions will take planning and lots of innovation: Astronauts that go to Mars will need protection from microgravity and radiation, plus mini-medical devices to diagnose problems and manage emergencies. (10/22/2020) Readability: 8.0

What the Curiosity rover has learned about Mars so far: Scientists take stock of what the Curiosity rover has learned after five years on Mars - and what else it may turn up. (8/5/2018) Readability: 7.7

Finding living Martians just got a bit more believable: What might a real Martian look like? Scientists have a better idea after identifying a buried liquid lake on the Red Planet. (7/31/2018) Readability: 8.4

Explore more
Scientists Say: Goldilocks zone

Scientists are looking for signs of life on Mars, but how will they know it isn't life that hitched a ride from Earth? Here's how people building spacecraft keep them squeaky clean.

Explainer: Keeping space missions from infecting Earth and other worlds Trip to Mars could damage astronauts' brains A seventh grader named NASA's newest Mars rover Was that a Marsquake? Mars appears to have a lake of liquid water En route to Mars, astronauts may face big health risks
Want to try life on Mars? Well, you probably can't go today, but you can calculate your weight, your age and even show why water on Mars could boil while it's still cold.

Power Words
More About Power Words

boil: To heat a liquid to the temperature at which it turns to vapor.

diagnose: To analyze clues or symptoms in the search for their cause. The conclusion usually results in a diagnosis - identification of the causal problem or disease.

earthquake: A sudden and sometimes violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within Earth's crust or of volcanic action.

Goldilocks zone: A term that astronomers use for a region out from a star where conditions there might allow a planet to support life as we know it. This distance would be not too close to its sun (otherwise the extreme heat would evaporate liquids). It also can't be too far (or the extreme cold would freeze any water). But if it's just right - in that so-called Goldilocks zone - water could pool as a liquid and support life.

gravity: The force that attracts anything with mass, or bulk, toward any other thing with mass. The more mass that something has, the greater its gravity.

liquid: A material that flows freely but keeps a constant volume, like water or oil.

Mars: The fourth planet from the sun, just one planet out from Earth. Like Earth, it has seasons and moisture. But its diameter is only about half as big as Earth's.

microbe: Short for microorganism. A living thing that is too small to see with the unaided eye, including bacteria, some fungi and many other organisms such as amoebas. Most consist of a single cell.

microgravity: Gravity that is a fraction of the force experienced at sea level on Earth.

muscle: A type of tissue used to produce movement by contracting its cells, known as muscle fibers. Muscle is rich in protein, which is why predatory species seek prey containing lots of this tissue.

planet: A large celestial object that orbits a star but unlike a star does not generate any visible light.

radiation: (in physics) One of the three major ways that energy is transferred. (The other two are conduction and convection.) In radiation, electromagnetic waves carry energy from one place to another. Unlike conduction and convection, which need material to help transfer the energy, radiation can transfer energy across empty space.

Red Planet: A nickname for Mars.

risk: The chance or mathematical likelihood that some bad thing might happen. For instance, exposure to radiation poses a risk of cancer. Or the hazard - or peril - itself. (For instance: Among cancer risks that the people faced were radiation and drinking water tainted with arsenic.)

Bethany Brookshire was a longtime staff writer at Science News for Students. She has a Ph.D. in physiology and pharmacology and likes to write about neuroscience, biology, climate and more. She thinks Porgs are an invasive species.

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Mars and Earth have a lot in common. They're both rocky planets. Though Mars is smaller, both planets have a similar length of day. They both have ice, and Mars might even have liquid water like Earth. Mars may have earthquakes - er, well, Marsquakes.

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If you're lucky, you might someday walk on the surface of Mars.

For some scientists, the question is no longer whether people will ever get to Mars. It's a question of when people will travel there. The most cautious of the bunch say it may take many decades to overcome the obstacles standing in the way of such an expedition. Others are more optimistic.

"I'd like to think that missions will be going there as early as 15 years from now," says Paul Wooster. He's director of the Mars Gravity Biosatellite Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

This illustration gives an artist's impression of what a human expedition to the surface of Mars might look like.

P. Rawlings/NASA

Whether or not you want to go to Mars yourself, the Red Planet is exciting. Two radio-controlled robots, named Spirit and Opportunity, are now exploring the planet. The rovers are sending back amazing images and information about places that scientists had never before studied in such detail.

Meanwhile, President Bush recently proposed giving the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) $12 billion over the next 5 years for space exploration. He committed the United States to the goal of getting astronauts back to the moon by 2020 and then going beyond.

"We do not know where this journey will end, yet we know this: Human beings are headed into the cosmos," President Bush said in January.
Mice in space
Before any of us can vacation on Mars, though, there are still plenty of complications to iron out. Some of the biggest questions have to do with the human body. We are fine-tuned to deal with conditions here on Earth. How our bodies might react to living on another planet is anybody's guess.

Gravity, in particular, is a big concern. Because Mars is smaller and less massive than Earth, its gravity is weaker than Earth's. A person weighing 100 pounds on Earth would weigh just 38 pounds on Mars. What's more, astronauts would experience zero gravity during the year or more of travel time going to and from Mars.

When astronauts spend time in zero gravity, their muscles and bones break down. It's as if they had been lying motionless in bed for a long time. If astronauts don't do weight-bearing exercises while they're in orbit aboard the space shuttle or space station, it can be difficult for them to walk when they get back. The longer astronauts spend in space, the longer it takes them to recover.

A mission to Mars would last at least two and a half years, including travel time. That's much longer than anyone has previously spent in outer space.

To find out how mammals might fare on Mars, Wooster is planning to send 15 mice into outer space. Each mouse will have its own cage. For 5 weeks, the spacecraft will spin just enough for the mice to experience the gravitational pull found on Mars.

This illustration shows what the Mars Gravity Biosatellite would look like in orbit.

Georgi Petrov, Mars Gravity Biosatellite Program, MIT

Over the course of the mission, Wooster and his collaborators (which include more than 100 college students around the world) will monitor the health and activity levels of the mice.

Each cage will be built to collect urine samples on cloth pads underneath a mesh barrier at the bottom of the cage. Every few days, an automated system will roll up and store the urine-soaked pads. When the mission returns to Earth, the scientists will look at chemical markers in the urine to measure how quickly muscles and bones break down.

"This is going to be the longest, partial-gravity study on mammals in space," says Wooster, who hopes to launch the mission as early as 2006.

What happens to mice could also happen to people. The data that researchers collect will help determine how much exercise and what types of activity Mars travelers might need to stay healthy and strong for the entire trip.

And there are other complications.

Mars doesn't have any grocery stores or fast-food restaurants. Plants don't even grow there. And the rovers still haven't found pools of liquid water on the planet. So, astronauts will have to bring all their food and water with them-enough to last several years.

Also, it will be impossible for people to breathe Martian air, which is 95 percent carbon dioxide. Earth's atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and about 0.035 percent carbon dioxide. Astronauts will need reliable spacesuits, pressurized vehicles, and airtight shelters to survive on Mars.

Heavily insulated clothes will also be essential. Because Mars is farther from the sun than Earth, it gets extremely cold in winter, with temperatures as low as -111 degrees Celsius. And a Martian year lasts 687 Earth days.
Planetary research
Putting people on Mars would be a huge boost for planetary research, Wooster says.

"In a couple of hours at most, an astronaut can do pretty much everything the rovers there are doing currently," he says. "And an astronaut can do it much better and more comprehensively."

Panoramic view of a Mars landscape, as photographed by the rover Spirit.

NASA/JPL

Already, Spirit and Opportunity have turned up some interesting findings about the rocks, dirt, and landscape of Mars. Opportunity, for instance, dug a trench with its front wheel. Analyses showed that the soil composition changes with depth. The way the soil is packed together suggests the presence of small amounts of water in the past.

On the other side of the planet, Spirit found the top layer of soil to be stickier than expected. One possibility is that liquid water in the soil that was once present in the soil combined with salts to produce the stickiness.

Finding water on Mars would be an enormous triumph. Water makes life possible here on Earth. So, finding signs of water on Mars would indicate that life might have existed there in the past and could still lurk there today.

Today, mobile robots are exploring Mars. In a few years, mice may experience Mars in their own way. Looking farther ahead, you might be the one who gets to stroll across the Red Planet's dusty surface.
Going Deeper: Word Find: Destination Mars Additional Information Questions about the Article

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If you're lucky, you might someday walk on the surface of Mars. For some scientists, the question is no longer whether people will ever get to Mars. It's a question of when people will travel there. The most cautious of the bunch say it may take many decades to overcome the obstacles standing in the ...

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When you look up at the night sky, it's hard to imagine the violent, chaotic place our solar system was billions of years ago. It looks quiet and peaceful now. But when the solar system first took shape, asteroids and other objects regularly slammed into each other. These could knock off huge chunks of rock, some that eventually became moons, and left the surfaces of the planets forever changed.

Mars may be home to the solar system's largest impact crater, hidden below lava. The impact itself, illustrated here, may have given Mars its unusual "two faces" - af high, cratered crust in the southern hemisphere and smooth, low crust in the north. This illustration was created from Caltech simulations of the impact, one of three recent studies to support the idea that the uneven surface was created by a single impact.

M. Marinova et al./Caltech

Now, scientists say one of these massive collisions knocked off much of the top of Mars, our planetary neighbor. Their findings answer a question that has long puzzled scientists: Why do the Red Planet's northern and southern hemispheres look so different from one another?

The debate started more than 30 years ago. That's when NASA scientists launched the Viking spacecraft into orbit around Mars. The spacecraft sent back the first close-up maps and images anyone had ever seen of the Martian surface.

Surprisingly, those images showed that northern Mars looks very different from southern section of the planet. The north was flat and smooth. The south appeared rugged, dotted with craters and mountains. Another NASA spacecraft, the Mars Global Surveyor, later showed that the planet's crust is also thicker in the south than in the north. In fact, the entire southern hemisphere of Mars is about four kilometers higher than the northern hemisphere.

What could account for these differences? It's been a topic of debate for decades. Some suggested that processes deep below the planet's surface gave Mars different kinds of crust in the two hemispheres. Others thought that over time the colliding meteorites, comets or other objects could have shaved off four kilometers of crust from the northern hemisphere. Still another pair of scientists suggested a single impact from just one object could have created the planet's two faces.

By studying data from two spacecraft, NASA's Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor, a team of planetary scientists was able to look below the surface of a recent lava flow on the Martian surface. Just as on Earth, volcanoes periodically spew lava over the planet's surface. And on Mars, this lava previously blocked scientists' view of the planet's underlying bedrock.

Below the lava, they found a huge crater the size of Asia, Australia and Europe combined. It runs the length of the boundary between the flat northern hemisphere and the bumpy southern hemisphere. It's an important clue, scientists say.

"Finding this elliptical boundary is a smoking gun," says Jeffrey Andrews-Hanna. He's a planetary scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. "There is only one known way to get a shape like this: impact."

The impact theory gets even more support from additional findings from other scientists.

Two other groups of researchers used computer programs to predict what kind of impact could have given Mars its dual appearance. They ran a series of computerized scenarios in which they slammed different objects into the planet at different speeds and angles.

They estimated that a Pluto-sized object traveling at 32,000 kilometers per hour would have generated enough energy to blast off the crust of the planet's northern half.

"Something big smacked into Mars and stripped half the crust off the planet," says Francis Nimmo, a planetary scientist at the University of California, Santa Cruz who ran some of the computer simulations.

Steven Squyres is a planetary scientist at Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y. These new observations still do not disprove the idea that processes deep below the planet's surface could have caused the difference in the planet's two halves, he says. But, he adds, "It's nice to see an old idea dusted off and turned into something with real physical plausibility."

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When you look up at the night sky, it's hard to imagine the violent, chaotic place our solar system was billions of years ago. It looks quiet and peaceful now. But when the solar system first took shape, asteroids and other objects regularly slammed into each other.

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This is the first of a two-part series on preparations for upcoming human space missions to the Red Planet.

Mark Watney has found himself stranded on Mars. It’s 2035 and his crewmates, thinking him dead, have left him behind in their evacuation of the Red Planet. He faces years, all alone, trying to survive in the face of radiation, storms and little food.

That last problem turns out to be a solvable one. Watney is a botanist. And he figures out how to grow potatoes. The potato seedlings come from his Thanksgiving dinner. Water is derived from leftover rocket fuel. And his own poop becomes fertilizer.

This scenario, from the book and movie The Martian, is science fiction. It is, however, based on fact. NASA studied potatoes in the 1980s and 1990s as a potential crop for human space missions. And though no one is yet growing potatoes on Mars, scientists are already developing tools to grow food in space.

