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Istanbul, Turkey, is the only city in the world that sits on two continents: Europe and Asia. The city lies on both sides of the Bosporus channel and the Sea of Marmara, which connect the Black sea to the Mediterranean. On the European side of the Bosporus, old Istanbul developed on the western side of the narrow Golden Horn, a canal about 4 miles in length that empties into the Bosporus.Flag: White emblem on a red field.Time Zone: 3 pm = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Elevation: Approximately 600m (2,000 ft) above sea levelClimate: Istanbul has a Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and dry, hot summers. The prevailing northeast winds, or poyraz, come from the Black sea sometimes bringing extreme cold to the city. At times, the cold winds have frozen the Golden Horn and the Bosporus

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Istanbul, Turkey, is the only city in the world that sits on two continents: Europe and Asia. The city lies on both sides of the Bosporus channel and the Sea of Marmara, which connect the Black sea to the Mediterranean. On the European side of the Bosporus, old Istanbul developed on the western side of the narrow Golden Horn, a canal about 4 miles in length that empties into the Bosporus.Flag: White emblem on a red field.Time Zone: 3 pm = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)Elevation: Approximately 600m (2,000 ft) above sea levelClimate: Istanbul has a Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and dry, hot summers. The prevailing northeast winds, or poyraz, come from the Black sea sometimes bringing extreme cold to the city. At times, the cold winds have frozen the Golden Horn and the Bosporus

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We love painting and  the coding in class and also playing in the school garden.Our favorite lesson is P.E. and Math. We like watching films and eating popcorn together:)))

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MÜGE GÖKTEPEAlemdağ Emlak Konut Primary and Secondary School entered service in 2013. The first name of our school was Toki Nişantepe Elementary and Middle School, Our school located in Çekmeköy- Nişantepe - istanbul district is approximately 10 km away from Çekmeköy district center. In our school: Number of teachers: 43Number of Students: 900Number of Classrooms: 28 Sports Hall: 1 

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MÜGE GÖKTEPEAlemdağ Emlak Konut Primary and Secondary School entered service in 2013. The first name of our school was Toki Nişantepe Elementary and Middle School, Our school located in Çekmeköy- Nişantepe - istanbul district is approximately 10 km away from Çekmeköy district center. In our school: Number of teachers: 43Number of Students: 900Number of Classrooms: 28 Sports Hall: 1 

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I am a P.E. teacher at a primary and a secondary school in İstanbul - Turkey. My students are 7 to 15. I have been an P.E. teacher for about 23 years now. And this is my 4th year in etwinning.  It's a pleasure to be in this project.

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- Albania

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Tirana 2020 - 🇦🇱 Albania [Drone Footage] 4K

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- Fier/Albania

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"Flatrat e dijes" school is located in Fier/ Albania.
-550 students
- Primary/ Secondary/ High school
- Built in 2000

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I am a computer science teacher at a secondary school and high school in Fier, Albania. I am interested in participating in projects that help develop pupils' programming skills. I particularly prefer working with projects that give pupils the opportunity to collaborate, work in groups, and help them understand and use their skills and abilities.

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0:00 / 1:58•Watch full video

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Ünye Yunus Emre Primary School was established in 1991/92 with this name since 1991 was designated as “Yunus Emre Year of Love and Tolerance”.
It can be reached by two separate minibus lines. Although the school looks as small as it is, it has around 40 teachers.

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ÜNYE YUNUS EMRE PRIMARY SCHOOL/ORDU-ÜNYE

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ÜNYE YUNUS EMRE PRIMARY SCHOOL/ORDU-ÜNYE

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We are 1st graders and I have 17 female and 13 female students in my class.

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ÜNYE YUNUS EMRE PRIMARY SCHOOL/ORDU-ÜNYE

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ÜNYE YUNUS EMRE PRIMARY SCHOOL/ORDU-ÜNYE

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I'm Zeliha GAFEROGLU. My hometown Kayseri. I live in Ordu. I have three kids. I'm a 25-year teacher. I love teaching. I love kids so much.

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TÜRKİYE

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2020 Olimpiyatları Tanıtım Filmi İstanbul TÜRKİYE [HD]

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MANAVGAT

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KIZILOT AHMET YAŞAR İLK/ORTA OKULU ANA SINIFI

Kızılot Ahmet Yasar primary school in Manavgat in Antalya province of Turkey ilçesindedir.kızılot
It is 93 km away from the city center and 15 km away from the city center.

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KIZILOT AHMET YAŞAR İLK/ORTAOKULU ANA SINIFI

Hello. My name is Vildan. In Antalya
Manavgat district Kızılot Ahmet Yaşar Primary school preschool teacher. My students are five years old

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İSTANBUL TANITIM
https://youtu.be/k1r02wqSaww

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ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL
https://youtu.be/NlfDtCbPWeI

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Poland - our country

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Poland

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Poland ( Polish: Polska ), officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of 312,700 km ² (120,700 sq mi). Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union. Warsaw is the nation's capital and largest metropolis. Other major cities include Kraków, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, Gdańsk, and Szczecin.

Poland has a temperate transitional climate, and its territory traverses the Central European Plain, extending from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south. The longest Polish river is the Vistula, and Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy, situated in the Tatra mountain range of the Carpathians. The country is bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west. It also shares maritime boundaries with Denmark and Sweden.

Prehistoric human activity on Polish soil dates to c. 10,000 BCE. Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity, in the early medieval period the region became inhabited by tribal Polans who gave Poland its name. The establishment of statehood in 966 coincided with the conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church. The Kingdom of Poland emerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standing association with Lithuania, thus forming the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of the great powers of Europe, with a uniquely liberal political system which on 3 May 1791 adopted Europe's first modern constitution.

The native Polish name for Poland is Polska. The name is derived from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th-8th century CE). The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland. The etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland. The English name Poland was formed in the 1560s, from German Pole(n) and the suffix -land, denoting a people or nation. Prior to its adoption, the Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout medieval Europe.

The country's alternative archaic name is and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably Hungarian, Lithuanian, and Persian. The exonym possibly derives from either Lech, a legendary ruler of the Lechites, or from the Lendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of Lesser Poland. The origin of the tribe's name lies in the Old Polish word lęda (plain). Initially, both names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages.

Prehistory and protohistory

The first Stone Age archaic humans and Homo erectus species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments. The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period (10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable. Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia, and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).

The period spanning the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (1300 BC-500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of palisaded settlements ( gords) and the expansion of Lusatian culture. A significant archaeological find from the protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at Biskupin, attributed to the Lusatian culture of the Late Bronze Age (mid-8th century BC).

Throughout antiquity (400 BC-500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably Celtic, Scythian, Germanic, Sarmatian, Baltic and Slavic tribes. Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of Roman Legions sent to protect the amber trade. The Polish tribes emerged following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD; they were Slavic and possibly may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area. Beginning in the early 10th century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchial state.

Kingdom of Poland

Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. In 966, ruler of the Polans Mieszko I accepted Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church with the Baptism of Poland. An incipit titled Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital and bishopric at Gniezno, and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of the Apostolic See. The country's early origins were described by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle. An important national event of the period was the martyrdom of Saint Adalbert, who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave.

In 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right of investiture from Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics. Three new dioceses were subsequently established in Kraków, Kołobrzeg, and Wrocław. Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia and a replica of the Holy Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the first King of Poland in c. 1025, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from Pope John XIX. Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German Lusatia, Czech Moravia, Upper Hungary and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus'.

Casimir III the Great is the only Polish king to receive the title of Great. He built extensively during his reign, and reformed the Polish army along with the country's legal code, 1333-70.

The transition from paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the pagan reaction of the 1030s. In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence. The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer. In 1076, Bolesław II re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Bishop Stanislaus. In 1138, the country fragmented into five principalities when Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons. These comprised Lesser Poland, Greater Poland, Silesia, Masovia and Sandomierz, with intermittent hold over Pomerania. In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.

In the mid-13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasions and the death of Henry II in battle hindered the unification. As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes. In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. In 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland since Przemysł II in 1296, and the first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.

Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by developments in castle infrastructure, army, judiciary and diplomacy. Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death. In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the University of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe. Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Hungary and Croatia in a personal union. Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.

In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and the Polish-Lithuanian union which spanned the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era. The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political entities of the time.

In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them. In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War, king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to the Peace of Thorn, which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay tributes. The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia (1471 onwards) and Hungary. In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combat Russia.

Poland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmsteads, or folwarks. In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the Sejm, and an upper house, the Senate. The act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles.

The 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time. This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe. In Poland, Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-called Polish Brethren, who separated from their Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism.

The European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakening. During the Polish Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished. The Italian-born Bona Sforza, daughter of the Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to architecture, cuisine, language and court customs at Wawel Castle.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at its greatest extent in 1619

The Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with an elective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility. The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, Eastern, Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km ² (390,000 sq mi) at its peak and was the largest state in Europe. Simultaneously, Poland imposed Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.

In 1573, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles. His successor, Stephen Báthory, led a successful campaign in the Livonian War, granting Poland more lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski, the Crown Chancellor. In 1592, Sigismund III of Poland succeeded his father, John Vasa, in Sweden. The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was deposed by the Swedes.

In 1609, Sigismund invaded Russia which was engulfed in a civil war, and a year later the Polish winged hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski occupied Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at Klushino. Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II.

Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Silver Age. The liberal Władysław IV effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare. In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the Khmelnytsky Uprising, followed by the decimating Swedish Deluge during the Second Northern War, and Prussia's independence in 1657. In 1683, John III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an Ottoman Army into Europe at the Battle of Vienna. The successive Saxon era, under Augustus II and Augustus III, saw the rise of neighbouring countries in the aftermath of the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession (1733).

Partitions

The royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy. His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia. The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states. His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility. The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to intervene.

In 1772, the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the Partition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a fait accompli. Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated. Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the Enlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican neoclassicism. For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Society.

In 1791, Great Sejm parliament adopted the 3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy. The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish-Russian War. Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity. Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.

Era of insurrections

The partitions of Poland, carried out by the Kingdom of Prussia (blue), the Russian Empire (brown), and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy (green) in 1772, 1793 and 1795

The Polish people rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished general Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents. Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence for 123 years.

In 1806, an insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon's advance into Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw, a client state ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly those under Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of France shortly before his death at Leipzig in 1813. In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress Kingdom of Poland, the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen, and Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków.

In 1830, non-commissioned officers at Warsaw's Officer Cadet School rebelled in what was the November Uprising. After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its constitutional autonomy, army and legislative assembly. During the European Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere province; and subsequent integration into the German Empire in 1871. In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising (1863-1864) prompted severe political, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations and pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.

Second Polish Republic

In the aftermath of World War I, the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died. Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic.

The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after a series of military conflicts, most notably the Polish-Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw.

