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1. Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who was the leader of the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.

2. Cortés formed many different alliances with some indigenous groups who were enemies of the Aztecs, which also led him to his conquest.

3. His arrival and actions marked the beginning of the Spanish colonization in mexico and he had a big impact on the indigenous civilizations.

4. A question I would have would be: how did Cortés manage to defeat such a powerful empire with just a few men?

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After reading the material assigned for this unit, the following statements describe my understanding:

1. After reading the letter, I learned about what the city looked like upon their arrival. The city had seemed to be already well advanced. They had their own shops and destined spots for every necessity. The city even had their own justice system set in place.

2. Cortes was invited to visit to visit the city of Churultecal by some messengers of Moctezuma, although later he was advised by nobles not to go since they were planning to attack him and his people. After this, the letter goes on to describe how powerful Moctezuma was and how he was seen as a person with an extremely high standing or a lord.

3. By the end of the letter, Cortes goes on and explains and describes once gain another city. He describes the looks of the city, how they run it, and the wildlife. By the end of the letter, he mostly describes the different type of wildlife that inhabit it.

Why was the wildlife so important for Cortes that he even dedicated a few letters just to go in depth on it?

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1. Hernán Cortés claimed that the local people would handle their own laws and justice he didn’t interfere he witnessed their punishment as it was public and brutal.

2. Hernán Cortés claimed that he felt the indigenous people where going to turn on them and took precautions to prevent a potential conflict.

3. Hernán Cortés claims that Tenochtitlan had advanced temples that where sacred to their religion, many religious leaders where very committed and strict into theirs practice. They played a role into their organized society.

4. Why would Hernán Cortés have not created an ally instead of wanting to conquer since he acknowledged the society’s advancements/achievements?

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1. After reading Cortez's letter he describes the Aztec cities to be very advanced and huge. He describes it as having a very good government and their markets to be very busy.

2. He used christianity religion to cover up his mistakes with the indigenous community when he was hurting them to get power.

3. When they arrived they treated the indigenous people badly while spreading spanish culture and religion.

Why did he choose the indigenous communities to hurt them and later cover it up with religion?

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1. After reading Cortes letter, I learned that he described Aztec cities like Tenochtitlan as advanced. Large populations, strong governments, and busy markets. This shows that Indigenous socities were highly developed, not uncivilized.

2. He describes Moctezuma as a powerful leader who welcomes Spanish wth gifts and respect. This may have been the strategy to avoid conflict. To understand the Spanish better, not a sign of weakness.

3. Cortes also shows early colonialism. He tries to impress the Spanish king by showing wealth and opportunity. Also, using alliances, threats, and local conflicts. To gain control which shows colonization was not just force. But also manipulation and politics.

Why did Moctezuma believe the Spanish might be rightful rulers, and how much of that belief was influences by religion or misunderstanding?

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After reading Cortés letter of their arrival in the Americas, this was not only an expedition, but colonialism.

1. Hernando Cortés describes the Aztec cities. especially Tenochtitlan, to be highly advanced with large populations, organized governments, and impressive markets that replenished a wide variety of goods.

2. He portrays Moctezuma as a powerful and respected ruler who welcomed the Spanish with generosity by offering gifts or hospitality. While also showing that the Aztecs had complex social structures, laws, and religious practices.

3. Furthermore, Cortés ' authority demanded loyalty to the Spanish king and interpreted events in ways that justified Spanish control over the region.

The question I have is, if the Aztec society was as organized and advanced as Cortés describes, why did he still portray them as needing to submit to Spanish rule instead of recognizing them as equals in their society?

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1. Hernando Cortés didn’t just describe conquest—he carefully praised Aztec society (like markets, laws, and government) to show Charles V that it was wealthy and worth controlling, not “uncivilized” like many Europeans claimed.

2. Moctezuma II may have strategically welcomed Cortés, not because he was weak, but possibly to avoid immediate violence or to better understand the Spanish—something people often overlook.

3. Cortes shows early colonial tactics by threatening cities, forming alliances (like with Tlaxcalans), and using local conflicts to his advantage—meaning Spanish conquest wasn’t just force, but also manipulation and politics.

Why did Moctezuma believe that the Spanish might be their rightful rulers?

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1. When spanish arrived americans led major cultural political and economic changes.