This is what agriculture in space now looks like. Here, astronaut Peggy Whitson is harvesting lettuce on the International Space Station. NASA

Why? People will likely travel to Mars sometime in your lifetime. NASA has said it plans to send people to Mars in the 2030s. And the private space company SpaceX may send its first crewed mission to Mars as early as 2024.

But ferrying humans to Mars would be a much bigger challenge than getting them to the moon. To pull it off, we first need to solve a lot of problems. Getting to Mars is just one of them. Then we have to figure out where our food and water will come from. Planners also must figure out how space travelers will get any tools they may suddenly need when they’re millions of miles from the nearest hardware store. It’s a huge undertaking, but researchers around the world are already on the job.

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Space farmers

Today’s space travelers don’t go to the moon or Mars; they head to the International Space Station (ISS). It’s orbiting 381 kilometers (237 miles) above Earth’s surface. There, astronauts live for weeks to months. Among their tasks are conducting experiments and testing equipment that could be useful for future missions to the moon, an asteroid, Mars or beyond.

If you visited the ISS today, nearly every bit of food you ate would have been shipped up from Earth. The exception: leafy greens. Those are the first foods being grown on the ISS.

There are many reasons NASA wants to learn to grow vegetables in space. Besides providing fresh food for astronauts, plants can provide life support by recycling air and water. “There’s also the psychological benefit that growing plants may have,” says Gioia Massa. She’s a plant scientist and the head of NASA’s Veggie Project at Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Fla.

As Mark Watney learned on Mars, potatoes might be good survival food. They’ve got decent amounts of protein, some vitamins and other nutrients. They’re also rich in carbohydrates (sugars and starches). You couldn’t survive on potatoes alone. They could, however, help to keep you from starvation.

Gioia Massa prepares “plant pillows” containing cabbage and lettuce seeds for delivery to the International Space Station. Ben Smegelsky/NASA

There are some downsides, though. Potatoes need to be cooked before they can be eaten. And potato plants need a lot of room to grow. So Massa and her colleagues started with something easier: lettuce.

In 2014, they sent ISS astronauts a garden. Lettuce seeds were packed into “plant pillows” with baked clay and fertilizer. Add water, some artificial light and voila! The lettuce grew!

But the astronauts couldn’t eat it.

They had to send every bit back to Earth to be studied. The next year, after NASA scientists confirmed this food was safe, the astronauts grew a second crop. This time they were allowed to chow down.

The astronauts used their lettuce to garnish hamburgers. They also made lettuce wraps with lobster salad inside. “They got really creative,” Massa says.

Not surprisingly, gardening is different in space than it is on Earth. Without gravity, plants don’t know which way is up. But they adapt. They send their shoots toward light and their roots in the opposite direction. Fans must circulate air. Otherwise, oxygen would gather in a ball around the plants, and they wouldn’t have enough carbon dioxide to do photosynthesis.

The scientists also had trouble providing the plants enough water. The fabric plant pillows containing the seeds, clay and fertilizer were designed to draw water from a reservoir. But they didn’t work fast enough. The astronauts ended up needing to water the plants by hand. Massa and her team are now redesigning the watering system.

ISS astronauts also have grown Chinese cabbage as well as flowers. In addition to being pretty, astronaut Scott Kelly’s garden of zinnias helped scientists study whether plants flower in space. They do! That’s important to know, because flowering is how some plants reproduce. It’s also part of how some plants make fruit.

Future crops will include a bitter Asian green called mizuna and cherry tomatoes, which astronauts will have to pollinate by hand using a tiny brush. “We don’t have bees up there,” notes Massa. One day, they might also grow peppers and herbs.

While the veggie garden is small for now, eventually it could someday help feed astronauts on long-distance space missions — or a colony on Mars. “Everything we do is a stepping stone,” Massa explains.

Building a faster engine

NASA’s Orion spacecraft (artist’s illustration) could one day ferry astronauts to Mars. NASA Orion Spacecraft/Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Reaching the ISS from Earth takes less than a day. A trip to Mars might take nearly a year — and a huge amount of fuel. The chemical engines used to launch a rocket into space with a fiery blast are not good at propelling a spacecraft to another planet. With no gas stations between here and Mars, “You pretty much have to take all your fuel with you,” says Bill Emrich. He’s a nuclear engineer with NASA at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. “If you’re going to do that, you want an engine that’s going to get a lot of miles per gallon.”

To do that, he says, you have to go nuclear. The right engine can take a very light gas, such as hydrogen, and heat it to extremely high temperatures in a nuclear reactor. That super-heated gas is sprayed out the back through a nozzle to propel the spacecraft forward. “The hotter you can make the gas coming out of the nozzle, the more efficient it is,” Emrich explains. “Also the lighter the gas, the more efficient it is.”

Nuclear engines aren’t just efficient, they’re fast. Unmanned spacecraft have been sent to the outer solar system using what’s known as ion propulsion. It works by accelerating electrically charged atoms, or ions, to push a spacecraft forward. Such a system could take a year to deliver people to Mars.  In contrast, a nuclear thermal engine might shorten that journey to just four or five months, Emrich says.

Nuclear engineer Bill Emrich (right) and project manager Mike Houts discuss the Nuclear Thermal Rocket Element Environmental Simulator (seen in the background).Fred Deaton/NASA

To get to Mars that quickly, a large spacecraft would need about 230 grams (a half pound) of uranium fuel. Uranium is radioactive, but the uranium fuel isn’t dangerous. “You could easily hold it in your hand and it wouldn’t hurt you,” Emrich notes. But once the reactor starts to operate, the uranium is split into other elements through fission. That’s when you have to be careful. “Those [fission products] are really very radioactive. And that’s where the deadliness comes in,” he says — “not from the uranium itself, but from the byproducts [of fission].”

This system would get rid of one big worry: Even if there were an explosion at lift-off, humans and Earth’s environment would be safe. Why? The spacecraft would use conventional rocket fuel for lift-off. The nuclear-heated engine would not be turned on until the rocket was already in space. Then if there were any explosion, any radioactive material would be spewed into space.

Emrich and his colleagues are working on testing the uranium fuel for this engine. Others are working on different parts. Some are looking to develop and test the reactor. Others are designing a way to integrate the reactor into the propulsion system.

Building this next generation of space engines takes time. “If we have plenty of funding, it could probably be done in 10 to 15 years,” Emrich says.

Print it

Astronauts headed to Mars will have to take along almost everything they’ll need. They might be able to harvest some raw materials from the Red Planet. But afterward they’ll need some way to use them. “We have to be much more Earth-independent” than on missions closer to home, says Niki Werkheiser. Like Emrich, she too works at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center.

Explainer: What is 3-D printing?

Astronauts on the ISS have similar problems. If someone needs a special tool, they might have to wait months or longer for the next resupply mission. Werkheiser hopes to change that. She’s the lead scientist for a program that is bringing 3-D printing to space. With 3-D printing, astronauts could build the tools they need with the push of a button.

A 3-D printer works a bit like a hot-glue gun. Following a pattern on a computer, the printer squirts out a layer of polymer onto a tray. After this hardens into a plastic, the printer will add another layer. Then another. And it will keep this up until it has built a three-dimensional object. “You can do some really complex designs,” Werkheiser says. “You can build things with gears inside and moving parts — all in one print.”

Explainer: What are polymers?

On the ISS, printing tools could save time and money. But such printers also offer other benefits. Many of the tools and gadgets sent to space on rockets are made from strong materials. To survive the stresses of launch, they also are heavily reinforced. If they were printed in space, they could be made lighter and thinner, with more room in them for electronics, scientific instruments or other pieces. Such make-your-own tools may even be a necessity on a mission to the moon or Mars, where the delivery of spare parts may not be possible.

Niki Werkheiser, manager of NASA’s 3-D printing team, holds the structure of a “cubesat,” or micro satellite, that was printed on a prototype of the first 3-D printer to be sent to the International Space Station. Emmett Given/NASA

Printing in space doesn’t work exactly as it does on Earth. For instance, fans are needed to circulate air around the object to cool it during printing. But there are some advantages, too. “On the ground, gravity can actually cause some problems with 3-D printing,” Werkheiser says. Since hot plastic is flexible, earthbound printers sometimes need to add support structures to hold an object upright as it cools. I space, a printer can build in any direction.

Werkheiser’s team sent its first 3-D printer to the ISS in 2014. It printed paddle-shaped objects as a test. These were then compared to ones printed on Earth. “We really did not see any meaningful difference,” she says.

Next, Werkheiser hopes to launch a printer this coming spring that can recycle plastic wastes into the material for printing new objects. And in the future, NASA hopes to develop a fabrication laboratory (the “Fab Lab,” for short) that will be able to print things — even electronics — out of metal.

So now that the astronauts can print tools on demand, what was their first request? “We designed them a little back scratcher,” Werkheiser says. It turns out, the dry air on the space station causes astronauts skin to get itchy. Sometimes, at least, the problems of space exploration have very simple solutions.

Part two: En route to Mars, astronauts may face big health risks.

Power Words
More About Power Words

3-D printing     A means of producing physical items — including toys, foods and even body parts — using a machine that takes instructions from a computer program. That program tells the machine how and where to lay down successive layers of some raw material (the “ink”) to create a three-dimensional object.

asteroid     A rocky object in orbit around the sun. Most asteroids orbit in a region that falls between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Astronomers refer to this region as the asteroid belt.

astronaut     Someone trained to travel into space for research and exploration.

atom     The basic unit of a chemical element. Atoms are made up of a dense nucleus that contains positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons. The nucleus is orbited by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

carbohydrates     Any of a large group of compounds occurring in foods and living tissues, including sugars, starch and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down in an animal’s body to release energy.

carbon     The chemical element having the atomic number 6. It is the physical basis of all life on Earth. Carbon exists freely as graphite and diamond. It is an important part of coal, limestone and petroleum, and is capable of self-bonding, chemically, to form an enormous number of chemically, biologically and commercially important molecules.

carbon dioxide     (or CO₂) A colorless, odorless gas produced by all animals when the oxygen they inhale reacts with the carbon-rich foods that they’ve eaten. Carbon dioxide also is released when organic matter burns (including fossil fuels like oil or gas). Carbon dioxide acts as a greenhouse gas, trapping heat in Earth’s atmosphere. Plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen during photosynthesis, the process they use to make their own food.

chemical     A substance formed from two or more atoms that unite (bond) in a fixed proportion and structure. For example, water is a chemical made when two hydrogen atoms bond to one oxygen atom. Its chemical formula is H₂O. Chemical also can be an adjective to describe properties of materials that are the result of various reactions between different compounds.

clay     Fine-grained particles of soil that stick together and can be molded when wet. When fired under intense heat, clay can become hard and brittle. That’s why it’s used to fashion pottery and bricks.

colleague     Someone who works with another; a co-worker or team member.

electronics     Devices that are powered by electricity but whose properties are controlled by the semiconductors or other circuitry that channel or gate the movement of electric charges.

element     (in chemistry) Each of more than one hundred substances for which the smallest unit of each is a single atom. Examples include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, lithium and uranium.

engine     A machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. Sometimes an engine is called a motor. (in computer science) A computer program that performs a particular, narrow range of functions.

engineer     A person who uses science to solve problems. As a verb, to engineer means to design a device, material or process that will solve some problem or unmet need.

fertilizer     Nitrogen, phosphorus and other plant nutrients added to soil, water or foliage to boost crop growth or to replenish nutrients that were lost earlier as they were used by plant roots or leaves.

fiction     (adj. fictional) An idea or a story that is made-up, not a depiction of real events.

fission     The spontaneous splitting of a large unit into smaller self-sustaining parts. (in physics) A process in which large atomic nuclei break apart to form two or more lighter nuclei. The excess mass of the parent nuclei (compared to the resulting smaller ones) is converted into energy.

fuel     Any material that will release energy during a controlled chemical or nuclear reaction. Fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and petroleum) are a common type that liberate their energy through chemical reactions that take place when heated (usually to the point of burning).

generation     A group of individuals (in any species) born at about the same time or that are regarded as a single group. Your parents belong to one generation of your family, for example, and your grandparents to another. Similarly, you and everyone within a few years of your age across the planet are referred to as belonging to a particular generation of humans. The term also is sometimes extended to year classes of other animals or to types of inanimate objects (such as electronics or automobiles).

gravity     The force that attracts anything with mass, or bulk, toward any other thing with mass. The more mass that something has, the greater its gravity.

hydrogen     The lightest element in the universe. As a gas, it is colorless, odorless and highly flammable. It’s an integral part of many fuels, fats and chemicals that make up living tissues.

