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a. Monosaccharide
- simple sugars
- vary in size
- 3-7 carbons
- forms ring structures in water
e.g. glyceraldehyde (C₃H₆O₃), an energy-storing molecule produced by photosynthesis
fructose (C₆H₁₂O₆), fruit sugar that makes fruits sweet

b. Disaccharide
- linked pairs of monomers
e.g. glucose + fructose --> sucrose (circulates in plant sap and used as table sugar)
glucose + glucose --> maltose
(produced from digestion of starch in a sprouting seed or in intestines of animals)

c. Polysaccharides
- long chain of monomers
- acts as cell identification tags on cell membranes
e.g starch, stored by plants for energy
glycogen, stores every in animal cells
cellulose, makes plant cell walls

# data[].attributes.body
f. gene regulatory proteins
- binds to DNA in particular locations
- controls the ability of cells to specialise in different functions and respond to surrounding changes

g. storage proteins
- building components stored to be used by other cells
- provides raw materials in seeds for developing plants

h. enzyme
- changes rate of chemical reaction without affecting itself
- promotes and regulate chemical reactions in cells

i. defensive proteins (antibodies)
- produced by the immune system
- binds with invaders e.g. viruses and marks foreign objects for destruction

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a. structural proteins
- shapes and anchors cell parts
- binds cells together to make organised units
e.g. silk of spiders, hair of mammals

b. signal proteins
- contains hormonal proteins that acts as a signal between cells
- signal molecules that bind to receptor molecules to relay messages

c. transport proteins
- carries molecules from one place to another

d. sensory proteins
- detects environmental changes and emits or produces signals that calls for a response

e. contractile proteins
- moves parts of cells
- works with muscle cells to move a whole animal

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- composed of 20 various amino acids
- the R groups differ in size and composition in various amino acids giving different properties
e.g. leucine (hydrophobic), serine (hydrophilic), aspartic acid ( charged)
- makes up almost all structures of the cell
e.g. nails, hair
- used to build and repair tissues
- its function depends on its specific shape

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- all has four length rings

a. cholesterol
- major component of cell membranes
- produces molecules such as hormones and bile acid

b.estradiol (oestrogen)
- primary female sex hormone
- produced in ovaries
- helps develop and regulate the female reproductive system

c. vitamin D
- helps better absorption in calcium, magnesium and phosphate

d. testosterone
- primary male sex hormone
- produced in testes
- helps in development of male reproductive tissues

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a. saturated
- only contains single bonds
- solid at room temperature
- unhealthy
e.g. butter, lard

b. unsaturated
- contains double bonds in one or more tails
- liquid in room temperature
- healthier than saturated fats
e.g. vegetable oil, olive oil

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- 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids
- important component of cell membranes
- group containing phosphate replaces a tail
- ambivalent in water as the head is hydrophilic and the tail is hydrophobic
- phosphate is negatively charged, attaching itself to the positively charged R group e.g. choline

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a. adipose tissue
- adipose cells in animals are almost completely filled with fats
- insulates body
- protects organs

b. fat molecule (triglycerides)
- 1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids
- insoluble in water due to hydrophobic and non polar fatty acids
- stores energy as it holds more potential energy

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- variety of molecules

e.g. phospholipids, waxes, fats, steroids

- low solubility in water

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a. cellulose
- glucose monomers joined by beta-1, 4-glycosidic bonds (polysaccharide)
- difficult to break down
- straight and unbranched
- grass-eating mammals can break down these bonds for energy
e.g. cows, deers

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a. amylose
- a form of starch

- alpha-1, 4-glycosidic bonds join glucose monomers
- distinctive spiral structure

b. amylopectin
- a form of starch
- alpha-1, 4-glycosidic bonds join glucose monomers
- can create branches from main chain by alpha-1, 6-glycosidic bonds

c. glycogen
- very branched
- linked by alpha-1, 4-glycosidic bonds, and connected to each other by alpha-1, 6-glycosidic bonds

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- ring conformation as it is more stable than straight chain conformation

a. alpha glycosidic linkages
- hydroxyl group is below the plane            (attached to 1 carbon)
- composes starch
e.g. amylose, amylopectin

b. beta glycosidic linkages
- hydroxyl group is above the plane
e.g. cellulose, glycogen

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- used as building materials and sources of energy
- type of biological molecule that always contains C, H and O in a 1:2:1 ratio.
e.g.  C₆H₁₂O6 (glucose),
C₅H₁₀O5 (ribose)