2. Colonial systems known as encomienda forced labor.

3. The development in LAtin America was influenced by colonial legacies which lead to struggles.

Question- How did indigenous communities maintain identities despite pressure?

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After reading the letter I learned that the arrival of Christopher Columbus started Spanish colonization, leading to the exploitation of Indigenous peoples and their land. I understand that the Spanish rule imposed systems like encomienda, spread Christianity, and created strict social hierarchies based on race. After independence, new nation-states formed, but many colonial inequalities and power structures remained.

My question is what allows inequality to continue even after countries gained and became independent?

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When the Spanish arrived in the Americas, they didn’t just explore—they completely changed indigenous life by forcing new religions, languages, and political systems onto native populations. Many communities lost their traditions and autonomy.

Colonialism created a strict social hierarchy (caste system) where Spanish-born people were at the top, mixed-race people were in the middle, and indigenous and African people were at the bottom, which led to long-term inequality and exploitation.

Even after independence, the new nation-states kept many of these colonial structures, so wealth, power, and opportunities were still very unevenly distributed among different groups.

My question is if independence was supposed to bring equality, why did new governments keep many of the same social and economic systems from colonial times?

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After reading Cortés' letter, I understand that the arrival of the Spanish, especially through Hernán Cortés was not just about exploration, but the start of colonization, where Indigenous societies were recognized as advanced but still treated as inferior and taken over. Colonialism created systems of power that controlled land, labor and social hierarchies, forcing Indigenous people into unfair and exploitative conditions while using religion and ideas of European superiority to justify it. I also underdstood that when nation-states were later formed, they did not really fix these inequalities, but instead continued many of the same systems, especially by defining citizenship and belonging in ways that excluded Indigenous and other marginalized groups. One thing I am still confused about why new governments continued such unfair systems instead of creating something more equal?

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Hernán Cortés composed a series of letters, known as the Cartas de Relación, addressed to Charles V, in which he detailed his expedition and activities in the New World. Within these accounts, Cortés framed his conquest of Tenochtitlán as both heroic and legitimate, frequently highlighting the region’s wealth and strategic significance. However, because these letters were intended to secure royal favor and material rewards from the Spanish crown, Cortés likely amplified his achievements while downplaying conflicts, setbacks, and controversies.

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1. After reading Cortés’ letter, I learned that he was very impressed by how advanced and organized the Aztec city was, especially their markets, buildings, and system of government.

2. Cortés describes the land as rich and valuable, focusing on gold and resources, which shows he wanted Spain to see it as worth conquering.

3. He also tries to justify his actions by saying he is helping spread Christianity, but this shows bias because he leaves out the violence and makes himself look like a hero.

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After reading the Cortes's letters, I understood that he was in fact impressed by how developed the Aztecs' city was, in like how well organized the laws and markets were. He even compared it to Spain, which shows that they were not uncivilized like how other people think the Aztecs were. But at the same time I noticed that he was trying to convince the King that taking over the land is a good idea, and in a way it would benefit Spain.

One question I have is why Cortes describes them as so advanced, but still acts like they need to be ruled and taken over by Spain.

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In The Second Letter of Hernando Cortes to Charles V, I got to understand how Cortes exploitation from the cost of Mexico, to forming alliances with indigenous groups that were against the Aztec Empire and why he wanted to conquer it. One indigenous group would be the Tlaxcala and they helped Cortes enter and go against the Aztec Empire. Cortes idea of the Aztec Empire was its wealth, resources, and beauty that are similar to Spanish cities. Cortes wanted the Aztec Empire to make his version of Spain and to conquer what's his. "the quarter where the sun rises, and from what you say of the great lord or king who sent you

hither, we believe and are assured that he is our natural sovereign, especially as you say that it is a long time since you first had knowledge of us". This quote demonstrates how Cortes conquering the Aztec Empire was allowable and shows their belief of a great lord/king such as Charles. Furthermore, it mentions how he's their natural sovereign and the Aztec believed Spain's divinity/power.

One question that I have is what if the Tlaxcala didn't want to help Cortes conquer the Aztec Empire, and how much days and how much people were brought in to fight?

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1. When the Spanish arrived, they took over Indigenous land and forced Native people to work for them.