International Space Station     An artificial satellite that orbits Earth. Run by the United States and Russia, this station provides a research laboratory from which scientists can conduct experiments in biology, physics and astronomy — and make observations of Earth.

ion     (adj. ionized) An atom or molecule with an electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. An ionized gas, or plasma, is where all of the electrons have been separated from their parent atoms.

Mars     The fourth planet from the sun, just one planet out from Earth. Like Earth, it has seasons and moisture. But its diameter is only about half as big as Earth’s.

NASA     Short for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Created in 1958, this U.S. agency has become a leader in space research and in stimulating public interest in space exploration. It was through NASA that the United States sent people into orbit and ultimately to the moon. It also has sent research craft to study planets and other celestial objects in our solar system.

nozzle     A round spout or slot at the end of a pipe, hose or tube. Nozzles are typically used to control the flow of a jet of some high-pressure liquid or gas.

nutrient     A vitamin, mineral, fat, carbohydrate or protein that a plant, animal or other organism requires as part of its food in order to survive.

oxygen     A gas that makes up about 21 percent of Earth's atmosphere. All animals and many microorganisms need oxygen to fuel their growth (and metabolism).

photosynthesis     (verb: photosynthesize) The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to produce foods from carbon dioxide and water.

planet     A celestial object that orbits a star, is big enough for gravity to have squashed it into a roundish ball and has cleared other objects out of the way in its orbital neighborhood.

plastic     Any of a series of materials that are easily deformable; or synthetic materials that have been made from polymers (long strings of some building-block molecule) that tend to be lightweight, inexpensive and resistant to degradation.

pollinate     To transport male reproductive cells — pollen — to female parts of a flower. This allows fertilization, the first step in plant reproduction.

polymer     A substance made from long chains of repeating groups of atoms. Manufactured polymers include nylon, polyvinyl chloride (better known as PVC) and many types of plastics. Natural polymers include rubber, silk and cellulose (found in plants and used to make paper, for example).

pressure     Force applied uniformly over a surface, measured as force per unit of area.

propulsion     The act or process of driving something forward, using a force. For instance, jet engines are one source of propulsion used for keeping airplanes aloft.

protein     A compound made from one or more long chains of amino acids. Proteins are an essential part of all living organisms. They form the basis of living cells, muscle and tissues; they also do the work inside of cells. Among the better-known, stand-alone proteins are the hemoglobin (in blood) and the antibodies (also in blood) that attempt to fight infections. Medicines frequently work by latching onto proteins.

psychological     An adjective that refers to how the human mind works, especially in relation to guiding actions and behavior.

radiation     (in physics) One of the three major ways that energy is transferred. (The other two are conduction and convection.) In radiation, electromagnetic waves carry energy from one place to another. Unlike conduction and convection, which need material to help transfer the energy, radiation can transfer energy across empty space.

radioactive     An adjective that describes unstable elements, such as certain forms (isotopes) of uranium and plutonium. Such elements are said to be unstable because their nucleus sheds energy that is carried away by photons and/or and often one or more subatomic particles. This emission of energy is by a process known as radioactive decay.

recycle     To find new uses for something — or parts of something — that might otherwise be discarded, or treated as waste.

Red Planet     A nickname for Mars.

reservoir     A large store of something. Lakes are reservoirs that hold water. People who study infections refer to the environment in which germs can survive safely (such as the bodies of birds or pigs) as living reservoirs.

rocket     Something propelled into the air or through space, sometimes as a weapon of war. A rocket usually is lofted by the release of exhaust gases as some fuel burns. (v.) Something that flings into space at high speed as if fueled by combustion.

scenario     A possible (or likely) sequence of events and how they might play out.

science fiction     A field of literary or filmed stories that take place against a backdrop of fantasy, usually based on speculations about how science and engineering will direct developments in the distant future. The plots in many of these stories focus on space travel, exaggerated changes attributed to evolution or life in (or on) alien worlds.

seedling     The initial plant that sprouts leaves and roots after emerging from a seed.

solar system     The eight major planets and their moons in orbit around our sun, together with smaller bodies in the form of dwarf planets, asteroids, meteoroids and comets.

thermal     Of or relating to heat.

tungsten     A dense, heavy, white metallic element that has the highest melting point of all elements. It is strong and resistant to corrosion, even at the very high temperatures encountered while moving quickly through the Martian atmosphere.

uranium     The heaviest naturally occurring element known. It’s called element 92, which refers to the number of protons in its nucleus. Uranium atoms are radioactive, which means they decay into different atomic nuclei.

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These scientists are working to make a human mission to Mars a reality.

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National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Most global warming stories talk about carbon dioxide. That colorless gas accumulates in the atmosphere. There, it insulates the planet like a giant, invisible blanket. But carbon dioxide isn't the only greenhouse gas. Another, called methane, also traps heats in Earth's atmosphere (one definition of the greenhouse effect). And it insulates more than 20 times as well as the same amount of carbon dioxide. But unlike carbon dioxide, which can hover for hundreds of years, methane stays in the air for only about 12 years.

So reducing methane might be an easy way to start tackling a big problem.

In a new study, scientists say that bringing down methane emissions may be a quick, relatively simple way to slow down global warming. The scientists also report that making small efforts to reduce soot - the black carbon particles spewed from fires into the air - can help. If people were to lessen the amounts of methane and soot that end up in the atmosphere, people could knock almost a full degree Fahrenheit (half a degree Celsius) off of the warming predicted to occur by 2050.

The scientists report that reducing methane and soot would have another benefit: keeping people alive.

In addition to slowing down warming, reducing methane and soot cleans up the air. The scientists estimate that better air quality could prevent between 0.7 million and 4.7 million deaths per year that would otherwise have been caused by air pollution.

Climate scientist Drew Shindell told Science News that we could tackle two major problems without much effort by cutting back on methane and soot. Shindell says the pollutants are the "low-hanging fruit both for mitigating climate change and improving air quality."

Shindell works at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City. He and his colleagues used computer programs to test about 400 different ways to reduce pollutants. Seven tactics focused on methane, another seven on soot. Cutting methane and soot will influence the climate faster than trying to tackle problems due to carbon dioxide, their analyses found.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Not all scientists agree that the recommendations offer a clear-cut solution. Climate scientist Piers Forster works at the University of Leeds in England. He told Science News that cutting methane is probably a good start. But soot is another story. He points out that some of the sources of soot also produce particles that reflect sunlight away from the planet, keeping it cooler.

"If you were to cut out these emissions, you might actually get a warming effect instead of a cooling effect," Forster told Science News.

Even if the climate effects of cutting soot are uncertain, the study by Shindell's group points to a huge human benefit from reducing the pollutant. The scientists show that less soot should lead to fewer deaths in countries like India and China, where the black pollution can be inhaled deeply and trigger lung diseases.

Shindell and other scientists know that when people get serious about slowing down climate change, carbon dioxide will be the biggest obstacle. But maybe the world can get a head start on slowing down Earth's warming by cutting back on methane and soot.

POWER WORDS (adapted from the New Oxford American Dictionary)

methane A colorless, odorless, flammable gas that is the main constituent of natural gas. Methane is a greenhouse gas, sometimes produced in the air when natural gas does not burn completely.

carbon dioxide A colorless, odorless gas produced by burning carbon and organic compounds and by respiration. It is naturally present in air and is absorbed by plants in photosynthesis.

greenhouse gas A gas that contributes to Earth's greenhouse, or warming, effect by absorbing heat.

soot A black, powdery or flaky substance consisting largely of carbon, produced by the incomplete burning of organic matter, such as coal and wood.

Stephen Ornes lives in Nashville, Tenn., and his family has two rabbits, six chickens and a cat. He has written for Science News for Students since 2008 on topics including lightning, feral pigs, big bubbles and space junk.

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Landfills release methane into the atmosphere, where the greenhouse gas traps heat and contributes to global warming. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Most global warming stories talk about carbon dioxide. That colorless gas accumulates in the atmosphere. There, it insulates the planet like a giant, invisible blanket. But carbon dioxide isn't the only greenhouse gas.

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The biggest fire in California history ignited shortly after noon on July 27, 2018, and burned until mid-September. Called the Mendocino Complex Fire, its twin infernos started at the same time. They also burned close to one another and quickly blazed across forested lands. Together, they charred more than 1,800 square kilometers (700 square miles) - an area nearly half the size of the state of Rhode Island. Ninety crews of firefighters worked to contain it. They used hundreds of fire engines, 20 helicopters, 76 bulldozers and other tools. One firefighter died and four were injured. More than 150 homes burned, and smoke from the fire spread through the sky to nearby states.

Six of the state's worst fires blazed in 2017 and 2018. A wildfire that burned through Napa Valley in October 2017 was particularly bad. Before it ignited, people who lived in the area described incredible winds that could knock a person over. Once the fire started, witnesses saw fires jump across roads, rip through vast fields of grapes and hop over hills. During more than three weeks, the fire claimed 22 lives, destroyed more than 5,000 structures and burned more than 146 square kilometers (56 square miles). That's an area as big as one-and-a-half Disney Worlds. By year end, 2017 became California's worst wildfire year on record.

Many areas across the world have seen a rise in extreme fires in recent years. Those include western U.S. states and southern Europe. They also include places you might not expect.

For example, wildfires used to be uncommon on Alaska's North Slope. This region borders the Arctic Ocean and is home to the largest U.S. oil field. Now, however, fires are igniting there more frequently. The same is true in other Arctic regions. In July, for instance, people had to evacuate cities in northern Sweden as wildfires swept through them.

Some reasons for the rise in destructive fires are clear. People have been building homes on the edge of forests that face a high risk of fire. Periods of heavy rainfall can also spur a massive growth in vegetation. If that same area later experiences a drought - and California has suffered from many droughts in recent years - that new vegetation may dry out and become tinder that burns easily.

"The Napa Valley fires were a good example of this," said Timothy Brown. He spoke during an online press briefing in August 2018. (It had been organized by a science communication project called SciLine.) During the briefing, experts talked about climate and weather. "Extreme precipitation in the winter and spring allowed for extensive [vegetation] growth," he noted. "Then, when that dried later in the fall, it became very flammable and susceptible to ignition." Brown is a climate scientist at the Desert Research Institute in Reno, Nev.

The signal of climate change

Has climate change made wildfires worse and megafires more likely? That's what Brown and other climate scientists want to know. More importantly, they worry that more intense fires could become the new normal.

Studies have long predicted that warmer temperatures, due to climate change, make droughts and heat waves more likely. Many areas hit by recent fires had suffered through extreme droughts and heat waves.

But connecting individual fires to climate change is complicated. That's partly because fire is complicated. Blaming climate change for any single fire is too simple. It ignores the natural conditions that make fire possible. But hotter days and warmer nights, caused by changes in the climate, do likely boost the risk of fire.

Scientists are still trying to agree on what makes a blaze ignite and spread. A wildfire has three main ingredients. First, it needs a spark. This can come from lightning or a downed power line. It can also come from negligent or malicious people who set fires by accident or on purpose. Brown points out that people start four out of every five wildfires. Second, a fire needs fuel to burn. This can be the trees in the forest or the dead "litter" - leaves, twigs and grass - on or near the forest floor. Finally, a fire needs weather conditions, like wind and no rain, to help it spread.

Many studies predict that climate change will boost the number of droughts and heat waves. Fire-ravaged areas, including California and Sweden, have had extreme droughts and extreme heat in recent years. Some scientists point to these weather events as proof that climate change makes wildfires worse.

But it's even more complicated than that, says Janice Coen.

Fires can make their own weather

Coen is a meteorologist at UCAR. That's the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colo. Testing hypotheses about fire is difficult, she explains. After all, scientists can't go out and start a megafire. But she can make a computer model to test various ideas about the conditions that play a role in them. And that is exactly what Coen and her team did.

California's 2014 King Fire burned for 27 days. During that time, it destroyed 12 homes. It was started by a man who recorded a selfie of himself right afterward. (He's now in jail.) Coen wanted to know why the blaze raced so quickly through a forest canyon. To find out, she recreated the fire with a computer program. It used math to study how air particles move. It included data about temperature, humidity, air pressure and wind speeds. Those measurements had been collected by satellites, weather stations and special planes with onboard sensors.

These data helped her team explore why the King fire behaved as it did. Laws of physics "tell us what the answer ought to be," she explains. Those answers can then help scientists predict how future fires will behave.

Some ecologists said the King fire burned so fast and so intensely because it had so much fuel. No fires had burned in that area for years. As a result, leaves and other plant debris had built up on the forest floor. Other researchers blamed the drought. But Coen found yet another culprit: the atmosphere. She reported her findings in the May Ecological Applications.