The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until World War I, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski.

In 1926, the May Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja ( Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country. By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.

World War II

World War II began with the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. In 1939-1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in the Katyn massacre) ahead of Operation Barbarossa. German planners had in November 1939 called for "the complete destruction of all Poles" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal Generalplan Ost.

Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe, and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east. Polish troops played an important role in the Normandy, Italian, North African Campaigns and Netherlands and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino. Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond, and Polish code breakers were responsible for cracking the Enigma cipher. In the east, the Soviet-backed Polish 1st Army distinguished itself in the battles for Warsaw and Berlin.

The wartime resistance movement, and the Armia Krajowa ( Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system. The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.

Map of the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland with deportation routes and massacre sites. Major ghettos are marked with yellow stars. Nazi extermination camps are marked with white skulls in black squares. The border in 1941 between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union is marked in red.

Nazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied Poland, including Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz. The Germans transported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps. Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews - approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry - and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles were killed during the German occupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish intelligentsia - academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola and Ochota massacres. Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland ( Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Wołyń Massacres. Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished - more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population - half of them Polish Jews. About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.

In 1945, Poland's borders were shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled along the Curzon Line by Stalin. The western border became the Oder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.

Post-war communism

At High Noon, 4 June 1989-political poster featuring Gary Cooper to encourage votes for the Solidarity party in the 1989 elections

At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.

Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.

The new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution on 19 February 1947. The Polish People's Republic ( Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.

Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union " Solidarity" (" Solidarność"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.

Third Polish Republic

A shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market economy. As with other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels as early as 1995, largely due to its booming economy. Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991, and joined NATO in 1999. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004, following the consequent enlargement of the organisation.

Poland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union have been dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the European Union. On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia.

In 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won parliamentary elections. In 2014, the Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, was chosen to be President of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister. The 2015 and 2019 elections were won by the conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led by Jarosław Kaczyński, resulting in increased Euroscepticism and increased friction with the European Union. In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the new Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was narrowly re-elected in the 2020 presidential election. Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 led to 15.4 million Ukrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland, as of October 2023. As of November 2022, more than 1.5 million of those have stayed in Poland, at least temporarily, since the beginning of the war. Poland has been one of neigbouring Ukraine's most ardent supporters after the Russian invasion. However, Poland's decision to ban importing Ukrainian grain, in order to protect its own farmers, had caused tension between the two countries.

Topographic map of Poland

Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km ² (120,743 sq mi), and is the ninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km ² (120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km ² (788 sq mi) comprises internal waters and 8,783 km ² (3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea. Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse landforms, water bodies and ecosystems. The central and northern region bordering the Baltic Sea lie within the flat Central European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous. The average elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.

The country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gulf of Gdańsk in the east. The beach coastline is abundant in sand dune fields or coastal ridges and is indented by spits and lagoons, notably the Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia. The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is Wolin, located within Wolin National Park. Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island with Germany.

The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges; the Sudetes in the west and the Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border. Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras. The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic. The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.

Poland's longest rivers are the Vistula, the Oder, the Warta, and the Bug. The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District. The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are Śniardwy and Mamry, and the deepest is Lake Hańcza at 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth.

The climate of Poland is temperate transitional, and varies from oceanic in the north-west to continental in the south-east. The mountainous southern fringes are situated within an alpine climate. Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December. The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is Lower Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around Suwałki in Podlaskie province, where the climate is affected by cold fronts from Scandinavia and Siberia. Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.

There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year. Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual thermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001-2010 period. Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less sleet and snowfall.

Biodiversity

Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country has four Palearctic ecoregions - Central, Northern, Western European temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and the Carpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the Lower Silesian Wilderness. The most common deciduous trees found across the country are oak, maple, and beech; the most common conifers are pine, spruce, and fir. An estimated 69% of all forests are coniferous.

The flora and fauna in Poland is that of Continental Europe, with the wisent, white stork and white-tailed eagle designated as national animals, and the red common poppy being the unofficial floral emblem. Among the most protected species is the European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as the Eurasian beaver, the lynx, the gray wolf and the Tatra chamois. The region was also home to the extinct aurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627. Game animals such as red deer, roe deer, and wild boar are found in most woodlands. Poland is also a significant breeding ground for migratory birds and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.

Around 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 Polish national parks, two of which - Białowieża and Bieszczady - are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. There are 123 areas designated as landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas under the Natura 2000 network.

Government and politics

Poland is a unitary parliamentary republic and a representative democracy, with a president as the head of state. The executive power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers and the prime minister who acts as the head of government. The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by parliament. The head of state is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The current president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Mateusz Morawiecki.

Poland's legislative assembly is a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house ( Sejm) and a 100-member upper house ( Senate). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion. The Senate is elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies. The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.

With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed parliamentary immunity. Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.

Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the National Assembly of the Republic of Poland. The National Assembly, headed by the Sejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions - when a new president takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.

Administrative divisions

Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as voivodeships. As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat. The provinces are largely founded on the borders of historic regions, or named for individual cities. Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor ( voivode), an elected regional assembly ( sejmik) and a voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.

The Constitution of 3 May adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.

The Constitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of civil law. The current democratic constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a multi-party state with freedoms of religion, speech and assembly, prohibits the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture or corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to strike.

The judiciary in Poland is composed of the Supreme Court as the country's highest judicial organ, the Supreme Administrative Court for the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts ( District, Regional, Appellate) and the Military Court. The Constitutional and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance of statutory law, thus protecting the Constitution. Judges are nominated by the National Council of the Judiciary and are appointed for life by the president. On the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.

Poland has a low homicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018. Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level. The country has imposed strict regulations on abortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger; congenital disorder and stillbirth are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.

Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later democratic movements across the globe. In 1918, the Second Polish Republic became one of the first countries to introduce universal women's suffrage.

Foreign relations

Poland is a middle power and is transitioning into a regional power in Europe. It has a total of 52 representatives in the European Parliament as of 2022. Warsaw serves as the headquarters for Frontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well as ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the OSCE. Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the WTO.

In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its relations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closest allies and strategic partners in Europe. Historically, Poland maintained strong cultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".

The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches - the Land Forces, the Navy, the Air Force, the Special Forces and the Territorial Defence Force. The military is subordinate to the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland. However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff. Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August. As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the gendarmerie and defence force.

Poland is spending 2% of its GDP on defence, equivalent to approximately US$14.5 billion in 2022, with a slated increase to US$29 billion in 2023. From 2022, Poland is set to spend 110 billion euros on the modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polish defence manufacturers. Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel. According to SIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.

Compulsory military service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO's military exercises. Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions, and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.

Security, law enforcement and emergency services

A Mercedes-Benz Sprinter patrol van belonging to the Polish State Police Service (Policja)

Thanks to its location, Poland is a country free from objective threats such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and tropical cyclones.

Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the Ministry of Interior and Administration - the State Police ( Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the Municipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard. Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect. Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carry firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer. Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.

The Internal Security Agency (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief counter-intelligence instrument safeguarding Poland's internal security, along with Agencja Wywiadu (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad. The Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.

Emergency services in Poland consist of the emergency medical services, search and rescue units of the Polish Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments, but are a part of the centralised national agency - the National Medical Emergency Service ( Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne).

Real GDP growth

4.5% (2019)

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As of 2023, Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by nominal standards and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a developed market status in 2018. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in 2021 amounted to 2.9%, which was the second-lowest in the EU. Around 61% of the employed population works in the service sector, 31% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector. Although Poland is a member of EU's single market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency - the Polish złoty (zł, PLN).

Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a high globalisation rate. The country's largest firms compose the WIG20 and WIG30 indexes, which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by the National Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billion PLN at the end of 2014. The Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.

Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe, with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults. It was the only European economy to have avoided the recession of 2008. The country is the 20th largest exporter of goods and services in the world. Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020. In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.

Poland experienced a significant increase in the number of tourists after joining the European Union in 2004. With over 21 million international arrivals in 2019, tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.

Poland has a 770 km long coastline of the southern Baltic Sea with many wide sandy beaches, which are frequently visited by tourists in the summer season.

Other tourist destinations include the Masurian Lake District and Białowieża Forest in the east; on the south Karkonosze, the Table Mountains and the Tatra Mountains, where Rysy - the highest peak of Poland, and Eagle's Path mountain trail are located. The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the extreme south-east. There are over 100 castles in the country, most in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on the Trail of the Eagles' Nests. The largest castle in the world by land area is situated in Malbork, in north-central Poland.

Transport in Poland is provided by means of rail, road, marine shipping and air travel. The country is part of EU's Schengen Area and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe. Some of the longest European routes, including the E30 and E40, run through Poland. The country has a good network of highways comprising express roads and motorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's 21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use.

In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France. The Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their own commuter and regional rail. Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport. It is the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines, the country's flag carrier.

The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel-based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions. Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms ( Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually. After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil-the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.

The new Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.

Science and technology

Physicist and chemist Maria Skłodowska-Curie was the first person to win two Nobel Prizes.[280]

Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics. Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was Nicolaus Copernicus ( Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe. He also derived a quantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity. Poland was ranked 41st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.

Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional universities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was Maria Skłodowska-Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland's Radium Institute.

Demographics

Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the ninth-most populous country in Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (320 inhabitants/sq mi). The total fertility rate was estimated at 1.42 children born to a woman in 2019, which is among the world's lowest. Furthermore, Poland's population is aging significantly, and the country has a median age of roughly 42.

Population of Poland from 1900 to 2010 in millions of inhabitants

Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones. In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments. The most populous administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital, Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2-3 million people living in its metropolitan area. The metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with a population between 2.7 million and 5.3 million residents. Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities of Wrocław and Kraków.

In the 2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish identity, 846,719 Silesian, 232,547 Kashubian and 147,814 German. Other identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality. Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka. More than 1.7 million Ukrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017. The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.

Dolina Jadwigi-a bilingual Polish-Kashubian road sign with the village name

Polish is the official and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the official languages of the European Union. It is also a second language in parts of neighbouring Lithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools. Contemporary Poland is a linguistically homogeneous nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue. There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland, including one recognised regional language, Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania. Poland also recognises secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace. According to the Centre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015.

According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the Roman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.

Poland is one of the most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a criterion of national identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered. In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance. However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended mass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000. According to The Wall Street Journal, "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the Pew Research Center in 2018, Poland was secularizing the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders."

Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's concordat with the Holy See enables the teaching of religion in public schools. Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of religious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe. Poland hosted Europe's largest Jewish diaspora, and the country was a centre of Ashkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until the Holocaust.

Pilgrimages to the Jasna Góra Monastery, a shrine dedicated to the Black Madonna, take place annually.

Medical service providers and hospitals ( szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to the Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient care. Poland has a universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive insurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.