2. Colonization changed everything by spreading Spanish culture and religion while hurting Indigenous communities.

3. Even after colonization, the new nation-states still had a lot of the same inequalities from that time.

How did Indigenous people fight back against Spanish rule?

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In his second letter to Charles V, Hernando Cortés describes his profound amazement at the sophisticated civilization of the Aztecs, noting that their cities and markets are larger, better organized, and more "rational" than those found in Spain. He details a complex society governed by a shared nobility and a strict judicial system, where massive daily markets sell everything from fine jewelry to medicinal herbs under the watchful eye of government magistrates. Despite the "barbarous" label he applies to them, Cortés admits to admiring their polite manners and the "good order" of their urban infrastructure, which includes advanced masonry aqueducts and beautiful stone palaces. The narrative reaches a turning point when Muteczuma peacefully receives the Spanish, offering rich gifts and surrendering his authority based on an ancestral prophecy that a "natural sovereign" would arrive from the east. Even with this submission, Cortés remained strategically cautious, immediately building brigantines to secure a military advantage within the water-locked capital of Temixtitan.

Since Cortés frequently compares the scale and beauty of these cities to Spanish landmarks like Granada and Seville, do you think he was trying to emphasize the value of the land to the Emperor, or was he genuinely shocked by the level of advancement he found?

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After reading the information, I discovered that the Spanish, under the leadership of Hernán Cortés, conquered the Aztec Empire. To seize power, they formed alliances with other Indigenous groups, engaged in combat, and wielded their influence. This marked the beginning of Spanish colonial rule, which altered the way of life, culture, and government of Indigenous people. This eventually resulted in the formation of new nations known as nation-states. I would like to know how and whether Indigenous people were successful in resisting the Spanish.

My question is, Why did some Indigenous groups choose to help the Spanish even though it later caused problems for them?

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In Hernando Cortés' second letter to Charles V, he shares his experiences throughour his stay, from meeting the locals, to interacting with them, and Muteczuma's treatment of him. What surprised me the most from the reading was how well Muteczuma treated Cortés, covering him in gold, precious jewels, and even providing his own rich carpeting for him to sit on. He then goes on to give a very thorough description of the city, including the goods that were sold throughout, which would later become Spanish resources if the land was conquered by the empire, which, as we all know, it was.

My question is, why would Cortés keep comparing the city and its goods to Spain? He clearly states that Tenochtitlan has arguably more resources than Spain, so why make them seem equal when they aren't?

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In the Second Letter of Hernando Cortés to Charles V, he encompasses the significance expressed within the architecture, social frameworks, and marketplaces of the city of Temixtitan. Cortéz believes that Indigenous communities, such as the Aztecs, exhibit certain aspects that are analogous to those of Spaniards (Europeans) in terms of societal frameworks. Thus, Cortéz justifies the colonization of the Spaniards as a way to establish order within the Indigenous communities.

What may have driven Cortéz to form his beliefs among Indigenous Communities that may challenge today's views of Indigenous communities?

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In the second letter to Charles V, Cortez mostly talks about how he was guided to a city called Tlaxcala, which he thought was very organized and civilized. He noticed they had good systems for running their city and a lot of different crops. One thing that surprised him was how they punished people he saw criminals being publicly beaten to death. Cortez seemed very interested in Tlaxcala because he described so many details about it to Charles V. He was also told how to get to another nearby city, but he was warned it could be dangerous since they were enemies, so he was given some protection and supplies before going there.

Question: How did Cortez’s description of Tlaxcala help him plan for going to the next city?

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After reading the letter my understanding of the letter is that Hernán Cortés’ arrival in Mexico led to the conquest of the Aztec Empire through a combination of military force, strategic alliances with Indigenous groups, and the spread of disease. Also, Cortés’ actions illustrate how Spanish colonialism relied not only on violence but also on political manipulation and existing rivalries among Indigenous peoples. Also, the conquest set the stage for colonial rule, which transformed Indigenous societies and laid the groundwork for social hierarchies and the later development of nation-states in Latin America.

A question I have is, how did Indigenous groups resist Spanish colonization, and why were some alliances formed despite the long-term consequences?