As a fire burns, it releases heat and water vapor, a gas. As that hot air rises, cooler air is drawn in at the bottom. This process creates a column of rising air. It also creates wind. In the case of the King Fire, those local winds drove the fire into new vegetation - more fuel, Coen's team reported. As the fire grew, it created more wind, which made the fire more intense. That phenomenon, combined with the shape of the canyon, led to the fire's rapid spread.

"Weather directs the fire," she says. "The fire, in turn, can change the weather." When she ran the simulated fire without drought conditions, the blaze behaved almost the same way. That suggests the long drought and heat wave had not worsened the fire. Instead, the canyon's shape and local weather conditions had boosted its intensity.

The terrible fires that have ravaged California in 2018 arose from a complex mix of ingredients. These included the Santa Ana winds, which blow hot and dry through the state every fall. They also included a lack of the rain that usually develops in the cooler months. Less rain may be due to a La Niña event (a natural phenomenon that affects weather patterns worldwide). Some of those ingredients may have been worsened by climate change. But as Coen's study points out, finding some clear fingerprint of climate change in wildfires is not easy.

Power Words
More About Power Words

air pressure The force exerted by the weight of air molecules.

application A particular use or function of something.

Arctic A region that falls within the Arctic Circle. The edge of that circle is defined as the northernmost point at which the sun is visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun can be seen on the northern summer solstice. The high Arctic is that most northerly third of this region. It's a region dominated by snow cover much of the year.

Arctic Circle The northernmost point at which the sun is visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun can be seen on the northern summer solstice.

atmosphere The envelope of gases surrounding Earth or another planet.

behavior The way something, often a person, other organism or phenomenon acts or conducts itself.

climate The weather conditions that typically exist in one area, in general, or over a long period.

climate change Long-term, significant change in the climate of Earth. It can happen naturally or in response to human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.

computer model A program that runs on a computer that creates a model, or simulation, of a real-world feature, phenomenon or event.

computer program A set of instructions that a computer uses to perform some analysis or computation. The writing of these instructions is known as computer programming.

drought An extended period of abnormally low rainfall; a shortage of water resulting from this.

ecology A branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings. A scientist who works in this field is called an ecologist.

equation In mathematics, the statement that two quantities are equal. In geometry, equations are often used to determine the shape of a curve or surface.

flammable Something that can burn (go up in flames) easily.

fuel Any material that will release energy during a controlled chemical or nuclear reaction.

humidity A measure of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. (Air with a lot of water vapor in it is known as humid.)

ignition (in chemistry) The act of igniting a fuel in combustion, such as natural gas or gasoline.

La Niña Extended periods when the surface water around the equator in the eastern Pacific cools for long stretches of time. Scientists will announce the arrival of a La Niña (lah NEEN yah) when the average temperature there drops by at least 0.4° C (0.72° degree F). Impacts on global weather during a La Niña tend to be the reverse of those triggered by an El Niño: Now, Central and South America may face severe droughts while Australia floods.

litter Material that lies around in the open, having been discarded or left to fall where it may. (in biology) Decaying leaves and other plant matter on the surface of a forest floor.

meteorologist Someone who studies weather and climate events.

model A simulation of a real-world event (usually using a computer) that has been developed to predict one or more likely outcomes. Or an individual that is meant to display how something would work in or look on others.

NASA Short for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Created in 1958, this U.S. agency has become a leader in space research and in stimulating public interest in space exploration. It was through NASA that the United States sent people into orbit and ultimately to the moon. It also has sent research craft to study planets and other celestial objects in our solar system.

particle A minute amount of something.

phenomenon Something that is surprising or unusual.

physical (adj.) A term for things that exist in the real world, as opposed to in memories or the imagination. It can also refer to properties of materials that are due to their size and non-chemical interactions (such as when one block slams with force into another).

precipitation (in meteorology) A term for water falling from the sky. It can be in any form, from rain and sleet to snow or hail.

risk The chance or mathematical likelihood that some bad thing might happen.

satellite A moon orbiting a planet or a vehicle or other manufactured object that orbits some celestial body in space.

simulate To deceive in some way by imitating the form or function of something. A simulated dietary fat, for instance, may deceive the mouth that it has tasted a real fat because it has the same feel on the tongue - without having any calories. A simulated sense of touch may fool the brain into thinking a finger has touched something even though a hand may no longer exists and has been replaced by a synthetic limb. (in computing) To try and imitate the conditions, functions or appearance of something. Computer programs that do this are referred to as simulations.

vegetation Leafy, green plants. The term refers to the collective community of plants in some area. Typically these do not include tall trees, but instead plants that are shrub height or shorter.

water vapor Water in its gaseous state, capable of being suspended in the air.

weather Conditions in the atmosphere at a localized place and a particular time. It is usually described in terms of particular features, such as air pressure, humidity, moisture, any precipitation (rain, snow or ice), temperature and wind speed. Weather constitutes the actual conditions that occur at any time and place. It's different from climate, which is a description of the conditions that tend to occur in some general region during a particular month or season.

Stephen Ornes lives in Nashville, Tenn., and his family has two rabbits, six chickens and a cat. He has written for Science News for Students since 2008 on topics including lightning, feral pigs, big bubbles and space junk.

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The biggest fire in California history ignited shortly after noon on July 27, 2018, and burned until mid-September. Called the Mendocino Complex Fire, its twin infernos started at the same time. They also burned close to one another and quickly blazed across forested lands.

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Stephen Ornes lives in Nashville, Tenn., and his family has two rabbits, six chickens and a cat. He has written for Science News Explores since 2008 on topics including lightning, feral pigs, big bubbles and space junk.

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Scientists who study the environment to better gauge Earth's future climate now argue that current changes may not reverse for a very long time.

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Earth has a fever. Scientists are more certain now than ever before that people are largely to blame.

It is "extremely likely" that human activities have contributed greatly to Earth's increasing temperature, reports an international group of climate change researchers. How likely is that? Scientists say they are now 95 to 100 percent certain that people have had a big role in warming. A summary of the latest report, released September 27, was based on information published through 2012.

Researchers from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a United Nations group known as IPCC, analyzed thousands of studies. Most of those studies contained evidence suggesting a link between peoples' actions and global warming. The new report's conclusions are even more confident of humanity's role in climate than the last IPCC assessment, issued in 2007. But even back then, IPCC considered that human activities "very likely" have been boosting global warming.

Those activities include burning fossil fuels, such as coal and gas. That burning releases a greenhouse gas called carbon dioxide. In the atmosphere, this gas traps heat close to Earth's surface. And that helps warm the planet. According to the report, carbon dioxide levels have increased by 40 percent since people started burning fossil fuels for energy, about 260 years ago.

In the last 60 years, "the atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased," the IPCC reports.

It also concluded that it "very likely" that within this century, glaciers will continue to melt and Arctic sea ice will thin even more. Less snow will cover the ground in the Northern Hemisphere, the new report predicted. And sea levels will continue to rise - most likely at a rate faster than that what's been seen in the last 40 years. Rising sea levels puts low-lying islands and coastal communities at risk.

Scientists have been studying climate on a global scale since the 1950s. To do this, they collect data from satellites and on-the-ground instruments around the world. The IPCC researchers studied the measurements that were collected. They also looked at historical climate data - collected from ancient rocks - some dating back millions of years.

Scientists study the past to predict the future, but uncertainty remains about exactly what will happen. The IPCC predicts that between now and 2100, Earth's temperature will increase between 0.3 and 4.8 degrees Celsius (0.54 and 8.6 degrees Fahrenheit).

Thomas Stocker, a climate scientist at the University of Bern in Switzerland, worked on the new IPCC report. At the report's release in Stockholm, Sweden, he said he hoped people would act to slow global warming. Limiting further warming, he said, "will require substantial and sustained reduction of greenhouse gas emissions."

The IPCC also tackled a point that's often made by those who doubt that people might be to blame for global warming. These skeptics point to data from the last 15 years. During this time, the rate of warming has leveled off. But data from such a short time period can't be used to see the big picture, the IPCC said.

Climate change skeptics often pick out weather changes that fit their arguments, says Paul Wapner. An expert in environmental politics at American University in Washington, D.C., he did not work on the new IPCC report. It "makes clear," he told Science News, "that these trends cannot be questioned."

POWER WORDS

carbon dioxide A gas produced by all animals when the oxygen they inhale reacts with the carbon-rich foods that they've eaten. This colorless, odorless gas also is released when organic matter (including fossil fuels like oil or gas) is burned. Carbon dioxide acts as a greenhouse gas, trapping heat in Earth's atmosphere. Plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen during photosynthesis, the process they use to make their own food.

climate The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.

climate change Long-term, significant change in the climate of Earth. It can happen naturally or in response to human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests.

fossil fuel Any fuel (such as coal, oil or natural gas) that has developed in the Earth over millions of years from the decayed remains of bacteria, plant or animals.

glacier A slow-moving river of ice hundreds or thousands of meters deep. Glaciers are found in mountain valleys and also form parts of ice sheets.

global warming The gradual increase in the overall temperature of Earth's atmosphere due to the greenhouse effect. This effect is caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons and other gases in the air, many of them released by human activity.

Stephen Ornes lives in Nashville, Tenn., and his family has two rabbits, six chickens and a cat. He has written for Science News for Students since 2008 on topics including lightning, feral pigs, big bubbles and space junk.

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Earth has a fever. Scientists are more certain now than ever before that people are largely to blame. It is "extremely likely" that human activities have contributed greatly to Earth's increasing temperature, reports an international group of climate change researchers. How likely is that?

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People in Japan face a catastrophe that has gone from terrible to tragic. The disaster began as an earthquake that launched a powerful ocean wave, called a tsunami, that caused destruction all along the coast. Those natural disasters damaged a cluster of nuclear reactors in Japan, leading to one of the worst nuclear disasters in recent years.

"My homeland has been struck by a tragedy of cataclysmic proportions. This has been one of the greatest natural disasters of modern times, the full extent of which is still becoming clear," said Yukiya Amano, the director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in a press conference on March 14. "The events of the last few days are truly unprecedented."

On the afternoon of Friday, March 11, an earthquake struck the floor of the Pacific Ocean 80 miles east of northern Japan. The U.S. Geological Survey reported the earthquake had a magnitude of 9.0, making it one of the most powerful in recent history. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined by measuring how strongly the Earth shook. People reported feeling the ground move all across the island country, both during the first quake itself and during hundreds of others that followed. Those later, smaller earthquakes are called aftershocks.

During the earthquake, the sea floor moved. That motion made the water go up and down and caused a tsunami, or a powerful ocean wave, that moved outward from the center of the earthquake site like the ripples that you see when a pebble drops in a pond. These ripples, though, were giant and spread out over the ocean.

Waves are how energy moves across the surface of the ocean, and when these waves struck Japan's coast, they brought destruction. Within minutes, coastal towns flooded as unknown numbers of people were swept away with cars, boats and even buildings. Countries around the Pacific Ocean received tsunami warnings.

About 180 miles north of Tokyo, Japan's capital city, two nuclear reactors were seriously damaged by the earthquake and tsunami. Although the reactors were equipped with safety devices intended to shut them down in case of an earthquake, the backup power supplies were also damaged by the quake and the tsunami. As a result, they failed.

The inside machinery of the reactors needs to be kept cool; if it's not cool enough, a reactor could melt and possibly even destroy the protective metal vessel that encases the nuclear fuel. During a meltdown, radiation could be released into the air, threatening the health and safety of people nearby.

These nuclear reactors, part of a facility called Fukushima Daiichi, generate electricity for millions of people through a process called fission. During fission, a larger atom breaks into two or more smaller atoms. At most of the reactors at Fukushima Daiichi, atoms of an element called uranium-235 are the ones that break apart. Uranium-235 is natural on Earth, but it is unstable - which means it's always ready to break apart. (The number 235 identifies how many protons and neutrons make up the nucleus, or heart, of a single atom.)

When an atom of uranium-235 fissions, it forms smaller atoms but also releases particles called neutrons. These particles can hit other atoms of uranium-235 and cause them to break apart - and then those newly split atoms release neutrons, which keep the reaction going and going. This is what occurs inside a nuclear reactor.

This reaction happens inside narrow rods that hold fuel pellets, which are immersed in water. As they undergo fission, the atoms inside the fuel rods produce heat. That heat will be transferred to water outside the reactor. As that water turns into steam, it is used to turns turbines that produce electricity.

Nuclear fission generates a lot of heat, so the nuclear reactors in which fission occurs need water to keep everything cool. At Fukushima Daiichi, which includes six reactors, water became the problem. According to the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency in Japan, the reactors lost power after the earthquake. That wasn't a problem because backup generators started pumping water to remove heat building up inside the reactors. But when the tsunami struck, it took out those backup generators ― leaving the reactors dangerously hot. Then, another backup system, running on batteries, started. But it couldn't keep up.

