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China is one of the biggest countries in Asia. 

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China is one of the biggest countries in Asia. 

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where Ancient China began

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The different time periods in Ancient China

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Get ready, soccer fans, UEFA Euro 2016 is almost here! Think England is the country that invented football? Let me prove you wrong. Nope, it's not England but China! Surprised? Well, check out this post to discover 10 Chinese inventions we bet you never thought were Chinese.

You may know that lots of inventions that have changed the world were created during the Chinese dynasties. Paper, gunpowder and even the printing block are 2 of the 四大发明 sì the 4 great Chinese inventions . But the Chinese didn't stop at these amazing inventions! They also created a lot more things without which your life wouldn't be the same and you probably don't even know it! So we put together for you a list of 10 surprising Chinese inventions you didn't know were Chinese, ranked from the least to the most surprising.
Ready to see what was invented in China? Prepare to be amazed!

#1 The most fascinating of all the Chinese inventions: the Compass

The first item on our list of ancient Chinese inventions is the compass. It's one of the 四大发明 sì the 4 great Chinese inventions , but people tend to forget about it.

Long before European navigators roamed the seas, the Chinese invented the compass How was this navigational instrument invented? The compass was created around the Qin Dynasty era (255 BC - 206 BC), but not for the reasons you'd expect. Long before it was used for navigation, the compass was actually used by fortune tellers on their boards to make predictions. Interesting use of the compass, don't you think? The first compasses were made of a spoon-shaped lodestone, a natural magnetic stone that naturally indicates the South. Later on, the Chinese improved on their first compass to create the magnetic needle compass during the 8th century AD, used on water.

The next Chinese invention on our list has changed the world forever and still very much used nowadays. In fact, it's essential to buy new things. Can you guess what it is?

#2 Paper money, the Chinese creation that changed the world

Paper money! The first banknotes were introduced under the Tang dynasty (618 - 907). The invention of paper money stems from the invention of the printing block, which made possible the printing of many banknotes. At that time, carrying coins began to be too heavy and merchants thus decided to create banknotes as a means of currency instead. The banknotes were meant to record how much money the people had in their pockets. Smart, isn't it?

Nowadays, we use paper money for everything almost everywhere around the world. Even though credit card use now tends to surpass the use of paper money, banknotes are still rocking! Let's jump to the third Chinese creation that is going to leave you voiceless!

#3 The smart Chinese invention: the mechanical clock

What time is it? This is maybe one of most frequently asked questions each day! Your wristwatch - or your cellphone - is certainly one of your best friends when it comes to telling time. This wouldn't be possible without the invention of the first mechanical clock by the Chinese. Under the Song dynasty (916 - 1279), 苏颂 Su Song, a well-known official, built a huge clock tower that could tell the time of the day, the day of the month, the phase of the moon and the position of a few stars and planets. Amazing, don't you think?! How did he do that? Well, he added a chain-driven mechanism to a water-powered clock, and magic happened!

Let's explore a little bit further the mechanical skills of the Chinese. The next Chinese invention will most likely make you go "wow", plus it's all about dragons.

#4 The earthquake detector: the most brilliant Chinese invention

In China, earthquakes are very frequent. When you're not prepared for them, they can cause severe damage. Under the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), some Chinese scientists decided to experiment with ways to predict earthquakes. Under the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), 張衡 Zhang Heng, a famous Chinese inventor and scientist, invented the first seismograph that could detect the movement of an earthquake. Besides being a clever Chinese invention, the earthquake detector is also super cool-looking. It's a huge urn adorned with 8 dragons, each holding a copper a ball. These 8 dragons represented 8 directions: east, south, west, north, southeast, northeast, southwest, and northwest. These dragons faced 8 frogs on a plate below the urn. Each time a seism was about to happen, the dragon that was in the direction of the earthquake would spit its copper ball inside the frog's mouth. Dragons spitting copper balls? I told you it was a cool invention!

OK, now you know that the Chinese were pretty good at creating mechanical engines. But let's explore the sports in China! Everyone knows China's popular sport: ping pong, but did you know they invented another popular sport?

#5 The Chinese invention you'd never guessed was Chinese: Football

Were you dying to know why earlier I said that soccer was not invented in England, but in China? Under the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), people started to play a game called Cuju. It consisted of two teams kicking a ball around to score goals. Using hands was forbidden. Sounds familiar? The main difference was that the number of players was flexible and teams were both composed of men and women.

As for England, they did not invent the football game but they brought a lot to modern soccer. According to the FIFA England organized the contemporary games in 1863.

Technology, sports... Chinese inventions certainly are everywhere! What about in your personal daily life? Do you think ancient Chinese inventions are at play there? The answer is yes. Let me tell you about the most surprising creations the Chinese invented and how these became essential when eating.

#6 The culinary Chinese creation you didn't suspect: the Restaurant Menu

Once again the Song dynasty has struck! I'd bet you didn't know about this one! During the Song era, a premodern economic revolution occurred in China and there was a significant increase in business and trade with the outside world. Lots of foreign businessmen and travelers came to China during that time, but they did not always speak Chinese. In order to help them, the first ever menus were created in Chinese restaurants.

Speaking of restaurants, its origins in the world remain shrouded in mystery. Some claim that France created the first restaurants ever in Paris, but, before the Mongol invasion even happened, there were already restaurants in China. The competition is still on, and I suggest read this amazing post by Nicholas Kiefer on the creation of the restaurant to learn more.

Next time you enter a restaurant and are given a restaurant menu to order food, remember that the Chinese invented them!