According to the Human Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female); the country has a low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births). In 2019, the principal cause of death was ischemic heart disease; diseases of the circulatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths. In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer of medications and pharmaceutical products.

The Jagiellonian University founded in 1364 by Casimir III in Kraków was the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of the oldest universities still in continuous operation. Poland's Commission of National Education ( Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.

The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the Ministry of Education and Science. Kindergarten attendance is optional for children aged between three and five, with one year being compulsory for six-year-olds. Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians. Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference - a four-year high school (), a five-year technical school () or various vocational studies ( szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by each individual pupil. A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.

In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions, with technical, medical, economic, agricultural, pedagogical, theological, musical, maritime and military faculties. The University of Warsaw and Warsaw Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the University of Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent. There are three conventional academic degrees in Poland - or (first cycle qualification), (second cycle qualification) and (third cycle qualification). In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ranked Poland's educational system higher than the OECD average; the study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries.

The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year history, and forms an important constituent in the Western civilisation. The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression biało-czerwoni ("whitereds"). National symbols, chiefly the crowned white-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems. The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the National Heritage Board of Poland. Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the Historic Monuments Register, with further 17 being recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.

Holidays and traditions

All Saints' Day on 1 November is one of the most important public holidays in Poland.

There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays - New Year on 1 January, Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, Labour Day on 1 May, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1 November, Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.

Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve () is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers ( opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and a twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the first star appears. An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest. On occasion, carolers journey around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.

A widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter. Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights. Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.

Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such as Frédéric Chopin, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Wieniawski, Karol Szymanowski, and traditional, regionalised folk composers create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as sung poetry and disco polo.

The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz containing polyphonic compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica and (a coronation polonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled Krakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.

Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the Open'er Festival, Opole Festival and Sopot Festival.

Art in Poland has invariably reflected European trends, with Polish painting pivoted on folklore, Catholic themes, historicism and realism, but also on impressionism and romanticism. An important art movement was Young Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promoting decadence, symbolism and art nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the Polish School of Posters. One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland is Lady with an Ermine (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci.

Internationally renowned Polish artists include Jan Matejko (historicism), Jacek Malczewski (symbolism), Stanisław Wyspiański (art nouveau), Henryk Siemiradzki (Roman academic art), Tamara de Lempicka ( art deco), and Zdzisław Beksiński (dystopian surrealism). Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives of avant-garde, constructivist, minimalist and contemporary art movements, including Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław Strzemiński, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alina Szapocznikow, Igor Mitoraj and Wilhelm Sasnal.

Notable art academies in Poland include the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, Art Academy of Szczecin, University of Fine Arts in Poznań and the Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited at Zachęta, Ujazdów, and MOCAK art galleries.

Architecture

The architecture of Poland reflects European architectural styles, with strong historical influences derived from Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries. Settlements founded on Magdeburg Law evolved around central marketplaces ( plac, rynek), encircled by a grid or concentric network of streets forming an old town ( stare miasto). Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches, city tenements and town halls. Cloth hall markets ( sukiennice) were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture. The mountainous south is known for its Zakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland.

The earliest architectonic trend was Romanesque ( c. 11th century), but its traces in the form of circular rotundas are scarce. The arrival of brick Gothic ( c. 13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of Malbork, Lidzbark, Gniew and Kwidzyn as well as the cathedrals of Gniezno, Gdańsk, Wrocław, Frombork and Kraków. The Renaissance (16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensive palazzos and mausoleums. Decorative attics with pinnacles and arcade loggias are elements of Polish Mannerism, found in Poznań, Lublin and Zamość. Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque, Neoclassical and Revivalist styles (17th-19th century).

Primary building materials comprising timber or red brick were extensively utilised in Polish folk architecture, and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace. Secular structures such as dworek manor houses, farmsteads, granaries, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums (). However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of functionalist housing estates and residential areas.

Literature

The literary works of Poland have traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism, spirituality, social allegories and moral narratives. The earliest examples of Polish literature, written in Latin, date to the 12th century. The first Polish phrase Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (officially translated as "Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest") was documented in the Book of Henryków and reflected the use of a quern-stone. It has been since included in UNESCO's Memory of World Register. The oldest extant manuscripts of fine prose in Old Polish are the Holy Cross Sermons and the Bible of Queen Sophia, and Calendarium cracoviense (1474) is Poland's oldest surviving print.

The poets Jan Kochanowski and Nicholas Rey became the first Renaissance authors to write in Polish. Prime literarians of the period included Dantiscus, Modrevius, Goslicius, Sarbievius and theologian John Laski. In the Baroque era, Jesuit philosophy and local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques of Jan Andrzej Morsztyn ( Marinism) and Jan Chryzostom Pasek ( sarmatian memoirs). During the Enlightenment, playwright Ignacy Krasicki composed the first Polish-language novel. Poland's leading 19th-century romantic poets were the Three Bards - Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński and Adam Mickiewicz, whose epic poem Pan Tadeusz (1834) is a national classic. In the 20th century, the English impressionist and early modernist writings of Joseph Conrad made him one of the most eminent novelists of all time.

Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised. The philosophical sci-fi novel by Stanisław Lem and The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski are celebrated works of world fiction. Poland has six Nobel-Prize winning authors - Henryk Sienkiewicz (; 1905), Władysław Reymont (The Peasants; 1924), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978), Czesław Miłosz (1980), Wisława Szymborska (1996), and Olga Tokarczuk (2018).

Selection of popular traditional dishes from Poland, including hunter's stew, stuffed cabbage rolls, rye soup, pierogi, potato pancakes, and rye bread

The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), gołąbki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), żurek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup. Bagels, a type of bread roll, also originated in Poland.

Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce. Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka ( mille-feuille) cream pie.

Traditional alcoholic beverages include honey mead, widespread since the 13th century, beer, wine and vodka. The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland. The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980-1998. Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland. Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.

Fashion and design

Traditional polonaise dresses, 1780-1785

Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including Helena Rubinstein and Maksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as Max Factor and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics. Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern eyelash extensions. As of 2020, Poland possesses the fifth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer, and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.

Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or cultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known as Sarmatism at the turn of the 17th century. The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included robe à la polonaise and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo Polish beds with canopies became fashionable in French châteaus. Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.

Andrzej Wajda, the recipient of an Honorary Oscar, the Palme d'Or , as well as Honorary Golden Lion and Golden Bear awards

The cinema of Poland traces its origins to 1894, when inventor Kazimierz Prószyński patented the Pleograph and subsequently the Aeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera. In 1897, Jan Szczepanik constructed the Telectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds. They are both recognised as pioneers of cinematography. Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active in Hollywood, chiefly Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Pola Negri, Samuel Goldwyn, the Warner brothers, Max Fleischer, Agnieszka Holland, Krzysztof Zanussi and Krzysztof Kieślowski.

The themes commonly explored in Polish cinema include history, drama, war, culture and black realism ( film noir). In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the Academy Awards - The Pianist (2002) by Roman Polański and (2013) by Paweł Pawlikowski. Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made by Stanisław Bareja and Juliusz Machulski.

Headquarters of the publicly funded national television network TVP in Warsaw

According to the Eurobarometer Report (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch the television daily. In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden. Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the public broadcasting corporation TVP, free-to-air channels TVN and Polsat as well as 24-hour news channels TVP Info, TVN 24 and Polsat News. Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were tabloids and socio-political news dailies.

Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are CD Projekt, Techland, The Farm 51, CI Games and People Can Fly. Some of the popular video games developed in Poland include The Witcher trilogy and Cyberpunk 2077. The Polish city of Katowice also hosts Intel Extreme Masters, one of the biggest esports events in the world.

Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions. Track and field, basketball, handball, boxing, MMA, ski jumping, cross-country skiing, ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, and weightlifting are other popular sports. The golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when the Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place in the 1974 and the 1982 tournaments. The team won a gold medal in football at the 1972 Summer Olympics and two silver medals, in 1976 and in 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted the UEFA European Football Championship.

As of August 2023, the Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked as first in the world. The team won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics and the gold medal at the FIVB World Championship 1974, 2014 and 2018. Mariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.

Poland has made a distinctive mark in motorcycle speedway racing. The top Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being three-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, UK in 2021.

In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1 Iga Świątek, winner of four Grand Slam singles titles; former World No. 2 Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including 2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP player Hubert Hurkacz; and former World No. 1 doubles player Łukasz Kubot whose career highlights include winning two Grand Slam doubles titles - 2014 Australian Open and 2017 Wimbledon Championships. Poland also won the 2015 Hopman Cup with Agnieszka Radwańska and Jerzy Janowicz representing the country.

Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders. Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world. Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.

References

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Poland ( Polish: Polska ), officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of 312,700 km 2 (120,700 sq mi). Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union.

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Poznań

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( Poznań ( POZ-nan, POHZ-nan, POHZ-nahn,[2] Polish: [ˈpɔznaj̃] or [ˈpɔznaɲ] listen ); German: Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region and is the fifth-largest city in Poland. It is best known for its renaissance Old Town and Ostrów Tumski Cathedral. Today, Poznań is an important cultural and business centre and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John's Fair ( Jarmark Świętojański), traditional Saint Martin's croissants and a local dialect.

Poznań is among the oldest and largest cities in Poland. The city's population is 538,633 (2011 census), while the continuous conurbation with Poznań County and several other communities is inhabited by almost 1.1 million people. The Larger Poznań Metropolitan Area (PMA) is inhabited by 1.3-1.4 million people and extends to such satellite towns as Nowy Tomyśl, Gniezno and Września, making it the fourth largest metropolitan area in Poland. It is the historical capital of the Greater Poland region and is currently the administrative capital of the province called Greater Poland Voivodeship.

Poznań is a centre of trade, sports, education, technology and tourism. It is an important academic site, with about 130,000 students and the Adam Mickiewicz University - the third largest Polish university. Poznań is also the seat of the oldest Polish diocese, now being one of the most populous archdioceses in the country. The city also hosts the Poznań International Fair - the biggest industrial fair in Poland and one of the largest fairs in Europe. The city's most renowned landmarks include Poznań Town Hall, the National Museum, Grand Theatre, Fara Church, Poznań Cathedral and the Imperial Castle.

Poznań is classified as a Gamma- global city by Globalization and World Cities Research Network. It has often topped rankings as a city with very high quality of education and a very high standard of living. It also ranks highly in safety and healthcare quality. The city of Poznań has also, many times, won the prize awarded by " Superbrands" for a very high quality city brand. In 2012, the Poznań's Art and Business Center " Stary Browar" won a competition organised by National Geographic Traveller and was given the first prize as one of the seven "New Polish Wonders".

The official patron saints of Poznań are Saint Peter and Paul of Tarsus, the patrons of the cathedral. Martin of Tours - the patron of the main street Święty Marcin is also regarded as one of the patron saints of the city.