Explosions have seriously damaged other buildings associated with four of the reactors. A big and yet-unanswered question is whether it was the explosions or the excess heat in the reactor's core that damaged the vessel that contains the fuel.

The core has become damaged. It appears to largely be holding the radioactive gases that have been developing. At times, however, reactor-safety teams have released small amounts of those radioactive gases to reduce the pressure in the vessel that holds the fuel.

Radiation levels around the reactors have become dangerous.

One reason is that old fuel rods from the six reactors at Fukushima Daiichi are stored near the reactors in pools of water. In many cases, those fuel rods are still quite hot. Circulating water is needed to cool these old fuel rods. But when the tsunami knocked out backup cooling to these pools, some lost much if not all of their water for a time. Under these conditions, radiation levels can increase enough to imperil the lives of workers. And on several occasions in the first week following the accident, many workers were sent home for their safety.

Some steam released from the reactors has also left the facility. Radiation from that steam has been detected in the countryside. Levels of radiation were not high, but because they could become high on short notice, people living within 20 kilometers of the reactor facility were told to evacuate. Those living between 20 and 30 kilometers of the plants were advised to stay indoors.

Even tinier amounts of radiation - levels almost too low to measure - have crossed the Pacific Ocean and been recorded in Washington State and California. As of March 21, these levels were too small to pose a risk to people living in the United States.

It will take months for Japanese officials to bring the reactors under control and for the country to dig out from the triple disaster that hit. Stay tuned.

POWER WORDS (adapted from the New Oxford American Dictionary)

Richter scale A way to measure the size of an earthquake, based on the measurements of seismographs. Destructive earthquakes typically have magnitudes of 5.5 or higher. A difference of one in the Richter scale represents an approximate 30-fold difference in magnitude.

seismograph A scientific instrument that measures the strength and duration of an earthquake.

tsunami A long, wide wave in the ocean caused by an earthquake or some other disturbance in the Earth.

fission The division or splitting of an atom into smaller atoms and into the particles that serve as building blocks of atoms.

radioactive Capable of producing ionizing radiation, which is powerful enough to remove electrons from other atoms.

uranium A gray, dense, radioactive element used in nuclear reactors.

Stephen Ornes lives in Nashville, Tenn., and his family has two rabbits, six chickens and a cat. He has written for Science News for Students since 2008 on topics including lightning, feral pigs, big bubbles and space junk.

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This is a view of the Pacific Ocean, where different colors indicate the height of the tsunami in that area. The highest waves, in black, were probably more than eight feet tall. The orange and red areas indicate areas where the wave was closer to eight inches.

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Basketball is the only major American sport with a clearly identifiable inventor. James Naismith wrote the sport's original 13 rules as part of a December 1891 class assignment at a Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) training school in Springfield, Massachusetts. Born and educated in Canada, Naismith came south to pursue his interests of physical education and Christian ministry. Naismith expanded on an assignment to create a game that could be played in YMCA gyms during the winter.

The first games featured nine players a side, attempting to toss a soccer ball into peach baskets nailed to the balconies at the ends of a gymnasium (when a basket was made, the game paused while a man with a ladder retrieved the ball). After its first public match in 1892, Naismith's game spread quickly through the global network of YMCAs. The first intercollegiate match, between the Minnesota School of Agriculture and Hamline College, was played in 1895. The earliest women's match, in which Stanford beat U.C. Berkeley, took place a year later. Basketball's first professional league was founded in 1898, seven years before nets finally replaced the sport's original peach baskets.

James Naismith devoted little effort to shaping the evolution of the game he invented, although he spent a decade as the University of Kansas's founding basketball coach, losing more games than he won. Today the sport's leading historic organization, the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Mass., stands not far from where the first peach baskets were nailed up.

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Basketball is the only major American sport with a clearly identifiable inventor. James Naismith wrote the sport's original 13 rules as part of a December 1891 class assignment at a Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) training school in Springfield, Massachusetts. Born and educated in Canada, Naismith came south to pursue his interests of physical education and Christian ministry.

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Who invented basketball? That's a question I receive a lot as a coach.

As coaches and lovers of the game, it's important (and fun!) to know a little basketball history and the origins of the game we all hold so close to our hearts.

Who Invented Basketball?

The game of basketball originated in December 1891 by a Canadian born man by the name of James Naismith.

Naismith was a teacher at the YMCA training school in Springfield, Massachusetts. He was required to train young men to become instructors at newly opened YMCA centres.

With the cold weather keeping the class indoors, in December 1891, Naismith was asked by the schools Superintendent of Physical Education, Dr. Luther. H. Gulick, to create an indoor game that would keep the young men active during the cold winter months.

Upon this request, Naismith nervously set out to create a game that his class would enjoy. In a diary found many years later he had written...

"I felt this was a crucial moment in my life as it meant success or failure of my attempt to hold the interest of the class and devise a new game"

With the help of his wife and memories of playing 'Duck on a Rock' during his childhood, he decided to create a game that would focus on skill rather than strength.

For those who are curious... 'Duck on a Rock' was a game in which players threw rocks at a certain target placed on top of a large boulder or tree stump.

The game he ended up inventing is the game we all know and love today - basketball.

How Basketball Was First Played

Basketball required very little equipment to play... two peach baskets hanging 10 feet above the ground, and a soccer ball.

The object of the game is to work as a team to throw or bat the soccer ball into the opposing teams peach basket, while defending a score in your peach basket from the opposition team.

As you can imagine, it was a major pain getting the ball out of the peach basket when a team finally scored. Some say they used a long poll to push the ball out, others say someone was required to climb a ladder to retrieve it...

Either way, the initial players weren't great shooters so they didn't have to worry about this too much! Heck, in the first game ever played there was only one score during the entire game! But I'll explain more about that game later in this article.

Originally the game involved nine players on each team... What! Why nine players? Because Naismith's class had 18 people in it.

He also developed rules for the game known as 'The 13 Rules of Basketball'.

The 13 Rules of Basketball

1. The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.

2. The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.

3. A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed.

4. The ball must be held by the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.

5. No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed.

6. A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violations of Rules 3 and 4 and such as described in Rule 5.

7. If either side makes three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul).

8. A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the grounds into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do no touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edges, and the opponent moves the basket, it shall count as a goal.

9. When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them.

10. The umpire shall be the judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.

11. The referee shall be judge of the ball and shall decide when the ball is in play, in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals, with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.

12. The time shall be two fifteen-minute halves, with five minutes rest between.

13. The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner.

The First Game of Basketball Ever Played

The first game of basketball ever played on the 21 st of December, 1891, at the YMCA training school in Springfield, Massachusetts.

The gym was incredibly small. Only 50 feet x 35 feet, compared to current day courts which are 94 feet x 53 feet.

Naismith arrived early that day. Little did he know he was about to create basketball history...

After posting the '13 Rules of Basketball' on the bulletin board of the gym, he then nailed a peach basket to the lower rail of the balcony on both ends of the gym.

When the players arrived, Naismith split his eighteen students into two teams of nine players and done his best to teach them the 13 rules of basketball.

They were now ready to embark on a game destined to change sport forever...

Little did James Naismith or of any of his players realize how big this new game would become in a very short amount of time.

The players involved in the first basketball game were;

Team 1:
John J. Thompson, Eugene S. Libby, T. Duncan Patton, Frank Mahan, Finlay G. MacDonald, William H. Davis, Lyman Archibald, Edwin P. Ruggles, William R. Chase.

Team 2:
George Weller, Wilbert Carey, Ernest Hildner, Raymond Kaighn, Genzabaro Ishikawa, Benjamin S. French, Franklin Barnes, George Day and Henry Gelan.

The final score of the game ended 1 - 0. Team 1 were the victors.

William R. Chase scored the only goal of the game from 25 feet away from the basket... becoming the first person to score a goal during a game in basketball history!

- Coach Mac

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The History of Basketball (13 Rules + First Basketball Game Ever)

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As coaches and lovers of the game, it's important (and fun!) to know a little basketball history and the origins of the game we all hold so close to our hearts.

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Where Basketball was Invented: The History of Basketball | Springfield College

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Basketball was Invented by Springfield College instructor and graduate student James Naismith in 1891.

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Significant events in the history of the game of soccer / football, how it originated and developed to the world game it is now

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There are a number of conflicting beliefs concerning the question of who invented soccer. Known as football in most of the world, it is undeniable that this is one of the most popular sports today. Let's explore how soccer developed and spread over the years.

Soccer in Ancient Times

Some suggest that the history of soccer dates back as far as 2500 B.C. During this time, the Greeks, Egyptians, and Chinese all appear to have partaken in games involving a ball and feet.

Most of these games included the use of hands, feet, and even sticks to control a ball. The Roman game of Harpastum was a possession-based ball game in which each side would attempt to retain possession of a small ball for as long as possible. The Ancient Greeks competed in a similar game entitled Episkyros. Both of these pursuits reflected rules closer to rugby than modern day soccer.

The most relevant of these ancient games to our modern day "Association Football" is the Chinese game of Tsu'Chu ( Tsu-Chu or Cuju, meaning "kicking the ball"). Records of the game began during the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) and it may have been a training exercise for soldiers.

Tsu'Chu involved kicking a small leather ball into a net strung between two bamboo poles. The use of hands was not permitted, but a player could use his feet and other parts of his body. The main difference between Tsu'Chu and soccer was the height of the goal, which hung about 30 feet from the ground.

From the introduction of Tsu'Chu onwards, soccer-like games spread throughout the world. Many cultures had activities that centered on the use of their feet, including Japan's Kemari which is still played today. The Native Americans had Pahsaherman, the Indigenous Australians played Marn Grook, and the Moari's had Ki-o-rahi, to name a few.

Britain Is the Home of Soccer

Soccer began to evolve in modern Europe from the medieval period onwards. Somewhere around the 9th century, entire towns in England would kick a pig's bladder from one landmark to another. The game was often seen as a nuisance and was even banned during some periods of Britain's history.

Various forms of what is now known as "folk football" were played. Some of the British games pitted two massive and rather mob-like teams against one another. These could stretch from one end of a town to the other, with both teams trying to get the ball into their opponent's goal.

It's said that the games were often low scoring. Standard rules were not enforced, so almost anything was allowed and play often became quite violent. Shrove Tuesday often saw the biggest games of the year and most matches were a big social event.

As the country industrialized, the space limitations of the cities and less leisure time for workers saw a decline in folk football. This was partially attributed to legal concerns over the violence, as well.

Versions of folk football were also played in Germany, Italy, France, and other European countries.

The Emergence of Modern Soccer

The codification of soccer began in the public schools of Britain at the beginning of the 19th century. Within the private school system "football" was a game in which the hands were used during periods of play and grappling allowed, but otherwise, the modern shape of soccer was being formed.

Two barless goals were placed at each end, goalkeepers and tactics were introduced, and high tackles outlawed. Yet, the rules varied greatly: some resembled the play of rugby, while others preferred kicking and dribbling. Space restraints did cool the game down from its violent origins, however.

The rules and regulations continued to evolve in Britain and by the 1800s dedicated soccer clubs at schools began to emerge. Again, even in its semi-organized form, the rules stretched from rugby to modern soccer. Players often tripped each other and kicking an opponent in the shins was only frowned upon when he was being held.

Over the years, schools began playing matches against one another. During this time players were still allowed to use their hands and were only permitted to pass the ball backward, as in rugby.

In 1848, the "Cambridge Rules" were established at Cambridge University. While this allowed students to move up in the ranks as they graduated and adult football clubs became more common, players could continue to handle the ball. There was still quite some way to go in producing the modern game of soccer we see today.

The Creation of the Football Association

The word soccer was derived from an abbreviation from the word association. The -er suffix was popular slang at the Rugby School and Oxford University and used for all sorts of nouns the young men shortened. The association came from the formation of the Football Association (FA) on October 26, 1863.

During this meeting, the FA attempted to bring together the different codes and systems used across Britain to form one accepted set of soccer rules. Carrying the ball was banned, as were the practices of shin-kicking and tripping. This led to the departure of the Blackheath club who preferred the rougher rugby style of play.

Eleven clubs remained and the rules were agreed upon. However, even in the 1870s, a number of regions in Britain continued to play by their own rules.

Soccer Goes Pro

Over the years, more clubs joined the FA until the number reached 128 by 1887. The country finally had a nearly uniform rule structure in place.

In 1872, the first Football Association Cup was played. Other divisions were formed, including the Football League in 1888 in the north and midlands of the country, and the first championship league games were played.

According to FA rules, players must remain amateurs and not receive pay. This became an issue in the 1870s when a few clubs charged admission to spectators. Players were obviously not happy and demanded compensation for their training and game time. As the popularity of the sport grew, so did spectators and revenue. Eventually, clubs decided to begin paying and soccer turned into a professional sport.