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In the letters written by Hernan Cortés to Charles V in 1520, he describes how advanced the Aztec empire was. For instance, how busy marketplaces look, structured government systems, and laws like punishing thieves, and how organized it looks. Throughout the letter, he describes the empire, but at the end of the day, he still claims the land and its people for Spain, showing the start of colonization. This shows how, even though he recognized their power and admiration, he still believed that Europeans, meaning Spain, had the right to dominate and take control over this empire.

A question I have is why did he still believe that Spain had the right to conquer and control the Empire even after he saw how organized they lived? What made him think that way?

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Hernán Cortés meeting with the Aztec emperor

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After reading the Second Letter of Hernando Cortés to Charles V., he visits Tenochtitlán and provides a vivid and appreciative description of how large, advanced, how its better supplied with earths products, and how it’s a carefully planned city with remarkable architecture compared to Europe. Later on, he meets with Moctezuma II which he thought was influential, respectful, and that Moctezuma recognized the authority of Charles V. but decided to take him hostage to control the empire. Throughout the letter, Cortés justifies his actions and claims that everything he has done is necessary to maintain order and secure Spanish interests.

Question:

Why did Cortés feel like he had to take over in order to secure the Spanish?

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In the writings of Hernando Cortés he writes that when he came into the city he notes that “The market contains a great variety of articles both of food and clothing, and all kinds of shoes for the feet; jewels of gold and silver, and precious stones, and ornaments of feathers, all as well arranged as they can possibly be found in any public squares or markets in the world.” this shows that Mesoamerica was truly a bastion of culture and trading among the other civilization in the 1500s. Cortés also makes notes of how punishments are to be dealt with, such as thievery “while the crier went to the top of the building and with a loud voice again proclaimed his offence; whereupon the people beat him with sticks until he was dead.” he notes how this is their way of doing things and knows he should not interfere with their customs.

After twenty days of Cortés being in this city, he wishes to make contact with neighboring settlements, but the other nobles say it is too dangerous as the people there set traps to harm travelers should they enter. He sends messengers of his request to the nobles of this settlement, and once they returned along with the nobles' own messengers, they said that their nobles couldn’t make his audience. So Cortés told their messengers to heed his words. “with the warning that if they did not come before I had passed their borders, I should march against them and destroy them as rebels who refused to submit to the government of your Majesty.” he is here on behalf of his royal government and should any refusal of meeting a representative of that government will be met with destruction. A question I would like to ask is who Muteczuma was and how he functioned as a leader?

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Based on what I see in the second letter to Charles V that Cortez wrote, he mainly talks about how he was guided into a city named Tlaxcala that seemed extremely civilized to him, seeing how they all have proper systems for their city and were very civilized, seeing the variety of what they have to offer for crops as well. The one thing that surprised him was their punishment methods, as he witnessed how they publicly beat criminals to death in the open. Cortez showed interest in Tlaxcala as he was talking about so many things about it to Charles V. He was also given directions to another nearby city, but was warned about the potential hazards as they are considered enemies, so he was given some protection and some things to use when he gets there.

A question that I would ask would be what would be the most interesting thing that Cortez found in Tlaxcala, and what made them decide it was the right thing to tell the king about.

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In Cortés letters he describes a city so large and impressive that he fears his account will be “scarcely credited,” noting that it is much larger and stronger than Granada was at the time. He also includes resources like corn, fish and many types of vegetables. When looking at the markets, he details a massive public square twice the size of the one in Salamanca, where over 60,000 people gather daily to trade everything from jewels of gold and silver to precious stones, bones, shells, snails, and feathers. Furthermore, Cortés recounts his encounters with Muteczuma, where he explains that his people are not original inhabitants of the land but descendants of "strangers who emigrated hither from a very distant land" led by a great prince, Mucteczuma also shares/demonstrates the riches and materials they had and the very soil they used to create houses and luxury.

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1. The Second Letter of Hernando Cortés to Charles V (1520) describes Cortés’ journey through the Aztec Empire and his encounters with its cities, leaders, and society. Cortés portrays cities such as Tenochtitlan as vast, organized, and wealthy, highlighting their markets, government, architecture, and population to demonstrate the importance and riches of the land to the Spanish crown. At the same time, the letter reveals Cortés’ political goal of persuading Emperor Charles V to support Spanish conquest by emphasizing both the greatness of the Aztec civilization and the opportunity for Spain to claim authority over it.