The name Poznań probably comes from a personal name, Poznan (from the Polish participle poznan(y) - "one who is known/recognized"), and would mean "Poznan's town". It is also possible that the name comes directly from the verb poznać, which means "to get to know" or "to recognize," so it may simply mean "known town".

The earliest surviving references to the city are found in the chronicles of Thietmar of Merseburg, written between 1012 and 1018: episcopus Posnaniensis ("bishop of Poznań", in an entry for 970) and ab urbe Posnani ("from the city of Poznań", for 1005). The city's name appears in documents in the Latin nominative case as Posnania in 1236 and Poznania in 1247. The phrase in Poznan appears in 1146 and 1244.

The city's full official name is Stołeczne Miasto Poznań ("The Capital City of Poznań"), in reference to its role as a centre of political power in the early Polish state. Poznań is known as Posen in German, and was officially called Haupt- und Residenzstadt Posen ("Capital and Residence City of Poznań") between 20 August 1910 and 28 November 1918. The Latin names of the city are Posnania and Civitas Posnaniensis. Its Yiddish name is פּױזן, or Poyzn.

In Polish, the city name has masculine grammatical gender.

For centuries before the Christianization of Poland, Poznań (consisting of a fortified stronghold between the Warta and Cybina rivers, on what is now Ostrów Tumski) was an important cultural and political centre of the Polan tribe. Mieszko I, the first historically recorded ruler of the Polans, and of the early Polish state which they dominated, built one of his main stable headquarters in Poznań. Mieszko's baptism of 966, seen as a defining moment in the Christianization of the Polish state, may have taken place in Poznań.

Following the baptism, construction began of Poznań's cathedral, the first in Poland. Poznań was probably the main seat of the first missionary bishop sent to Poland, Bishop Jordan. The Congress of Gniezno in 1000 led to the country's first permanent archbishopric being established in Gniezno (which is generally regarded as Poland's capital in that period), although Poznań continued to have independent bishops of its own. Poznań's cathedral was the place of burial of the early Piast monarchs (Mieszko I, Boleslaus I, Mieszko II, Casimir I), and later of Przemysł I and King Przemysł II.

The pagan reaction that followed Mieszko II's death (probably in Poznań) in 1034 left the region weak, and in 1038, Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia sacked and destroyed both Poznań and Gniezno. Poland was reunited under Casimir I the Restorer in 1039, but the capital was moved to Kraków, which had been relatively unaffected by the troubles. In 1138, by the testament of Bolesław III, Poland was divided into separate duchies under the late king's sons, and Poznań and its surroundings became the domain of Mieszko III the Old, the first of the Dukes of Greater Poland. This period of fragmentation lasted until 1320. Duchies frequently changed hands; control of Poznań, Gniezno and Kalisz sometimes lay with a single duke, but at other times these constituted separate duchies.

In about 1249, Duke Przemysł I began constructing what would become the Royal Castle on a hill on the left bank of the Warta. Then in 1253 Przemysł issued a charter to Thomas of Guben (Gubin) for the founding of a town under Magdeburg law, between the castle and the river. Thomas brought a large number of German settlers to aid in the building and settlement of the city - this is an example of the German eastern migration (Ostsiedlung) characteristic of that period. The city (covering the area of today's Old Town neighbourhood) was surrounded by a defensive wall, integrated with the castle.

In reunited Poland, and later in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Poznań was the seat of a voivodeship. The city's importance began to grow in the Jagiellonian period, due to its position on trading routes from Lithuania and Ruthenia to western Europe. It would become a major centre for the fur trade by the late 16th century. Suburban settlements developed around the city walls, on the river islands and on the right bank, with some (Ostrów Tumski, Śródka, Chwaliszewo, Ostrówek) obtaining their own town charters. However the city's development was hampered by regular major fires and floods. On 2 May 1536 a fire destroyed 175 buildings, including the castle, the town hall, the monastery and the suburban settlement called St. Martin. In 1519 the Lubrański Academy had been established in Poznań as an institution of higher education (but without the right to award degrees, which was reserved to Kraków's Jagiellonian University). However a Jesuits' college, founded in the city in 1571 during the Counter-Reformation, had the right to award degrees from 1611 until 1773, when it was combined with the Academy.

In the second half of the 17th century and most of the 18th, Poznań was severely affected by a series of wars (and attendant military occupations, lootings and destruction) - the Second and Third Northern Wars, the War of the Polish Succession, the Seven Years' War and the Bar Confederation rebellion. It was also hit by frequent outbreaks of plague, and by floods, particularly that of 1736, which destroyed most of the suburban buildings. The population of the conurbation declined (from 20,000 around 1600 to 6,000 around 1730), and Bambergian and Dutch settlers ( and ) were brought in to rebuild the devastated suburbs. In 1778 a "Committee of Good Order" ( Komisja Dobrego Porządku) was established in the city, which oversaw rebuilding efforts and reorganised the city's administration. However, in 1793, in the Second Partition of Poland, Poznań, came under the control of the Kingdom of Prussia, becoming part of (and initially the seat of) the province of South Prussia.

The Prussian authorities expanded the city boundaries, making the walled city and its closest suburbs into a single administrative unit. Left-bank suburbs were incorporated in 1797, and Ostrów Tumski, Chwaliszewo, Śródka, Ostrówek and Łacina (St. Roch) in 1800. The old city walls were taken down in the early 19th century, and major development took place to the west of the old city, with many of the main streets of today's city centre being laid out.

In the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806, Polish soldiers and civilian volunteers assisted the efforts of Napoleon by driving out Prussian forces from the region. The city became a part of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, and was the seat of Poznań Department - a unit of administrative division and local government. However, in 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, the region was returned to Prussia, and Poznań became the capital of the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen.

The city continued to expand, and various projects were funded by Polish philanthropists, such as the Raczyński Library and the Bazar hotel. The city's first railway, running to Stargard, opened in 1848. Due to its strategic location, the Prussian authorities intended to make Poznań into a fortress city, building a ring of defensive fortifications around it. Work began on the citadel ( Fort Winiary) in 1828, and in subsequent years the entire set of defences (Festung Posen) was completed.

A Greater Poland Uprising during the Revolutions of 1848 was ultimately unsuccessful, and the Grand Duchy lost its remaining autonomy, Poznań becoming simply the capital of the Prussian Province of Posen. It would become part of the German Empire with the unification of German states in 1871. Polish patriots continued to form societies (such as the Central Economic Society for the Grand Duchy of Poznań), and a Polish theatre ( Teatr Polski, still functioning) opened in 1875; however the authorities made efforts to Germanize the region, particularly through the Prussian Settlement Commission (founded 1886). Germans accounted for 38% of the city's population in 1867, though this percentage would later decline somewhat, particularly after the region returned to Poland.

Another expansion of Festung Posen was planned, with an outer ring of more widely spaced forts around the perimeter of the city. Building of the first nine forts began in 1876, and nine intermediate forts were built from 1887. The inner ring of fortifications was now considered obsolete and came to be mostly taken down by the early 20th century (although the citadel remained in use). This made space for further civilian construction, particularly the Imperial Palace ( Zamek), completed 1910, and other grand buildings around it (including today's central university buildings and the opera house). The city's boundaries were also significantly extended to take in former suburban villages: Piotrowo and Berdychowo in 1896, Łazarz, Górczyn, Jeżyce and Wilda in 1900, and Sołacz in 1907.

At the end of World War I, the final Greater Poland Uprising (1918-1919) brought Poznań and most of the region back to newly reborn Poland, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles. The local German populace had to acquire Polish citizenship or leave the country. This led to a wide emigration of the ethnic Germans of the town's population.[citation needed ] The town's German population decreased from 65,321 in 1910 to 5,980 in 1926 and further to 4,387 in 1934. In the interwar Second Polish Republic, the city again became the capital of Poznań Voivodeship. Poznań's university (today called Adam Mickiewicz University) was founded in 1919, and in 1925 the Poznań International Fairs began. In 1929 the fairs site was the venue for a major National Exhibition ( Powszechna Wystawa Krajowa, popularly PeWuKa) marking the tenth anniversary of independence; it attracted around 4.5 million visitors. The city's boundaries were again expanded in 1925 (to include Główna, Komandoria, Rataje, Starołęka, Dębiec, Szeląg and Winogrady) and 1933 (Golęcin, Podolany).

During the German occupation of 1939-1945, Poznań was incorporated into the Third Reich as the capital of Reichsgau Wartheland. Many Polish inhabitants were executed, arrested, expelled to the General Government or used as forced labour; at the same time many Germans and Volksdeutsche were settled in the city. The German population increased from around 5,000 in 1939 (some 2% of the inhabitants) to around 95,000 in 1944. The pre-war Jewish population of about 2,000 were mostly murdered in the Holocaust. A concentration camp was set up in Fort VII, one of the 19th-century perimeter forts. The camp was later moved to Żabikowo south of Poznań. The Nazi authorities significantly expanded Poznań's boundaries to include most of the present-day area of the city; these boundaries were retained after the war. Poznań was captured by the Red Army, assisted by Polish volunteers, on 23 February 1945 following the Battle of Poznań, in which the German army conducted a last-ditch defence in line with Hitler's designation of the city as a . The Citadel was the last point to be taken, and the fighting left much of the city, particularly the Old Town, in ruins.

Due to the expulsion and flight of German population Poznań's post-war population was almost uniformly Polish. The city again became a voivodeship capital; in 1950 the size of Poznań Voivodeship was reduced, and the city itself was given separate voivodeship status. This status was lost in the 1975 reforms, which also significantly reduced the size of Poznań Voivodeship.

The Poznań 1956 protests are seen as an early instance of discontent with communist rule. In June 1956, a protest by workers at the city's Cegielski locomotive factory developed into a series of strikes and popular protests against the policies of the government. After a protest march on 28 June was fired on, crowds attacked the communist party and secret police headquarters, where they were repulsed by gunfire. Riots continued for two days until being quelled by the army; 67 people were killed according to official figures. A monument to the victims was erected in 1981 at Plac Mickiewicza.

The most recent expansion of the city's boundaries took place in 1987, with the addition of new areas mainly to the north, including Morasko, Radojewo and Kiekrz. The first free local elections following the fall of communism took place in 1990. With the Polish local government reforms of 1999, Poznań again became the capital of a larger province ( Greater Poland Voivodeship). It also became the seat of a (" Poznań County"), with the city itself gaining separate powiat status.

Recent infrastructural developments include the opening of the fast tram route (Poznański Szybki Tramwaj, popularly Pestka) in 1997, and Poznań's first motorway connection (part of the A2 autostrada) in 2003. In 2006 Poland's first F-16 Fighting Falcons came to be stationed at the 31st Air Base in Krzesiny in the south-east of the city.