Soccer Spreads Worldwide

It did not take long for other European countries to adopt the British love for soccer. Leagues began popping up throughout the world: the Netherlands and Denmark in 1889, Argentina in 1893, Chile in 1895, Switzerland and Belgium in 1895, Italy in 1898, Germany and Uruguay in 1900, Hungary in 1901, and Finland in 1907. It was not until 1903 that France formed their league, even though they had adopted the British sport long before.

The International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) was formed in Paris in 1904 with seven members. This included Belgium, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. Germany announced its intention to join the same day.

In 1930, the first-ever FIFA World Cup was held in Uruguay. There were 41 members of FIFA at the time and it has remained the pinnacle of the soccer world ever since. Today it boasts over 200 members and the World Cup is one of the biggest events of the year.

Source

FIFA, History of Football

Mike Crocombe is a U.K.-based writer of sports history.

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Soccer Has Ancient Origins Dating Back As Far As 2500 BC

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The question of who invented soccer (or football) is a complicated one. Explore how this popular game developed and spread over the years.

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Since we've got a bit of time on our hands with the MLS season suspended, we thought it would be a good time to relax, have a little fun and stretch out a bit with some posts beyond the usual recaps, preview and interviews. Now's a good time to brush up a bit on your soccer history.
Soccer as it's played today traces its roots back to the Cambridge Rules of 1863. In English schools at the time, teams played a primordial version of the game that sometimes allowed the use of hands and defined offside in haphazard ways. Earlier efforts to codify the rules had been made, but the 1863 rules were picked up by the newly-formed Football Association, the organization that to this day runs England's FA Cup. The term "association football" was coined to distinguish it from established games like rugby football, and the term "soccer" - a shortening of "one who plays as sociation football"- was coined in the late 19 th century, for the record, in the UK.

As the game established a popular foothold in England, other countries iterated and innovated. One of the first major innovations in the game came from Scotland, where they had the bright idea to pass the ball a lot more. Again, soccer evolved from rugby, so the early British game involved a lot more possession and plowing forward by the player with the ball. When English schools came up against Scottish ones early on, they looked upon passing as unbecoming and not in the spirit of the game. But once they got sliced to ribbons by the Scots' passing, they changed their tune.

Defense was also played quite differently in the early game - or often not at all - with formations that had one defender, one or two midfielders and seven or eight forwards. Despite 14 forwards being in the pitch, the first international soccer game on November 30, 1872 between England and Scotland ended in a 0-0 draw. It was not quite the beautiful game we've come to know and love.

These evolutions continued steadily over the next century and a half, with new formations and strategies being explored and tested. When the game was exported to South America, players there used the spaces they had and became adept at dribbling through tight, urban areas. Slowly, countless tactical wrinkles would be introduced, from Italian sweepers protecting the face of goal to the Total Football of the Dutch where players would switch roles as needed in attack or defense.

Part of soccer's broad appeal comes from its flexibility, which in turn comes from its simplicity. While the rules have certainly evolved since 1863, the fundamentals have endured: two teams, a ball, no using your hands, and a goal to put the ball through. All the myriad ways that coaches and players have built upon that foundation and then remodeled it over the decades have sustained and will continue to sustain the sport.

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Since we've got a bit of time on our hands with the MLS season suspended, we thought it would be a good time to relax, have a little fun and stretch out a bit with some posts beyond the usual recaps, preview and interviews.

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Welcome to FootballHistory.org, a website about football history including competitions, teams and players.

The history of football (soccer)

Football (or soccer as the game is called in some parts of the world) has a long history. Football in its current form arose in England in the middle of the 19th century. But alternative versions of the game existed much earlier and are a part of the football history.

Early history and the precursors of football

The first known examples of a team game involving a ball, which was made out of a rock, occurred in old Mesoamerican cultures for over 3,000 years ago. It was by the Aztecs called Tchatali, although various versions of the game were spread over large regions. In some ritual occasions, the ball would symbolize the sun and the captain of the losing team would be sacrificed to the gods. A unique feature of the Mesoamerican ball game versions was a bouncing ball made of rubber - no other early culture had access to rubber.

The first known ball game which also involved kicking took place In China in the 3rd and 2nd century BC under the name cuju. Cuju was played with a round ball (stitched leather with fur or feathers inside) on an area of a square. A modified form of this game later spread to Japan and was by the name of kemari practiced under ceremonial forms.

Perhaps even older than cuju was Marn Gook, played by Aboriginal Australians and according to white emigrants in the 1800s, a ball game that primarily involving kicking. The ball was made by encased leaves or roots. The rules are mostly unknown, but as with many other early versions of the game, a chief feature seems to have been to keep the ball in the air.

Other variety of ball games had been known from Ancient Greece. The ball was made by shreds of leather filled with hair (the first documents of balls filled with air are from the 7th century). Ball games had, however, a low status and was not included at the Panhellenic Games. In the Ancient Rome, games with balls were not included in the entertainment on the big arenas (amphitheaters), but occurred in exercises in the military by the name of Harpastum. It was the Roman culture that would bring football to the British island (Britannica). It is, however, uncertain in which degree the British people were influenced by this variety and in which degree they had developed their own variants.

The game of football takes its form

The most admitted story tells that the game was developed in England in the 12th century. In this century, games that resembled football were played on meadows and roads in England. Besides from kicks, the game involved also punches of the ball with the fist. This early form of football was also much more rough and violent than the modern way of playing.

An important feature of the forerunners to football was that the games involved plenty of people and took place over large areas in towns (an equivalent was played in Florence from the 16th century where it was called Calcio). The rampage of these games would cause damage on the town and sometimes death to the participants. These would be among the reasons for the proclamations against the game that finally was forbidden for several centuries. But the football-like games would return to the streets of London in the 17th century. It would be forbidden again in 1835, but at this stage the game had been established in the public schools.

It took, however, long time until the features of today's football had been taken into practice. For a long time there was no clear distinction between football and rugby. There were also many variations concerning the size of the ball, the number of players and the length of a match.

The game was often played in schools and two of the predominant schools were Rugby and Eton. At Rugby the rules included the possibility to take up the ball with the hands and the game we today know as rugby has its origin from here. At Eton on the other hand the ball was played exclusively with the feet and this game can be seen as a close predecessor to the modern football. The game in Rugby was called "the running game" while the game in Eton was called "the dribbling game".

An attempt to create proper rules for the game was done at a meeting in Cambridge in 1848, but a final solution to all questions of rules was not achieved. Another important event in the history of football came about in 1863 in London when the first Football association was formed in England. It was decided that carrying the ball with the hands wasn't allowed. The meeting also resulted in a standardization of the size and weight of the ball. A consequence of the London meeting was that the game was divided into two codes: association football and rugby.

The game would, however, continue to develop for a long time and there was still much flexibility concerning the rules. For one thing, the number of players on the pitch could vary. Neither were uniforms used to distinguish the appearance of the teams. It was also common with players wearing caps - the header was yet to be a part of the game yet. Further reading: The development of football rules.

Another important difference at this stage could be noticed between English and Scottish teams. Whereas the English teams preferred to run forward with the ball in a more rugby fashion, the Scottish chose to pass the ball between their players. It would be the Scottish approach that soon became predominant.

The sport was at first an entertainment for the British working class. Unprecedented amounts of spectators, up to 30,000, would see the big matches in the late 19th century. The game would soon expand by British peoples who traveled to other parts of the world and as a result to the British colonization efforts. Especially in South America and India would the interest in football become big.

The first football clubs

Football clubs have existed since the 15th century, but unorganized and without official status. It is therefore hard to decide which the first football club was. Some historians suggest that it was the Foot-Ball Club formed 1824 in Edinburgh. Early clubs were often formed by former school students and the first of this kind was formed in Sheffield in 1855. The oldest among professional football clubs is the English club Notts County that was formed in 1862 and still exists today.

An important step for the emergence of teams was the industrialization that led to larger groups of people meeting at places such as factories, pubs and churches. Football teams were established in the larger cities and the new railroads could bring them to other cities.

In the beginning, football was dominated by public school teams, but later, teams consisting by workers would make up the majority. Another change was successively taking place when some clubs became willing to pay the best players to join their team. This would be the start of a long period of transition, not without friction, in which the game would develop to a professional level.

The motivation behind paying players was not only to win more matches. In the 1880s the interest in the game has moved ahead to a level that tickets were sold to the matches. And finally, in 1885 professional football was legalized and three years later the Football League was established. During the first season, 12 clubs joined the league, but soon more clubs became interested and the competition would consequently expand into more divisions.

For a long time, the British teams would be dominant. After some decades, clubs from Prague, Budapest and Sienna would be the primarily contenders to the British dominance.

As with many things in history, women were for a long time excluded from participating in games. It was not before the late 19th century that women started to play football. The first official women's game took place in Inverness in 1888.

The first competitions

Other milestones were now to follow. Football Association Challenge Cup (FA Cup) became the first important competition when it was run in 1871. The following year, a match between two national teams was played for the first time. The match that involved England and Scotland ended 0-0 and was followed by 4,000 people at Hamilton Crescent (the picture shows illustrations from this occasion).

Twelve years later, in 1883, the first international tournament took place and included four national teams: England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

Football was for a long time a British phenomenon, but it gradually spread to other European countries. The first game that took place outside Europe occurred in Argentina in 1867, but it was foreign British workers who were involved and not Argentinean citizens.

The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) was founded in 1904 and a foundation act was signed by representatives from France, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. England and the other British countries did not join FIFA from the start, they had invented the game and saw no reason to subordinate to an association. Still, they joined in the following year, but would not partake in the World Cup until 1950.

Domestic leagues occurred in many countries. The first was, as already mentioned, the English Football League which was established in 1888. The leagues would by time expand by more divisions, which were based on team performance.

In 1908 would football for the first time be included as an official sport in the Olympic Games. Until the first FIFA World Cup was played in 1930, the Olympic Games football tournament would rank as the most prestigious on a national level. Women's football was not added until 1996.

Black players

As in many other sports the white male was predominant for a long time. In football black players started being present relatively early and in comparison with, for example, tennis, football has traditionally been known as a sport with a mix of black and white players.

In Britain, Andrew Watson is known to be the first black player, and he played in the Scottish club Queen's Park in the 1880s.

A game of passion

Few other sports show examples of passion to that extent as football. The arenas are flocked by shearing people; and in front of television even more are watching carefully and sometimes with great enthusiasm.

Already in the late 19th century, Goodison Park was built in England in purpose of hosting football games. In 1894, the FA Cup final between Notts County and Bolton Wanderers was attended by 37,000 people. A milestone in the development of football stadiums is the construction of Maracanã Stadium. In the year of 1950 the imposing stadium in Rio de Janeiro was ready for almost 200,000 people. No other sport has seen stadiums of that capacity built to host its games.

There have been two different traditions of fan culture on the arenas: the British and the South American. The British fans adopted the tradition of singing, the repertoire was inspired from pub and working songs among other areas. The South Americans on the other hand would adopt the carnival style which included firecrackers and fireworks, and also the modern phenomena of Bengali fires. Fans in other countries have later adopted a mixture of these traditions.

The great modern competitions

No other sport event besides the Summer Olympic Games can today measure itself with the FIFA World Cup. The first edition of the FIFA World Cup was played in 1930 in Uruguay and has since then returned every fourth year (with two exceptions due to the Second World War). In 1991 the first World Cup for women was held in China and has since then also returned every fourth year.

Today the biggest global tournament for clubs is the Champions League (played since 1992), the former European Cup (1955-1991).

Globalization of the biggest sport in the world

In the late 19th century, only a few national football teams existed; England and Scotland had the first active teams that played games against each other in the 1870s. Today there are 211 national associations included in the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the world governing body of the sport. Another proof of the globalization could be seen in the increase of nations participating in the World Cup qualifiers: from 32 in 1934 to over 200 in 2014.

The world regions have been divided into six confederations: Confédération Africaine de Football (CAF), Asian Football Confederation (AFC), Union des Associations Européennes de Football (UEFA), The Confederation of North, Central America and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF), Oceania Football Confederation (OFC), and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL).

Football is definitely a global sport and without comparison the biggest in the world. A quote from David Goldblatt's book The Ball is Round present one answer:

It offers the spotlight for individual brilliance while relishing the defiance and heart of collective endeavor. It has staged tragedy and comedy, epic and pantomime, unsophisticated music hall and inaccessible experimental performances. It does imperious triumph, lucky escapes, impossible comebacks and stubborn stalemates. It captures the brilliance of unpredictability, the uncertainty of the human heart and human skill, of improvisation and chance.