2. How does Hernando Cortés describe the city of Tenochtitlan, and why might he emphasize its wealth and organization in his letter to Emperor Charles V?

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In the city of Temixtitan (Mexico), Hernán Cortés describes the city’s infrastructure as advanced and remarkable. In his letters, he mentions the water system used in this city, since it is “half land and half water, and are navigated by canoes.” Water is one of the main elements that help the entire city function, as it is carried in canoes through the streets or under bridges where the lakes are, and he describes how the men fill it from above. He also notes that the markets are full of supplies, and these markets are located in public squares. For example, he describes a street full of apothecary shops offering a variety of medicinal herbs, liquids, and ointments. Throughout the letter, he speaks highly of the organizational structure of these cities and how they operate, but it is important to note that he was sent there as an ambassador of King Charles V from Spain. Therefore, Cortes also considers himself above others, as he stated, “I could not recognize such persons as them, and that even their greatest men were scarcely worthy of receiving my attention.” This suggests that the riches he saw in this city were something to conquer and ultimately subjugate the indigenous people under Spain’s authority or government, which he describes as professing an "allegiance to your Highness and submit themselves as your vassals,” referring to Charles V.

In the letter, Hernan Cortes mentions that Muteczuma had enemies who were the former subjects that rebelled against him and the arrival of Hernan Cortes. Do you think that his enemies saw through Cortes’s intentions before Muteczuma did?

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1. In these letters that Hernan Cortes writes to Charles V,  he is describing all of the things that made the city so extraordinary, but ultimately it seems that Cortes’ main interest in the city was the gold and riches that were available there.  He was often presented with gold or jewelry because the indigenous people thought he was a god, and these gestures made Cortés feel superior, yet he wrote about the indigenous people he encountered as people who imposed danger on him personally. Throughout the letters it seems that Hernan does perceive himself as someone who is superior but still uses the name of Charles V to threaten the indigenous people into submitting, sometimes even threatening to destroy them and their homes in his name, but after reading the letters we can understand that Cortes was just greedy and found himself having to explain and justify what he had done to Charles V who was his superior.

2. Did Charles V realize that Hernan Cortés was lying to him, and did he punish Cortés for capturing the city when that was not his task?

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In the second letter from Cortez, Cortez encounters a lot of new things by a new culture. He first is admired by how extensive the city was and how it was rich in its article of foods. This included stuff like corn, fish from river, and other kinds of vegetables. He then was astonished by the markets around the city which hosted to thousands of citizens who could either buy or sell food, clothes, jewelry, and much more. He then went on to visit Temixtitan (Mexico) in which he found that the streets were wide and some were half water and half land. he had said that the city was as big as Seville or Cordoba.

A question I have is what would be Cortez reaction to a modern day city in today's day in age?

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In the second letter from Hernan Cortez to Charles V, I was able to note that Cortez thinks highly of himself, respects the king, and finds the city of Tenochtitlan extraordinary. Regarding the first statement, he explains to the king how some messengers had to come to speak to him yet, he could not merely associate with them because he "was sent as the ambassador of so powerful a prince as your sacred majesty". He believed that just because he was associated with a powerful king like Charles V, that he too held some of that power and didn't need people lesser than him to be spoken too. As to the second statement, he had respect for Charles V. Throughout the letter, Hernan refers to him as 'sovereign', 'majesty', and 'prince'. He wanted to provide the king with only the truth of his voyage and conquer of the Aztec Empire. It is clear that he was loyal to Charles V. As for the last statement, if we look at the last sentence of the letter, Hernan Cortes explains how the city had so many amusements within. All throughout the letter he describes the characteristics seen within the city. From all this, it is my assumption to think he saw the city as something worth conquering.

How would things be different now in present time if Cortes, and the many like him, would have chosen to coexist and work alongside the Aztec instead of conquering them?

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In the reading "Second Letter of Hernando Cortes to Charles V", it talks about the lands, cities, and all the wealth that were encountered. Cortés also honors and prioritizes the city of Tenochtitlan because of its culture. In the letter, it also mentioned that Cortés often spread Christianity and brought the Spanish territory under the authority of Spain.

How did the Spanish contribute to labor that later on formed structures to independent nations in Latin America?