Poznań continues to host regular trade fairs and international events, including the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2008. It was one of the host cities for UEFA Euro 2012.

Poznań covers an area of 261.3 km ² (100.9 sq mi), and has coordinates in the range 52°17'34''-52°30'27''N, 16°44'08''-17°04'28''E. Its highest point, with an altitude of 157 m (515 ft), is the summit of Góra Moraska (Morasko Hill) within the Morasko meteorite nature reserve in the north of the city. The lowest altitude is 60 m (197 ft), in the Warta valley.

Poznań's main river is the Warta, which flows through the city from south to north. As it approaches the city centre it divides into two branches, flowing west and east of Ostrów Tumski (the cathedral island) and meeting again further north. The smaller Cybina river flows through eastern Poznań to meet the east branch of the Warta (that branch is also called Cybina - its northern section was originally a continuation of that river, while its southern section has been artificially widened to form a main stream of the Warta). Other tributaries of the Warta within Poznań are the Junikowo Stream (Strumień Junikowski), which flows through southern Poznań from the west, meeting the Warta just outside the city boundary in Luboń; the Bogdanka and Wierzbak, formerly two separate tributaries flowing from the north-west and along the north side of the city centre, now with their lower sections diverted underground; the Główna, flowing through the neighbourhood of the same name in north-east Poznań; and the Rose Stream (Strumień Różany) flowing east from Morasko in the north of the city. The course of the Warta in central Poznań was formerly quite different from today: the main stream ran between Grobla and Chwaliszewo, which were originally both islands. The branch west of Grobla (the Zgniła Warta - "rotten Warta") was filled in late in the 19th century, and the former main stream west of Chwaliszewo was diverted and filled in during the 1960s. This was done partly to prevent floods, which did serious damage to Poznań frequently throughout history.

Poznań's largest lake is Jezioro Kierskie ( Kiekrz Lake) in the extreme north-west of the city (within the city boundaries since 1987). Other large lakes include Malta (an artificial lake on the lower Cybina, formed in 1952), Jezioro Strzeszyńskie (Strzeszyn Lake) on the Bogdanka, and Rusałka, an artificial lake further down the Bogdanka, formed in 1943. The latter two are popular bathing places. Kiekrz Lake is much used for sailing, while Malta is a competitive rowing and canoeing venue.

The city centre (including the Old Town, the former islands of Grobla and Chwaliszewo, the main street Święty Marcin and many other important buildings and districts) lies on the west side of the Warta. Opposite it between the two branches of the Warta is Ostrów Tumski, containing Poznań Cathedral and other ecclesiastical buildings, as well as housing and industrial facilities. Facing the cathedral on the east bank of the river is the historic district of Śródka. Large areas of apartment blocks, built from the 1960s onwards, include Rataje in the east, and Winogrady and Piątkowo north of the centre. Older residential and commercial districts include those of Wilda, Łazarz and Górczyn to the south, and Jeżyce to the west. There are also significant areas of forest within the city boundaries, particularly in the east adjoining Swarzędz, and around the lakes in the north-west.

The climate of Poznań is within the transition zone between a humid continental and oceanic climate ( Köppen: Cfb to Dfb although it totally fits in the second in the 0 °C isotherm) and with relatively cold winters and warm summers. Snow is common in winter, when night-time temperatures are typically below zero. In summer temperatures may often reach 30 °C (86 °F). Annual rainfall is more than 500 mm (20 in), among the lowest in Poland. The rainiest month is July, mainly due to short but intense cloudbursts and thunderstorms. The number of hours of sunshine are among the highest in the country. Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is " humid continental climate).

Poznań is divided into 42 neighbourhoods ( see osiedle), each of which has its own elected council with certain decision-making and spending powers. The first uniform elections for these councils covering the whole area of the city were held on 20 March 2011.

For certain administrative purposes, the old division into five districts ( dzielnicas) is used - although these ceased to be governmental units in 1990. These were:

Stare Miasto ("Old Town"), population 161,200, area 47.1 km² (18.2 sq mi), covering the central and northern parts of the city

Nowe Miasto ("New Town"), population 141,424, area 105.1 km² (40.6 sq mi), including all parts of the city on the right (east) bank of the Warta

Grunwald, population 125,500, area 36.2 km² (14.0 sq mi), covering the south-western parts of the city

Jeżyce, population 81,300, area 57.9 km² (22.4 sq mi), covering the north-western parts of the city

Wilda, population 62,290, area 15.0 km² (5.8 sq mi), in the southern part of the city

Many citizens of Poznań thanks to the strong economy of the city and high salaries started moving to suburbs of the Poznań County ( powiat) in the 1990s. Although the number of inhabitants in Poznań itself was decreasing for the past two decades, the suburbs gained almost twice as many inhabitants. Thus, Poznań urban area has been growing steadily over past years and has already reached 1.0 million inhabitants when student population is included, whereas the entire metropolitan zone may have reached 1.5-1.7 million inhabitants when satellite cities and towns (so-called second Poznań ring counties such as Września, Gniezno and Kościan) are included. The complex infrastructure, population density, number of companies and gross product per capita of Poznań suburbs may be only compared to Warsaw suburbs. Many parts of closer suburbs (for example Tarnowo Podgorne, Komorniki, Suchy Las, Dopiewo) produce more in terms of GDP per capita than the city itself.

Poznań has been an important trade centre since the Middle Ages. Starting in the 19th century, local heavy industry began to grow. Several major factories were built, including the Hipolit Cegielski steel mill and railway factory (see H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.).

Nowadays Poznań is one of the major trade centres in Poland. Poznań is regarded as the second most prosperous city in Poland after Warsaw. The city of Poznań produced PLN 31.8 billion of Poland's gross domestic product in 2006. It boasts a GDP per capita of 200,4% (2008) of Poland's average. Furthermore, Poznań had very low unemployment rate of 2.3% as of May 2009. For comparison, Poland's national unemployment rate was over 10%.

The recently built Stary Browar shopping centre contains many high-end shops and is considered one of the best in Europe. It has won an award for the best shopping centre in the world in the medium-sized commercial buildings category. Other notable shopping centres in the city include Galeria Malta, one of the largest in Central Europe, and the shops at the Hotel Bazar, a historical hotel and commercial centre in the Old Town.

Selected major corporations based in Poznań and the city's metro area include Allegro, GlaxoSmithKline, Raben Group, Kuehne + Nagel, H. Cegielski-Poznań SA, Solaris Bus & Coach and Enea S.A.. Poznań is also where the software development leader Netguru was founded, one of the fastest growing companies in Europe.

Poznań has an extensive public transport system, mostly consisting of trams, such as the Poznań Fast Tram, and both urban and suburban buses. The main railway station is Poznań Central Station to the southwest of the city centre; there is also the smaller Poznań Wschód and Poznań Garbary station northeast of the centre and a number of other stations on the outskirts of the city. The main east-west A2 motorway runs south of the city connecting it with Berlin in the west and Łódż and Warsaw in the east; other main roads run in the direction of Warsaw, Bydgoszcz, Wągrowiec, Oborniki, Katowice, Wrocław, Buk and Berlin. Poznań has one of the biggest airports in the west of Poland called Poznań-Ławica Airport. In 2016 it handled approximately 1.71 million passengers.

Poznań has many historic buildings and sights, mostly concentrated around the Old Town and other parts of the city centre. Many of these lie on the Royal-Imperial Route in Poznań - a tourist walk leading through the most important parts of the city showing its history, culture and identity. Portions of the city centre are listed as one of Poland's official national Historic Monuments (Pomnik historii), as designated 28 November 2008, along with other portions of the city's historic core. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland.

Results of new extensive archaeological research performed on Poznan's Ostrow Tumski by Prof. dr hab. Hanna Kocka-Krec from Instytut Prahistorii UAM indicate that Poznań indeed was a central site of the early Polish State (recent discovery of first Polish ruler, Mieszko I's Palatium). Thus, the Ostrow Tumski Island is more important than it was thought previously, and may have been as important as Gniezno in the Poland of first Piasts. Though it is currently under construction, Ostrow Tumski of Poznan should soon have a very rich historical exposition and be a very interesting place for visitors. It promises to include many attractions, such as the above-mentioned Cathedral, Church of St. Mary the Virgin, Lubranski Academy and they opened in 2012 "Genius Loci Archeological Park" as well as planned to be opened in 2013 Interactive Center of Ostrow Tumski History ("ICHOT") that presents a multimedia museum of the Polish State through many different periods. The Palatium in Poznan will be also transformed into a museum, although more funds are needed. When all the expositions are ready, in a couple of years, Ostrow Tumski may be as worth visiting as the Wawel castle of Cracow. There is a very famous sentence illustrating the importance of Ostrow Tumski in Poznań by the Pope John Paul II: "Poland began here".

A popular venue is Malta, a park with an artificial lake in its centre. On one bank of the lake there are ski and sleigh slopes (Malta Ski), on the opposite bank a huge complex of swimming pools including an Olympic-size one (Termy Maltanskie).

An important cultural event in Poznań is the annual Malta theatre festival, which takes place at many city venues, usually in late June and early July. It hosts mainly modern experimental off-theatre performances, often taking place on squares and other public spaces. It also includes cinema, visual, music and dancing events. Malta Theatre Festival gave birth to many off-theater groups, expressing new ideas in an already rich theatrical background of the city. Thus, Poznań with a great deal of off-theaters and their performances has recently become a new Polish off-theater performance centre.

Classical music events include the Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition (held every 5 years), and classical music concerts by the city's Philharmonic Orchestra held each month in the University Aula. Especially popular are concerts by the Poznań Nightingales.

Poznan is also home to new forms of music such as rap and hip-hop made by a great deal of bands and performers (" Peja", "Mezo" and others). Poznań is also known for its rock music performers (Muchy, Malgorzata Ostrowska).

Poznan apart from many traditional theatres with a long history ("Teatr Nowy", " Teatr Wielki", "Teatr Polski", "Teatr Muzyczny" and several others) is also home to a growing number of alternative theatre groups, some of them stemming from International Malta Festival: "Teatr Strefa Ciszy", "Teatr Porywcze Cial", "Teatr Usta Usta", "Teatr u Przyjaciol", " Teatr Biuro Podrozy", "Teatr Osmego Dnia" and many others - it is believed that even up to 30 more or less known groups may work in the city.

Every year on 11 November, Poznanians celebrate The Day of St. Martin. A procession of horses, with St. Martin at the head, parades along St Martin Street, in front of The Imperial Castle. Everybody can eat delicious croissants, the regional product of Poznań. Poznań hosted the 2009 European Young Adults Meeting of the ecumenical Christian Taizé Community.