The name of the game: football or soccer?

In most parts of the world, football is used as the name for the "chess of the green pitch", the biggest sport in the world. In the United States and Canada, however, soccer is used instead as a distinction from American football. A more formal name sometimes used is association football, but in popular speech, it is either football or soccer.

References:
The National Encyclopedia
History of Football: The Beautiful Game (2002 Documentary Series)
The Ball is Round: A Global History of Football - David Goldblatt (2008)
http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we-are/the-game/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_football_clubs
http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we-are/history/
http://spartacus-educational.com/Fblack.htm
http://spartacus-educational.com/Fstadiums.htm
http://www.fifa.com/associations/
Image sources:
Andrea Scoto - ItiIllustration da Francesco. Bertelli. Padua
William Ralston (1848-1911) - Scanned from The Official History of The Football Association by Bryon Butler - Queen Ane Press
Documentary film Alegria do Povo (1963)

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Welcome to FootballHistory.org, a website about football history including competitions, teams and players. Football (or soccer as the game is called in some parts of the world) has a long history. Football in its current form arose in England in the middle of the 19th century.

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Introduction
Reflecting on the appeal of history in Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey, heroine Catherine Morland comments, "I often think it odd that it should be so dull, for a great deal of it must be invention." Indeed. And in no field of American endeavor is invention more rampant than in baseball, whose whole history is a lie from beginning to end, from its creation myth to its rosy models of commerce, community, and fair play. The game's epic feats and revered figures, its pieties about racial harmony and bleacher democracy, its artful blurring of sport and business - all of it is bunk, tossed up with a wink and a nudge. Yet we love both the game and the flimflam because they are both so . . . American. Baseball has been blessed in equal measure by Lincoln and by Barnum.

Miss Austen's novel, written in 1798, but published posthumously twenty years later, is today well known in baseball-history circles not for the passage above but for this one:

Mrs. Morland was a very good woman, and wished to see her children everything they ought to be; but her time was so much occupied in lying-in and teaching the little ones, that her elder daughters were inevitably left to shift for themselves; and it was not very wonderful that Catherine, who had nothing heroic about her, should prefer cricket, base ball, riding on horseback, and running about the country at the age of fourteen, to books-or at least books of information. . . .

Yet before April 1937, when Robert W. Henderson of the New York Public Library called public attention to this Austen reference to baseball, and to an even earlier woodcut of the game in John Newbery's A Little Pretty Pocket-Book (1744), few Americans knew that English boys and girls had played a game called baseball, whatever its rules may have been. Magnanimously, we had granted the Brits their primacy in cricket; some American cosmopolites might go so far as to acknowledge a playing-fields link between their national game and ours - perhaps, as the early sportswriter Henry Chadwick claimed, through rounders - but baseball, well, that was our game.

A special commission constituted by sporting-goods magnate Albert Goodwill Spalding affirmed in 1908, after nearly three years' purported study of the game's true origin, that baseball was assuredly American for it had been created from the fertile brain of twenty-year old Abner Doubleday in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. Critics of the commission's methods and conclusions soon made an alternative case for the genius of Alexander Cartwright and the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club, founded in New York in 1845. Weary after decades of America's jingoistic rodomontade, the British gallantly departed the field, never having comprehended what the whole fuss was about ("it's just rounders, you know").

Responding to Henderson's conclusion that baseball was "made in England," John Kieran wrote in his April 11, 1937, column for the New York Times:

Oh, Abner of the Doubledays in far-off fields Elysian,

Your claim to fame is called a foul by later-day decision.

Some prying archeologists have gone and found some traces

Of baseball footprints ages old in sundry English places.

Dryly, Kieran proposed that "in view of the enjoyment which we in this country derive from baseball, it would be a sporting gesture to let the English inventors know that we are very much obliged to them."

However, with publication of the commission's report in the spring of '08, followed shortly by Chadwick's death from complications of a cold aggravated by his ill-advised attendance at a drizzly Opening Day, the contest as to who invented baseball had ceased to be one of national origin. It soon boiled down to a two-man affair, both contestants American. Doubleday, whose dossier bore an official stamp, took the lead over the late-to-the-fair Cartwright and has held it, except among knowledgeable fans, to the present day.

Like Henderson's report (the forerunner of his 1947 book Ball, Bat and Bishop), Kieran's commentary amounted to a howl in the wilderness, for the Baseball Hall of Fame had already been designated for Cooperstown as consecration of Doubleday's ingenuity. Recent scholarship, especially that of David Block in Baseball Before We Knew It, has swung origins interest back to the mother country while affirming Henderson's view that bat-and-ball games are of great variety, antiquity, and geographic diversity, tangled up in the same evolutionary bramble bush from which baseball emerged. In this book we may touch upon some of these variant games, from the banks of the Nile (seker-hemat) to the meadows of medieval England (stoolball) to twentieth-century Finland (pesäpallo), but the story of baseball that fills these pages takes place in America.

Decades ago, when I became convinced that the well-worn tales about the rise and flower of the game were largely untrue, I determined to set matters straight . . . in other words, to fashion a history based upon excavation of fresh documentary evidence and to expose the truth. However, as time wore on I found myself more engaged by the lies, and the reasons for their creation, and have sought here not simply to contradict but to fathom them. And the liars and schemers in this not so innocent age of the game proved to be far more compelling characters than the straight arrows: In the Garden of Eden, after all, Adam and Eve are bores; it is the serpent who holds our attention.

Why, I wondered, had so many individuals expended so much energy in trying to shape and control the creation myth of baseball: to return to an Edenic past, real or imagined; to create the legend of a fall from grace, instigated by gamblers? That became the driving question behind this book. Baseball nostalgia, which I had always dismissed as curdled history for the soft of heart and head, now began to have an edge to it.

It has turned out that Spalding and Chadwick - like the calculating exponents of Doubleday and Cartwright - were not mere liars and blowhards. They were conscious architects of legend, shapers of national identity, would-be creators of a useful past and binding archetypes (clever lads, noble warriors, despised knaves, sly jesters, wounded heroes, and so on). In short, they were historians as that term once was understood. They were trying to create a national mythology from baseball, which they identified as America's secular religion because it seemed to supply faith for the faithless and unify them, perhaps in a way that might suit other ends. If in the process of crafting this useful past, certain individuals, events, ball clubs - even competing versions of the game, like those played in New England or Pennsylvania - had to be left along the road in the name of progress, so be it.

In The Death of the Past, J. H. Plumb described this earlier model for history as the establishment of "a psychological reality, used for a social purpose: to stress the virtues of courage, endurance, strength, loyalty and indifference to death." If we substitute "injury" for "death" in that formulation, we have a fair definition of the virtues of sport: providing for its players sublimated, graduated danger in preparation for national service, and for its spectators a salutary exposure to risk, through dashed hopes or unsuccessful wagers. The analytical impulse that marks modern historiography is, in Plumb's view, nothing less than an assault on the created ideology, or myths, by which people have given meaning to their institutions and societies. Large narratives and small pieties are swept away, replaced by skepticism and sometimes the bright if not warming light of truth.

The modern reader may ask: Apart from why it may have mattered to so many in the past, why do the origins of baseball matter today? Why does each announcement of a new find-an advertisement for a game of baseball in New York City from 1823, a prohibition against playing it in Pittsfield from 1791, a diary mention of the game in Surrey in 1755 - land on the front page of major newspapers? Because baseball provides us with a family album older and deeper, by many generations, than all but a relative handful of Americans can claim for their own lineage; because the charm of baseball today is in good measure its echo of a bygone age; and because it is gratifying to think we have something lighthearted in common with the harsh lives of our forefathers, going back to the nation's earliest period and likely beyond. Parson Weems created the tale about a boyish George Washington and a cherry tree ("I cannot tell a lie, I did it with my little hatchet"), but it is no creation myth to report that the Father of Our Country played a bat-and-ball game called wicket, now vanished but long concurrent with baseball, with the troops at Valley Forge.

"The best part of baseball today," Larry Ritter, author of The Glory of Their Times, was fond of saying, "is its yesterdays." The old marketing adage is that in any field there are two positions worth holding: the first and the best. And it is because of baseball's success-the game on the field today is unquestionably superior to that of a century ago- that a special quality of interest pertains to its early years; for it is with institutions as with men, as Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer wrote a century ago in another context, "the greater their importance in adult life the greater is the interest that attaches to their birth and antecedents, the incidents of their youth, and the influence that molded their spirit and shaped their destinies."

More recently, the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould observed, "Most of us know that the Great Seal of the United States pictures an eagle holding a ribbon reading e pluribus unum. Fewer would recognize the motto on the other side (check it out on the back of a dollar bill): annuit coeptis-'he smiles on our beginnings.' "

All the same, I recognize that I may not presume my readers' familiarity with the themes and plots and players that make baseball's paleolithic period so fascinating to me. Prudence prompts the provision of a scorecard and a bit of a road map, too. As the book's title indicates, this is a serpentine tale, winding from ancient Egypt to Cooperstown on June 12, 1939, with present-day concerns regularly peeping through.

This book honors baseball's road not taken: the Massachusetts version, which was, in many ways, a better game of baseball than the New York game, although the latter triumphed through superior press agentry. Also coming in for examination will be the Philadelphia game, which like its New England sibling disappeared in an instant, more mysteriously than the dinosaurs. Gambling will be seen not as a latter-day pestilence brought upon a pure and innocent game, but instead the vital spark that in the beginning made it worthy of adult attention and press coverage.

Among the organized groups that played baseball before the ostensibly original Knickerbockers were the Gotham, New York, Eagle, Brooklyn, Olympic, and Magnolia clubs. The last named came into view only recently, as a ball club composed not of white-collar sorts with shorter workdays and gentlemanly airs but sporting-life characters, from ward heelers to billiard-room operators and bigamists.

Why did the game's earliest annalists forget to include this club in its histories? One might venture to guess that the Magnolias were too unseemly a bunch to have been covered by a fig leaf, so they were simply written out of the Genesis story, which when presented less messily became the stuff of legend.

In the words of psychiatrist George E. Vaillant, "the passage of time renders truth itself relative. . . . It is all too common for caterpillars to become butterflies and then to maintain that in their youth they had been little butterflies. Maturation makes liars of us all." And so it was with the rough and ready game of baseball, constructing a legacy in support of its social and business models.

Among those lost in the shuffle of Cartwright and Doubleday and Chadwick and Spalding in the first decade of the twentieth century were four other men, each of whom had a better claim to "inventing" the game than any of those named. Of these little-known four fathers only one, a mysterious Mr. Wadsworth, was accorded even a bit part in the drama of the 1908 Special Commission's findings. We will soon enough catch up with him and with the others-Daniel Lucius Adams, William Rufus Wheaton, and William H. Tucker.

Although Doubleday did not start baseball, it may be said that he started the Civil War: The first Confederate shot at Fort Sumter "penetrated the masonry and burst very near my head," he wrote, after which "we took breakfast leisurely"; thus fortified, he "aimed the first gun on our side in reply to the attack." A Sanskrit-reading mystic who corresponded on esoteric matters with Ralph Waldo Emerson,

Doubleday never thought to place himself on baseball's pedestal: A bookish sort as a boy, with no taste for athletics, he died more than a decade before anyone thought to credit him with baseball's design.

It was Doubleday's unusual credibility as a warrior and as a spiritualist that made him seem, to those with a grand plan, the perfect instrument by which an exogenous religious sect might thoroughly

Americanize itself and become a major player in the promised land for all mankind. Doubleday had been named president of the Theosophical Society in 1879 after the departure for India of its founder, Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky. His apotheosis as father of baseball was engineered with Theosophical Society assistance, particularly that of Spalding's second wife. They were aided immeasurably by the rabbit-out-of-the-hat appearance of elderly mining engineer Abner Graves, whose 1905 testimony to having witnessed Doubleday's brainstorm in 1839, when Graves was five years old and the future military hero was twenty, sealed the deal for generations to come.

Like Doubleday, Cartwright did not know he had invented baseball when he died in 1892, one year before his unwitting rival. The muscle massed behind the Doubleday story after the commission report of 1908 prompted grandson Bruce Cartwright Jr. to launch an equally propagandistic plot that yielded for the Knickerbocker Cartwright a plaque in the Baseball Hall of Fame on which every word of substance is false. (Alex Cartwright did not set the base paths at ninety feet, the sides at nine men, or the game at nine innings.) And, as has recently been demonstrated, in Monica Nucciarone's biography, grandson Bruce inserted fabricated baseball exploits into a typescript of Alex Cartwright's handwritten Gold Rush journal, which contains no baseball remarks and itself has been judged a forgery.