Poznań also stages the "Ale Kino!" International Young Audience Film Festival in December and "Off Cinema" festival of independent films. Other festival: "Transatlantyk" (film music festival by Jan A.P. Kaczmarek started in 2011), Maski Theater Festival, Dance International Workshops by Polish Dance Theater, Made in Chicago (Jazz Festival), Ethno Port, Festival of Ice Sculpture, Animator, Science and Art Festival, Tzadik (Jewish music festival), Meditations Biennale (Modern Art). The full list of cultural annual events is even longer.

The city is also home to one of the oldest zoological gardens in Poland - the Old Zoo in Poznań, which was established in 1874.

Grażyna Kulczyk's effort to build the Museum of Contemporary and Performance Arts in Poznań was rejected.

Poznań is one of the four largest academic centres in Poland. The number of students in the city of Poznań is about 140,000 (fourth/third after Warsaw, Cracow and close to Wrocław student population). Every one of four inhabitants in Poznań is a student.

Since Poznań is smaller than Warsaw or Cracow still having a very large number of students it makes the city even more vibrant and dense "academic hub" than both former and current capitals of Poland. Poznan, with its almost 30 colleges and universities, has the second richest educational offering in Poland after Warsaw.

Public universities

The city has many state-owned universities. Adam Mickiewicz University (abbreviated UAM in Polish, AMU in English) is one of the most influential and biggest universities in Poland:

Adam Mickiewicz University is one of the three best universities in Poland after University of Warsaw and University of Cracow. They all have a very high number of international student and scientist exchange, research grants and top publications. In northern suburbs of Poznań a very large " Morasko Campus" has been built (Faculty of Biology, Physics, Mathematics, Chemistry, Political Sciences, Geography). The majority of faculties are already open, although a few more facilities will be constructed. The campus infrastructure belongs to the most impressive among Polish universities. Also, there are plans for " Uniwersytecki Park Historii Ziemii" (Earth History Park), one of the reason for the park construction is a " Morasko meteorite nature reserve" situated close by, it is one of the rare sites of Europe where a number of meteorites fell and some traces may be still seen.

Private higher education

There is also a great number of smaller, mostly private-run colleges and institutions of higher education ("Uczelnie"):

University of Social Sciences and Humanities

Poznańska Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu i Języków Obcych

Schola Posnaniensis - Wyższa Szkoła Sztuki Stosowanej

Wielkopolska Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Zarządzania

Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Handlu i Usług

Wyższa Szkoła Umiejętności Społecznych

Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Bankowości

École Franco-Polonaise - closed in 1997

Arcybiskupie Seminarium Duchowne w Poznaniu

Wielkopolska Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Zarządzania w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu

Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Edukacji i Terapii w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Edukacji Integracyjnej i Interkulturowej w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Handlu i Rachunkowości

Wyższa Szkoła Hotelarstwa i Gastronomii

Wyższa Szkoła Języków Obcych im. Samuela Bogumiła Lindego

Wyższa Szkoła Komunikacji i Zarządzania w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Logistyki

Wyższa Szkoła Nauk Humanistycznych i Dziennikarstwa

Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiki i Administracji im. Mieszka I w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa "Kadry dla Europy" w Poznaniu

Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa Pielęgnacji Zdrowia i Urody

Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Towarzystwa Chrystusowego

High schools

Poznań has numerous high schools, each with a different programme focusing on different subjects. Some of the most notable are:

Poznań is famous for its football teams, Warta Poznań, which was one of the most successful clubs in pre- war history, and Lech Poznań, who are currently one of the biggest clubs in the country, frequently playing in European cups and have many fans from all over the region. Lech plays at the Municipal Stadium, which hosted the 2012 European Championship group stages as well as the opening game and the final of the U-19 Euro Championship in June 2006. Warta plays at the small Dębińska Road Stadium; a former training ground for Edmund Szyc Stadium however since the latter fell into disrepair in 1998 and was sold in 2001 it became the teams main ground; the club does have aims to restore and return to the historical 60 000 capacity stadium.

The city's third professional football team Olimpia Poznań ceased activity in 2004, focusing on other sports, and remains one of the best judo and tennis clubs in the country, the latter hosting the Poznań Open tournament at the Tennis Park. The club is a large sports complex surrounded by Lake Rusałka, and apart from the tennis facilities boasts a large city recreation area: mountain biking facilities including a four-cross track; an athletics stadium (capacity 3000); and a football- speedway stadium (capacity 20 000), which fell into vast disrepair until it was acquired by the city council from the police in 2013 and was renovated. The football-speedway stadium hosts speedway club PSŻ Poznań, rugby union side NKR Chaos, American football team the Poznań Patriots, and football team Poznaniak Poznań.

The city has the largest circuit in Poland, Tor Poznań, located in the suburbs in Przeźmierowo. Lake Malta hosted the World Rowing Championships in 2009 and has previously hosted some regattas in the Rowing World Cup. It also hosted the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships ( sprint canoe) in 1990 and 2001, and again in 2010. Also near the lake the "Malta Ski" year-long skiing complex hosts minor sport competitions, and is also equipped with a toboggan run and a minigolf course. There is also a roller rink with a roller skating club nearby.

Poznań has experience as a host for international sporting events such as the official 2009 EuroBasket.

The city is also considered to be the hotbed of Polish field hockey, with several top teams: Warta Poznań; Grunwald Poznań; which also has shooting, wrestling, handball and tennis sections; Pocztowiec Poznań; and AZS AWF Poznań, the student club which also fields professional teams in women's volleyball and basketball ( AZS Poznań).

Other clubs include: Posnania Poznań, one of the best rugby union clubs in the country; Polonia Poznań, formerly a multi-sports club with many successes in rugby, however today only a football section remains; KKS Wiara Lecha, football club formed by the supporters of Lech Poznań; and Odlew Poznań, arguably the most famous amateur club in the country due to their extensive media coverage and humorous exploits. There are also numerous rhythmic gymnastics and synchronised swimming clubs, as well as numerous less notable amateur football teams.

Poznań bid for the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics but lost to Nanjing, with the Chinese city receiving 47 votes over Poznań's 42.

Since the end of the communist era in 1989, Poznań municipality and suburban area have invested heavily in infrastructure, especially public transport and administration. There is massive investment from foreign companies in Poznań as well as in communities west and south of Poznań (namely, Kórnik and Tarnowo Podgórne).

Future investments into transportation include the construction of a third bypass of Poznań, and the completion of A2 (E30) motorway towards Berlin. New cycle lanes are being built, linking to existing ones, and an attempt is currently being made to develop a Karlsruhe-style light rail system for commuters. All this is made more complicated (and more expensive) by the heavy neglect of transport infrastructure throughout the Communist era.

Twin towns - Sister cities

Anna Anderson (c. 1900-1984), pretender of Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia

Ryszard "Peja" Andrzejewski (born 1976), rapper

Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière (1886-1941), German U-boat commander

Isidor Ascheim (1891-1968), painter and printmaker

Stanisław Barańczak (1946-2014), poet

Hanna Banaszak (born 1957), singer, poet

Herbert Baum (1912-1942) resistance fighter

Zygmunt Bauman (1925-2017), sociologist

Heinrich Caro (1834-1910), chemist

Hipolit Cegielski (1815-1868), businessman

Dezydery Chłapowski (1788-1848), general

August Cieszkowski (1814-1894), philosopher

Antoni Czubiński (1928-2003), historian

Leopold Damrosch (1832-1885), conductor

Ludwig Dessoir, (1810-1874), actor

Franciszek Dobrowolski (1830-1896), theater director

Tytus Działyński (1796-1861), political activist

Małgorzata Dydek (1974-2011), basketball player

Akiva Eiger (1761-1837), Rabbi of Poznań (1815-1837)

Ewaryst Estkowski (1820-1856), teacher

Gerard Ettinger (1909-2002), designer and manufacturer of leather goods

Krystyna Feldman (1916-2007), actress

Wojciech Fibak (born 1952), tennis player

Gerhard Flesch (1909-1948), German Nazi Gestapo and SS officer executed for war crimes

Fredrak Fraske (1872-1973), the last surviving United States veteran of the Indian Wars

Johannes Gad (1842-1926), neurophysiologist

Jean Gebser (1905-1973), human consciousness scientist

Eduard Gerhard (1795-1867), archaeologist

Arkadiusz Głowacki (born 1979), footballer

Friedrich Goltz (1834-1902), physiologist

Konstanty Gorski (1859-1924), composer and violinist

Joanna Hoffmann-Dietrich (born 1968), artist and academic

Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934), Field Marshal and President of the Weimar Republic

Maksymilian Jackowski (1815-1905), activist

Anna Jantar (1950-1980), a popular Polish singer, who perished in a plane crash.

Alfred Jodl (1890-1946), German WW2 military commander executed for war crimes

John Jonston (1603-1675), naturalist and physician

Jan A.P. Kaczmarek (born 1954), composer

Maria and Bogdan Kalinowski, filmgoing couple

Richard Kandt (1867-1918), doctor and explorer

Ernst Hartwig Kantorowicz (1895-1963), historian

Marek Karpinski, computer scientist

Günther von Kluge (1882-1944), Field Marshal

Krzysztof Komeda (1931-1969), jazz musician

Leo Königsberger (1837-1921), mathematician

Antoni Kraszewski (1797-1870), politician

Germaine Krull (1897-1985), photographer

Gerard Labuda (born 1916), historian

Arthur Liebehenschel (1901-1948), Nazi commandant of Auschwitz and Majdanek executed for war crimes

Jarosław Leitgeber (1848-1933), purveyor of Polish books under partitions

Paul Leonhardt (1877-1934), chess master

Karol Libelt (1807-1875), philosopher

Karol Marcinkowski (1800-1848), physician and social activist

Władysław Markiewicz (born 1920), sociologist

Teofil Matecki (1810-1886), philosopher

Heinrich Mendelssohn (1881-1959), building tycoon

Karl-Friedrich Merten (1905-1993), U-boat commander

Małgorzata Musierowicz (born 1945), novelist

Andrzej Niegolewski (1787-1857), colonel

Władysław Niegolewski (1814-1880), politician

Władysław Oleszczyński (1809-1866), sculptor

Catherine Opalińska (1680-1747), Queen consort of Poland, Grand Duchess consort of Lithuania

Lilli Palmer (1914-1986), actress

Janusz Pałubicki (born 1948), politician

Kazimierz Piwarski, (1903-1968), historian

Gustaw Potworowski, (1800-1860), activist

Edward Raczyński (1786-1845), politician

Cyryl Ratajski (1875-1942), mayor of Poznań

Antoni Radziwiłł (1775-1833), aristocrat

Marian Rejewski (1905-1980), cryptoanalist, Enigma codemachine codebreaker

Richard Rothe (1799-1867), Lutheran theologian

Jerzy Różycki (1909-1942), cryptoanalist, Enigma codemachine codebreaker

Dame Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (1915-2006), operatic and concert lyric soprano, born in Jarocin

Michał Sczaniecki (1910-1977), historian

Urszula Sipinska (born 1947), singer-songwriter, pianist and architect

Bohdan Smoleń (born 9 June 1947), comedian and actor

Józef Struś (1510-1568), scientist and mayor of Poznań

Sir Paweł Edmund Strzelecki (20 July 1797 - 6 October 1873), Polish explorer and geologist

Rafał Szukała (born 1971), butterfly swimmer

Roman Szymański (1840-1908), political activist

Mirosław Szymkowiak (born 1976) football player

Jerzy Topolski (1928-1998), historian

Lech Trzeciakowski (1931-2017), historian

Jorge Veytia (born 1981), jurist

Hubert Wagner (1941-2002), volleyball player and head coach of Poland men's national volleyball team

Jan Węglarz (born 1947), computer scientist

Leon Wegner (1824-1873), economist

Roman Wilhelmi (1936-1991), actor

Ray Wilson (born 1968), former vocalist of Genesis

Zygmunt Wojciechowski, (1900-1955), historian and founder of the Western Institute

Anna Wolff-Powęska, historian

Henryk Zygalski (1906-1978), cryptoanalist, Enigma codemachine codebreaker

Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1512 or 1526-1609), important Talmudic scholar, Jewish mystic, and philosopher

1. ^ "Poznan". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

2. ^ "RZĄDOWE CENTRUM STUDIÓW STRATEGICZNYCH" (PDF). Funduszestrukturalne.gov.pl. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 March 2010.

3. ^ Brather, Sebastian (2001). Archäologie der westlichen Slawen. Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (in German). 30. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 87, 156, 159. ISBN 3-11-017061-2.

4. ^ Brather, Sebastian (2001). Archäologie der westlichen Slawen. Siedlung, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft im früh- und hochmittelalterlichen Ostmitteleuropa. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde (in German). 30. Walter de Gruyter. p. 87. ISBN 3-11-017061-2. Das städtische Bürgertum war auch in Polen und Böhmen zunächst überwiegend deutscher Herkunft. [English: Also in Poland and Bohemia were the burghers in the towns initially primarily of German origin.]

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Frieder Monzer: Posen, Thorn, Bromberg (mit Großpolen, Kujawien und Südostpommern), Trescher Reiseführer, Berlin 2011

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Robert Alvis, Religion and the Rise of Nationalism: A Profile of an East-Central European City, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse 2005

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Alfred Kaniecki, Dzieje miasta wodą pisane, Wydawnictwo Aquarius, Poznań 1993

Witold Maisel (red.), Przywileje miasta Poznania XIII-XVIII wieku. Privilegia civitatis Posnaniensis saeculorum XIII-XVIII. Władze Miasta Poznania, Poznańskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk, Wydawnictwa Żródłowe Komisji Historycznej, Tom XXIV, Wydawnictwo PTPN, Poznań 1994

Wojciech Stankowski, Wielkopolska, Wydawnictwo WSiP, Warszawa 1999

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
( Poznań ( POZ-nan , POHZ-nan, POHZ-nahn ,[2] Polish: [ˈpɔznaj̃] or [ˈpɔznaɲ] listen ); German: Posen; known also by other historical names) is a city on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region and is the fifth-largest city in Poland.

# data[].attributes.headline
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Poznań and our region

# data[].attributes.headline
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Poznań - our city

# data[].attributes.headline
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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our school

# data[].attributes.headline
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

# data[].attributes.subject
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

# data[].attributes.body
information about: school, city, region

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świetlica - SP-84 Poznań - gdzie jesteśmy

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adres - kontakt: Szkoła Podstawowa nr 84 im. Tadeusza Kościuszki ul. Św. Szczepana 3 61-465 Poznań telefon: 61 832 14 24

# data[].attributes.headline
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

# data[].attributes.subject
Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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pupils/students in grades 1-3; they are 7-10 years old

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Danuta Bartkowiak - Siekańska_SP-84 Poznań - Poland

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Hi, my name is Danuta /Danka/. I am from Poznań in Poland. I am certified teacher and I teach in primary school. My pupils /students/ are 6-10 years old. I am in eTwinning registered on 15.09.2007. My projects have received National and European Quality Labels. I was at the eTwinning Conference in Seville. I was an ambassador of the eTwinning program in Greater Poland in the years 2010 - 2014. I'm glad I get to know new and interesting people. I greet the teachers and all participants of eTwinning… :)

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Turkey is the only country that occupies a unique geographic position, partly in Asia and partly in Europe

Regime of Turkey is Republicanism.

Offical language is Turkish

Currency of Turkey is Turkish Lira.

Turkey is a peninsula surrounded on three sides by the sea.

There are four seasons in Turkey

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İSTANBUL/ TURKEY

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NURPER GÖÇEN /ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL-3-E 

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NURPER GÖÇEN /ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL-3-E 

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I will be in the 3rd grade in 2019-2020 academic year. My students are 8-9 years old.
I have 41 students. I have 17 boys and 24 girls.

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NURPER GÖÇEN /ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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NURPER GÖÇEN /ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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Our school is a big school in Istanbul / Bahcelievler.It has 2000 students and 90 teachers.Turkish, Life Science, Science, Mathematics, Visual Arts, Music, Sports activities courses are given to our students.Our school has been actively involved in cultural, sports and artistic activities and has received many awards.

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My name is NURPER GÖÇEN live in Istanbul in Turkey. I am working in primary school. My school's name is Şirinevler Mehmet Şen Prımary School. I am a third grade teacher. My students are 8-9 years old. I studied 23 years in my profession.

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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Our school is a big school in Istanbul / Bahcelievler.It has 2000 students and 90 teachers.Turkish, Life Science, Science, Mathematics, Visual Arts, Music, Sports activities courses are given to our students.Our school has been actively involved in cultural, sports and artistic activities and has received many awards.In our school, eTwinning projects are carried out effectively.Our school is also an eTwinning school.

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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I will be in the 3rd grade in 2019-2020 academic year. My students are 9-10 years old.I love my students.

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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KEVSER KILIÇ-ŞİRİNEVLER MEHMET ŞEN PRIMARY SCHOOL

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I'm a classroom teacher in İstanbul, Turkey.İstanbul is very beatiful .I have been teaching for 23 years. I work with children from 7-11 years of age.

I love my job .I am interested in drama, nature, music, art, mathematics, culture, traditions, reading. I enjoy playing educational games. I love the world, the people, everything in the world.  I am very happy to work with you on this project. I think we will work together well.

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My school :Edhem Mulabdić  Zenica BiH
In my school are working 62 teacher and we have 870 students.Our school is one of the oldest school bilding in our town.We have from 1 st-9 th grade students(from 7-15 years old students)

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My 7 th grade students

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PRIMARY SCHOOL
"EDHEM MULABDIĆ"ZENICA
BOSNIA AND HERCEGOVINA
Hi,my name is Fahira Čevro.
I am mathematic teacher.
This year I´m working with 6 th and 7 th grade(12 and 13 yeare old students) Love eTwinning and work with  all this wonderfulle teachers .
Hoppe this project will be interesting for my students and for me too.

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KUTLUKENT 80.YIL İLKOKULU-SAMSUN-TURKEY

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Türkiye tanıtım filmi Turkey promotion film in 2019

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KUTLUKENT 80.YIL İLKOKULU-SAMSUN-TURKEY

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KUTLUKENT 80.YIL İLKOKULU-SAMSUN-TURKEY
Our school has been completed in 2003.Education in 2004 academic year started.
Our school is operating on a 3500 m2 land.
There are 19 classrooms, 1 kindergarten, 1 principal room, 1 assistant principal room, 1 teachers' room, 1 guidance room, 1 multi-purpose hall, 1 conference room, 1 Z-library, 1 painting workshop and 1 canteen in our school.

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KUTLUKENT 80.YIL İLKOKULU-SAMSUN-TURKEY

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KUTLUKENT 80.YIL İLKOKULU-SAMSUN-TURKEY
I'M A PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHER. 25 YEARS WORKING. THİS YEAR, STUDENTS ARE İN 3rd GRADE. I HAVE 23 STUDENTS. I MEET PROJECTS IN 2014.. WORKING IN COMMON PROJECTS AND BUILDING NEW FRIENDS SHARE EXPERIENCES IS A GREAT EXPERIENCE.

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL 1/B CLASS KONYA/TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL 1/B CLASS KONYA/TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL  1/B CLASS   KONYA/TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL  1/B CLASS   KONYA/TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL         KONYA /TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL         KONYA /TURKEY

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Saraçoğlu Ahmet Haşhaş Prımary School Karatay is also located in Konya in TURKEY.  There are 20 teachers and 400 students. There are 16  classrooms in the school  .

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL 1/ B CLASS

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL 1/ B CLASS

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I will be in the fırst grade in 2019-2020 academic year. My students are 7 years old. I have 18 students.

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL KONYA/TURKEY

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SEBAHAT DUVARCI SARAÇOĞLU AHMET HAŞHAŞ PRIMARY SCHOOL KONYA/TURKEY

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My name is Sebahat DUVARCI. I  live in Konya in TURKEY. I am workıng in prımary school. My  school's name is Saraçoğlu Ahmet Haşhaş  Prımary school. I am fırst class teacher. My students are 7 years old.I studıed 20 years in my profession.

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TURKEY

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DİDİM-AYDIN- TURKEY

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Didim is also  located in Aydın in TURKEY. There are 16 teachers and 400 students. Our students are 5-10 years old There are 16 classroom in the school. There are also 2 kindergartens.

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I will be 2nd grade in 2019-2020 academic year. My students are 7-8 years old. I have 24 students.