Unraveling this twisted yarn in which various players hoped to shape America's future by imagining its past, we travel to the Theosophical Society compound at Point Loma, California, strategically selected by the society because it was the westernmost part of the continental United States, and thus nearest the Aryan (i.e., ancient Asian) motherland. Along the way we pick up a motley crew of Cuban refugee children, American millionaires and statesmen, utopian dreamers, and the newlywed Spaldings.

Baseball historians have treated Albert Spalding as a combination of Daddy Warbucks and Mr. Micawber because of his penchant for both profit and fustian. ("Baseball," he once declared, "is the exponent of American Courage, Confidence, Combativeness; American Dash, Discipline, Determination; American Energy, Eagerness, Enthusiasm; American Pluck, Persistency, Performance; American Spirit, Sagacity, Success; American Vim, Vigor, Virility.") But Spalding was something of an idealist, too, one who loved the game for its pure amateur spirit, for its joy, for its uplifting qualities. It has been easy to make him out as the architect of the scheme, by turns evil and comic, but at some point during his Point Loma years he may have become its unwitting victim, afflicted with early-onset dementia that left him in thrall to others. Two of his sons thought so, and sued Spalding's widow for twisting his mind and his assets toward the interests of the Theosophists. The plot to steal baseball started with Doubleday and

Spalding and a utopian paradise in America's Golden West; it ended with the Theosophists suing each other into near extinction and a Spalding family feud that made headlines for years after the magnate's death in 1915.

"Who controls the past," George Orwell wrote, "controls the future: who controls the present controls the past." So it has been with baseball.

Excerpted from Baseball in the Garden of Eden by John Thorn. Copyright 2011 by John Thorn. Reprinted by permission of Simon & Schuster, Inc, NY.

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The 'Secret History' Of Baseball's Earliest Days

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Baseball's official historian, John Thorn, sets the record straight on the game's earliest days ... in the 1700s. Yes, that's right, baseball started decades before Abner Doubleday supposedly created the game at Cooperstown - and it only became popular when professional gamblers took an interest.

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A national pastime

The United States is credited with developing several popular sports, including some (such as baseball, gridiron football, and basketball) that have large fan bases and, to varying degrees, have been adopted internationally. But baseball, despite the spread of the game throughout the globe and the growing influence of Asian and Latin American leagues and players, is the sport that Americans still recognize as their "national pastime." The game has long been woven into the fabric of American life and identity. "It's our game," exclaimed the poet Walt Whitman more than a century ago, "that's the chief fact in connection with it: America's game." He went on to explain that baseball

has the snap, go, fling of the American atmosphere-it belongs as much to our institutions, fits into them as significantly, as our constitutions, laws: is just as important in the sum total of our historic life. It is the place where memory gathers.

Perhaps Whitman exaggerated baseball's importance to and its congruency with life in the United States, but few would argue the contrary, that baseball has been merely a simple or an occasional diversion.

It was nationalistic sentiment that helped to make baseball "America's game." In the quest to obtain greater cultural autonomy, Americans yearned for a sport they could claim as exclusively their own. Just as the English had cricket and the Germans their turnvereins (gymnastic clubs), a sporting newspaper declared as early as 1857 that Americans should have a "game that could be termed a 'Native American Sport.' " A powerful confirmation of baseball as the sport to fill that need came in 1907 when a special commission appointed by A.G. Spalding, a sporting goods magnate who had formerly been a star pitcher and an executive with a baseball team, reported that baseball owed absolutely nothing to England and the children's game of rounders. Instead, the commission claimed that, to the best of its knowledge (a knowledge based on flimsy research and self-serving logic), baseball had been invented by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. This origin myth was perpetuated for decades.

In a country comprising a multiplicity of ethnic and religious groups, one without a monarchy, an aristocracy, or a long and mythic past, the experience of playing, watching, and talking about baseball games became one of the nation's great common denominators. It provided, in the perceptive words of British novelist Virginia Woolf, "a centre, a meeting place for the divers activities of a people whom a vast continent isolates [and] whom no tradition controls." No matter where one lived, the "hit-and-run," the "double play," and the "sacrifice bunt" were carried out the same way. The unifying power of baseball in the United States was evident in the Depression-ravaged 1930s, when a group of Cooperstown's businessmen along with officials from the major leagues established the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. The Hall of Fame became a quasi-religious shrine for many Americans, and, since its founding, millions of fans have made "pilgrimages" to Cooperstown, where they have observed the "relics"-old bats, balls, and uniforms-of bygone heroes.

Baseball also reshaped the nation's calendar. With the rise of industrialization, the standardized clock time of the office or factory robbed people of the earlier experience of time in its rich associations with the daylight hours, the natural rhythms of the seasons, and the traditional church calendar. Yet, for Americans, the opening of the baseball training season signaled the arrival of spring, regular-season play meant summer, and the World Series marked the arrival of fall. In the winter, baseball fans participated in "hot stove leagues," reminiscing about past games and greats and speculating about what the next season had to offer.

The World Series, inaugurated in 1903 and pitting the champions of the American and National Leagues in a postseason play-off, quickly took its place alongside the Fourth of July and Christmas as one of the most popular annual rites. The series was, said Everybody's Magazine in 1911, "the very quintessence and consummation of the Most Perfect Thing in America." Each fall it absorbed the entire nation.

Baseball terms and phrases, such as "He threw me a curve," "Her presentation covered all the bases," and "He's really out in left field," soon became part of the national vocabulary, so entrenched is baseball in the ordinary conversation of Americans. During the administration of President George H.W. Bush, a baseball player during his years at Yale University, the foreign press struggled to translate the president's routine use of baseball metaphors. As early as the 1850s, baseball images began to appear in periodicals, and, in the 20th century, popular illustrator Norman Rockwell often used baseball as the subject for his The Saturday Evening Post covers. " Casey at the Bat" and " Take Me Out to the Ballgame" remain among the best-known poems and songs, respectively, among Americans. Novelists and filmmakers frequently have turned to baseball motifs. After the mid-20th century, at the very time baseball at the grassroots level had begun a perceptible descent, baseball fiction proliferated. American colleges and universities even began to offer courses on baseball literature, and baseball films likewise proliferated. In 1994 the Public Broadcasting System released Ken Burns's nostalgic Baseball, arguably the most monumental historical television documentary ever made.

While baseball possessed enormous integrative powers, the game's history also has been interwoven with and reflective of major social and cultural cleavages. Until the first decades of the 20th century, middle-class Evangelical Protestants viewed the sport with profound suspicion. They associated baseball, or at least the professional version of the game, with ne'er-do-wells, immigrants, the working class, drinking, gambling, and general rowdiness. Conversely, these very qualities provided a foothold for the upward ascent of ethnic groups from the nation's ghettos. Usually encountering less discrimination in baseball (as well as in other venues of commercial entertainment) than they did in the more "respectable" occupations, in the 19th century Irish and German Americans were so conspicuous in professional baseball that some observers wondered if they had a special capacity for playing the game.

For a brief time in the 1880s, before racial segregation became the norm in the United States, Black players competed with whites in professional baseball. After that period, however, Blacks had to carve out a separate world of baseball. Dozens of Black teams faced local semiprofessional teams while barnstorming throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Despite playing a high quality of baseball, the players frequently engaged in various forms of clowning that perpetuated prevailing stereotypes of Blacks to appeal to spectators. From the 1920s until the '50s, separate Black professional leagues-the Negro leagues-existed as well, but in 1947 Jackie Robinson crossed the long-standing colour bar in major league baseball. Because baseball was the national game, its racial integration was of enormous symbolic importance in the United States; indeed, it preceded the U.S. Supreme Court's decision ending racial segregation in the schools (in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka) and helped to usher in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and '60s. Moreover, in the 1980s and '90s a huge influx of Hispanics into professional baseball reflected the country's changing ethnic composition.

Baseball likewise contributed to the shaping of American conceptions of gender roles. Although women were playing baseball as early as the 1860s, their involvement in the sport was confined for the most part to the role of spectator. To counter the game's reputation for rowdiness, baseball promoters took pains to encourage women to attend. "The presence of an assemblage of ladies purifies the moral atmosphere of a baseball gathering," reported the Baseball Chronicle, "repressing as it does, all the out-burst of intemperate language which the excitement of a contest so frequently induces." When women played on barnstorming teams in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, the press routinely referred to them as "Amazons," "freaks," or "frauds." In 1943, during World War II, when it was feared that professional baseball might be forced to close down, the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League made its debut. After having provided more than 600 women an opportunity to play baseball and to entertain several million fans, the league folded in 1954.

But, even if unable to heal conflicts arising from fundamental social divisions, baseball exhibited an extraordinary capacity for fostering ties. In the 1850s, young artisans and clerks, frequently displaced in the city and finding their way of life changing rapidly in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, conceived of themselves as members of what was known as the "base ball fraternity." Like the volunteer fire departments and militia units of the day, they donned special uniforms, developed their own rituals, and, in playing baseball, shared powerful common experiences. Playing and watching baseball contests also strengthened occupational, ethnic, and racial identities. Butchers, typesetters, draymen, bricklayers, and even clergymen organized baseball clubs. So did Irish Americans, German Americans, and African Americans.

Professional baseball nourished and deepened urban identities. "If we are ahead of the big city [New York] in nothing else," crowed the Brooklyn Eagle as early as 1862, "we can beat her in baseball." Fans invested their emotions in their professional representative nines. "A deep gloom settled over the city," reported a Chicago newspaper in 1875 after the local White Stockings had been defeated by the St. Louis (Missouri) Brown Stockings. "Friends refused to recognize friends, lovers became estranged, and business was suspended." Even in the late 20th century, in an age more given to cynicism, the successes and failures of professional teams continued to evoke strong feelings among local residents. For example, during the 1990s, after having experienced urban decay and demoralization in the previous two decades, Cleveland experienced a great civic revival fueled in part by the success of the Indians baseball team.

The significance of specific baseball teams and individual players extended beyond the localities that they represented. The New York Yankees, who in the first half of the 20th century were the quintessential representatives of the big city, of the East, of urban America with its sophistication, and of ethnic and religious heterogeneity, became synonymous with supernal success, while the St. Louis Cardinals emerged as the quintessential champions of the Midwest, of small towns and the farms, of rural America with its simplicity, rusticity, and old-stock Protestant homogeneity. In the 1920s Babe Ruth became the diamond's colossal demigod. To those toiling on assembly lines or sitting at their desks in corporate bureaucracies, Ruth embodied America's continuing faith in upward social mobility. His mighty home runs furnished vivid proof that men remained masters of their own destinies and that they could still rise from mean, vulgar beginnings to fame and fortune. For African Americans, Black stars such as Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson furnished equally compelling models of individual inspiration and success.

Baseball parks became important local civic monuments and repositories of collective memories. The first parks had been jerry-built, flimsy wooden structures, but between 1909 and 1923 some 15 major league clubs constructed new, more permanent parks of steel and concrete. These edifices were akin to the great public buildings, skyscrapers, and railway terminals of the day; local residents proudly pointed to them as evidence of their city's size and its achievements.

Seeing them as retreats from the noise, dirt, and squalor of the industrial city, the owners gave the first parks pastoral names-Ebbets Field, Sportsman's Park, and the Polo Grounds-but, with the construction of symmetrical, multisports facilities in the 1960s and '70s, urban and futuristic names such as Astrodome and Kingdome predominated. In a new park-building era in the 1990s, designers sought to recapture the ambience of earlier times by designing "retro parks," a term that was something of an oxymoron in that, while the new parks offered the fan the intimacy of the old-time parks, they simultaneously provided modern conveniences such as escalators, climate-controlled lounges, high-tech audiovisual systems, Disneyesque play areas for children, and space for numerous retail outlets. The increasing corporate influence on the game was reflected in park names such as Network Associates Stadium and Bank One Ballpark.

After about the mid-20th century, baseball's claim to being America's game rested on more precarious foundations than in the past. The sport faced potent competition, not only from other professional sports (especially gridiron football) but even more from a massive conversion of Americans from public to private, at-home diversions. Attendance as a percentage of population fell at all levels of baseball, the minor leagues became a shell of their former selves, and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams folded. In the 1990s, player strikes, free agency, disparities in competition, and the rising cost of attending games added to the woes of major league baseball. Yet, baseball continued to exhibit a remarkable resiliency; attendance at professional games improved, and attendance at minor league games was close to World War II records by the end of the century. As the 21st century opened, baseball still faced serious problems, but the sport was gaining in popularity around the world, and a strong case could still be made for baseball holding a special place in the hearts and minds of the American people.
Benjamin G. Rader

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baseball, game played with a bat, a ball, and gloves between two teams of nine players each on a field with four white bases laid out in a diamond (i.e., a square oriented so that its diagonal line is vertical).