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TÜRKİYE -TURKEY

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Sevgi Çiçekleri Sınıfı Tanıtım/Love Flowers Classroom Promotion

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Sevgi Çiçekleri Sınıfı Tanıtım/Love Flowers classroom Promotion

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ÇORUM OSMANCIK 75.YIL CUMHURİYET İLKOKULU

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ÇORUM OSMANCIK 75.YIL CUMHURİYET İLKOKULU

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Yelda KUŞCU KILIÇARSLAN

Adresim: 75. Yıl Cumhuriyet ilköğretim Okulu 19500 Osmancık / Çorum
Telefon Numarası: 3646118340
Faks Numarası: 3646118340
Web:http://osmancik75yil.meb.k12.tr/
Okulumuz,il myerkezine 55 km uzaklıktadır. 4 katlı bir binadır. Okulumuzda 24 adet derslik, , 1 anasınıfı ,1 Müdür Odası, 1 Müdür Yardımcısı Odası ,Öğretmenler odası , Memur Odası , Rehber Öğretmen Odası, Arşiv , Spor Odası , Kız ve Erkek Tuvaletleri mevcuttur.17 öğretmen ,208 öğrencisi vardır. BAŞARIMIZ : 2010 - 2011 Eğitim öğretim yılında SBS de 100 soruda 100 doğru cevapla 500 tam puanla Türkiye birincisi öğrencimiz oldu. ULUSAL MÜSABAKALARDAKİ BAŞARILARIMIZ : 1 - 7- 10 Mayıs 2012 Yıldız Kızlar Badminton Türkiye Birincisi . 2 - 7- 10 Mayıs 2012 Yıldız Erkekler Badminton Türkiye Üçüncüsü . 3 - 21-24 Mayıs 2012 Badminton Küçükler Grubu Türkiye Üçüncümüz oldu .
AB Comenius Okul Ortaklıkları Projesi kapsamında Konusu “Hikayelerdeki Ortak Ahlaki Değerler” olan proje kapsamında  toplam 14 öğretmen ve 10 öğrencinin katıldığı proje sayesinde ortak okullar ve ülkeler kendi aralarındaki kültürel iletişim ve tanıtımda bulunup  Romanya, İtalya ve Polonya ziyareti gerçekleştirilmiştir.2017-2018 Eğitim Öğretim Yılında anasınıfı olarak e Twinning kapsamında "Montessori Atölyesi" projesi, "Montessori Gözüyle Kültürel Miraslarımız"  projesi, "Harikalar Müzesi "projesi , "From Scientix To STEM "projesiyle  dört kalite etiketi ile ödüllendirilmistir.

My address: 75. Primary school, 19500 Osmancık / Çorum

Phone Number: 3646118340

Fax Number: 3646118340

Web:HTTP://osmancik75yil.meb.k12.tr/

Our school is 55 km away from Il myerkezine. It's a 4-story building. 2y4 classrooms, 1 Kindergarten , 1 Manager Room ,1 Assistant Manager room, teacher room ,civil servant room , guide teacher room , Archive, Sports Room , Girls and boys toilets are available in our school.There are 17 teachers ,208 students. Our success : in the 2010-2011 academic year SBS was the first student in Turkey with 100 points in 100 questions and 500 points in total. Our achievements in national competitions: 1 - 7- 10 May 2012 Star girls badminton Turkey winner. 2 - 7- 10 May 2012 Stars Men Badminton Turkey Third. 3 - 21-24 May 2012 Badminton Küçükler Grubu Turkey became the third .

Within the scope of the EU Comenius School Partnerships Project, 14 teachers and 10 students participated in the project and visited Romania, Italy and Poland.In the 2017-2018 academic year, the "Montessori workshop" project, "Montessori Project", "Museum of Wonders "project, "from scientist to stem "project was awarded with four quality labels within the scope of e Twinning.

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Selam yolu sevgiden geçen güzel insanlar! Ben Yelda KUŞCU KILIÇARSLAN ÇORUM OSMANCIK 75.YIL CUMHURİYET İLKOKULU'nda okul öncesi öğretmeniyim .Meslektaşlarımla bilgiyi paylaşıp,içselleştirerek sınıf ve müfredat sınırlarını aşarak daha anlamlı ve kalıcı öğrenmeler sağlamak adına ben de varım diyorum.Hepimize hayırlı uğurlu olsun...

Beautiful people who love the way they hail! I'm Yelda KUŞCU KILIÇARSLAN Corum Osmancık 75.I'm a preschool teacher at CUMHURIYET elementary school .In order to share knowledge with my colleagues,internalize it, and achieve more meaningful and lasting learning by transcending the boundaries of the classroom and curriculum, I say I'm in.All of us good to get lucky...

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I will be 2nd grade in 2019-2020 academic year. My students are 7-8 years old. I have 24 students.

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My name is Ömrüye DURMUŞ YEŞİL. I live in Didim-AYDIN in TURKEY. I am working in primary school. My school name is Didim Gazi Primary School. I am a second grade teacher. My students are 7-8 years. I studied 13 years  in my profession. I love technology and innovation. I am happy to be on this Project.

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HALİLBEYLİ HATİCE ALİ KATRANCI PRIMARY SCHOOL

Hello, I am Senem KIYICI KAHRAMAN. This year I am working 12 years in my profession. I'm the principal at our school. I work with 3rd and 4th grades in the projects. I love to follow and discover innovations. I believe that we will make a pleasant project.

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HALİLBEYLİ HATİCE ALİ KATRANCI  PRIMARY SCHOOL
I'm the principal at our school. I work with 3rd and 4th grades in the projects.

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HALİLBEYLİ HATİCE ALİ KATRANCI PRIMARY SCHOOL

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İZMİR / KEMALPAŞA - Halilbeyli Hatice Ali Katrancı İlkokulu

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T.C. MİLLÎ EĞİTİM BAKANLIĞI İZMİR / KEMALPAŞA / Halilbeyli Hatice Ali Katrancı İlkokulu

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Lithuania is a green nice country in the Europe, near the Baltic Sea.

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What is LITHUANIA? (My Country You Know Nothing About)

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Kaunas is the second largest city in Lithuania in the central part of the country, at the confluence of the Nemunas and the Neris

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Our gymnasium is located in
in the second largest city Kaunas.

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I'ts clasrrom with 14+1 computer. I teach students from 5th to 12 grade. My students are in 9th grade

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I'm ICT teacher at Kaunas Versvu gymnasium in Lithuania. My students are - years old. I'm in eTwinning since 2005. :)

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Turkey is the only country that occupies a unique geographic position, partly in Asia and partly in Europe

Regime of Turkey is Republicanism.

Offical language is Turkish

Currency of Turkey is Turkish Lira.

Turkey is a peninsula surrounded on three sides by the sea.

There are four seasons in Turkey

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PROMOTION TURKEY 2018 INTRODUCTION FILM OF TURKEY 2016 TÜRKİYE TANITIM FİLMİ

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MERSİN

The most important seaport and logistic center of the East Mediterranean

Door of Turkey opening up to the world.

With its unique nature,deep blue sea,warm beaches,cultural heritages,there is history in Mersin.

There are values,unique tastes to be discovered in Mersin.

There is LIFE in Mersin.

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it is located in Akdeniz,Mersin.  Our school  has  a great capacity  with  more than 1750 pupils     (aged 4-11) and a staff  over 90.

Besides this ,35 percent of pupils in the school  are refugee pupils .

The most of the rest are the pupils coming  to the city of Mersin  from the different  areas of Turkey because of various social problems.

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Erdal OYLUM-Hatice Uluğ Primary School-2nd/4thGrades Mersin /Turkey

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Erdal OYLUM-Hatice Uluğ Primary School-2nd/4thGrades Mersin /Turkey

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I have 2nd and 4th grades classes   ( 8 classes in total ) they are pupils aged 8 to 11. Our school is full time.I am teaching English in my classes by doing plenty of activities.

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I am Erdal OYLUM, an English Teacher in Hatice Uluğ Primary School in Mersin/Turkey.
I have students aged 7 to 12 in different classrooms.I have been teaching for nearly 5 years .While making various classroom activities. Me and my students have a good time and learn from each other.
Because of taking part in this project ,I am both happy and excited.

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TURKEY

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İZMİR

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Movie Maker - Kizoa Video Düzenleme Programı: NAZİK YILDIZ OKUL TANITIMI-MUT CUMHURİYET İLKOKULU

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2/C CLASS

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Hello there ! My name is Nazik SABAH YILDIZ. I work as a classroom teacher at Cumhuriyet Primary School in Mut, Mersin. I am a second grade teacher and I have 34 students. She likes to participate in different studies. Erasmus + and so on. I took part in the projects. I participated in the project with my 2nd grade students.

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Nurcan SAĞLIK-Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class- AYDIN

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Nurcan SAĞLIK-Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class- AYDIN

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Nurcan SAĞLIK-Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class-Didim AYDIN

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Nurcan SAĞLIK-Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class-Didim AYDIN

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Nurcan SAĞLIK- Didim Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class-Aydın-TURKEY

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Nurcan SAĞLIK- Didim Valiler Prımary School 2-F Class-Aydın-TURKEY

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Hı..I am Nurcan SAĞLIK.I am lıve ın Aydın-Didim.I am workıng prımary school. I am workıng at Didim Valiler Prımary school.My students are 8-9 years old. I am happy work wıth you..

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Kutaisi #31 publick school

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Hello. I'm Irma from Georgia. I live in Kutaisi. I work in public school # 31. I am a primary school teacher. My students are 6-10 years old. I am in eTwinning registered on 2014. I'm heppy to work with you.

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Hello! I'm a kindergarten teacher and last year and this year I started work english language with groups of 5-6 years old. English language is introduced in kindergarten in a creative way and based in children's interests, ideas and projects.
It has been an interesting adventure. I'm also the coordinator of ERASMUS+ projects in my school - Agrupamento de Escolas de Campo - Valongo - Portugal.

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I am from Armenia. I am a teacher of Information technologies. I am very glad to cooperate with you. My students like qork by computers. We like create robots and make computer games.

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Hüsniye GENÇ/Şehit Mehmet Volkan Primary School

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Hüsniye GENÇ/Şehit Mehmet Volkan Primary School

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Hüsniye GENÇ/ Şehit Mehmet Volkan Primary School

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Hüsniye GENÇ/ Şehit Mehmet Volkan Primary School

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Adana İl Tanıtım Videosu | Adana Gezilecek Yerler | Tatil Durakları

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My name is Hüsniye GENÇ. I live in Adana in Turkey. I am working in primary school. My school's name is Şehit Mehmet Volkan Primary School. I am a fourth grade teacher. My students are 9-10 years old. I studied 25 years in my profession. I love technology and innovation. I'm happy to be on this project.

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Hi everyone, I am Astghik Karapetyan,  I’ve been working at Akunq Secondary school of Kotayk region, for about 25  years now.       I am a mathematics and informatics teacher.
Etwinning is a wonderful platform for me, where I can show my creative side, generate educational ideas, and organize events. It gives me the opportunity to make amazing ideas come true, it also helps me to be better off at my work making it all the more interesting, efficient as well as well planned. Moreover, while being engaged in etwinning events and programs I have the chance to share ideas and that way enrich others’ and my experience. Nowadays, every teacher acknowledges that in this digital era where almost everything is based on technology, it’s impossible to provide excellent educational quality without keeping up with the advancement of technologies.

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Funda MERİÇTEN - Koçarlı Atatürk Primary School-3/A Class-Aydın-TURKEY

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Funda MERİÇTEN - Koçarlı Atatürk Primary School-3/A Class-Aydın-TURKEY

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Funda MERİÇTEN - Koçarlı Atatürk Primary School-3/A Class-Aydın-TURKEY

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Funda MERİÇTEN - Koçarlı Atatürk Primary School-3/A Class-Aydın-TURKEY