#7 The one you were wrong about: the Fork

I can feel your surprise from here! We all know that the Chinese use chopsticks to eat, but don't be mistaken, they also invented the forks! The oldest known traces of forks were found in the Qijia ethnic group (2400 BC -1900 BC) but also under the Xia dynasty (2100 BC - 1600 BC). Did you know forks were so old? At a later period, forks were exported to Europe thanks to the Silk Road. As for the Chinese, it is said they chose to replace forks and knives with chopsticks. Isn't that unexpected?

Forks were invented by the Chinese, bet you didn't see that coming, huh?! Let's move on to another product you can (sometimes) find on your table and that is said to have been created by the Chinese. Cheers!

#8 The Chinese invention that will make you feel dizzy: Alcohol

Yi Di, the wife of a Xia dynasty's king, (around 2000 BC), is said to have created the first ever alcohol beverage and gave it to her husband. It is said to have tasted like beer. The Shang dynasty (1600 BC - 1066 BC) is also said to have used alcohol during sacrifices.

There are lots of legends around the creation of alcohol, but one thing's sure, it was definitely made in China! Just like the next Chinese inventions that are going to make you rethink your knowledge of China.

#9 The ancestor of your current toothbrush

Up next on our list of ancient Chinese inventions you didn't know about, the toothbrush! That's right, during the Tang dynasty (618 - 907 AD), the first toothbrush was invented! It was mostly made of pig hairs attached to a handle made of bamboo or bones. Amazing, huh? The modern toothbrush has evolved quite a lot since then, and no one uses pig hairs to brush their teeth anymore, at least I hope not!

The next and last invention coming up is undoubtedly the one that had me saying "no way, they invented that too?!". The Chinese didn't use to kid with hygiene! Ready to find out what the last invention is?

#10 One of the ancient Chinese inventions you don't want to live without: Toilet paper

Chinese inventions can be very surprising sometimes! Have you ever thought about how toilet paper came into existence? Well, it all started around the year 851, during the Tang dynasty, when the Chinese invented toilet paper. But it's during the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644) that the use of toilet paper rose! At the time, toilet paper was actually made of huge sheets of soft fabric, which only the Emperors and their family could use. Then the use of toilet paper spread to the people and to Europe via the good old Silk Road!

Final words

Chinese inventions have brought a lot to the modern world as we know it today. Each object has a story and China had a role to play in many of those stories. Who would have guessed that toilet paper, toothbrushes, football or mechanical clocks were Chinese inventions? The well-known Chinese dynasties have left a lot to the modern era. If you want to know more about these amazing families, check out our post and timeline about the Chinese dynasties.

Which Chinese invention surprised you the most? Do you know other things the Chinese have invented?

Source Images: english.visitbeijing; dramafever; mfa; farfuturehorizons; pbs; history.cultural-china

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10 Ancient Chinese Inventions That You Never Thought Were Chinese - Ninchanese

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Get ready, soccer fans, UEFA Euro 2016 is almost here! Think England is the country that invented football? Let me prove you wrong. Nope, it's not England but China! Surprised? Well, check out this post to discover 10 Chinese inventions we bet you never thought were Chinese.

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Porcelain Facts for Kids | KidzSearch.com

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Porcelain originated in China, and 'china' is the common name of the prduct. By the Eastern Han Dynasty period (196-220 AD) glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain. Porcelain manufactured during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 AD) was exported to the Islamic world, where it was highly prized.

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China is one of the most popular country in the world be it economy, army, history, art, sports, politics or in any aspect, China has a highlighted name in them all. China is not a unknown name for anyone in this world. China is known for one of the most rich cultures and tradition, history. China is the 3rd largest country in the world and second largest in Asia after Russia. China has proven among giants in Olympics. Given below are the top 10 China is known for.

The Forbidden City was the Chinese Imperial Palace from Ming Dynasty. The Forbidden City was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structure. From 1925 the Forbidden City has been under the control of Palace Museum. For 500 years it served as home for emperors and center of politics. It was bu ilt from year 1406 to 1420.China is known for its rich historical architectural backgrounds with many places, Forbidden City is one of the most attractive one.

Terracotta army is a main attraction among tourists visiting China and the history related these warrior statues is one of the thing China is famous for. The Terracotta Army safeguards the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Qin Shi Huang was the first emperor of China. He had a desire to live forever, for which he spent much of his life searching ways to immortality and "Elixir of Life". He spent his wealth to build his tomb which is the largest tomb built for any famous personalities or leaders of history. The terracotta army was popularly shown in the movie Mummy 3.More than 8000 clay warrior statues stand guarding the tomb of Emperor Qin. They are believed to help Emperor in his journey through afterlife. He was buried in the year 210 BC which is over 2224 years back. The Terracotta warrior statues are of clay and are with height of average human. The specialties of these statues are that they are very lifelike and no two statues have same face. Even expression changes from soldier to soldier. The soldiers are positioned according to rank and their armors are different according to ranks. Along with human there are statues of 150 cavalry horses, 130 chariots and 520 horses. This tomb was not discovered till 1947 until few farmers were digging a well. The army is located a mile away from the tomb.

Chinese Zodiac also known as Shengxiao which means birth likeness is well known around the world. Moreover many people even follow Chinese zodiac. Chinese Zodiac relates 12 each year with an animal and its attributes. Chinese Zodiac has several similarities with Western Zodiac system. The major difference is that the Chinese Zodiacs correspond to 12 years rather than 12 months. There are 12 animals and there are elements associated with them. The animals in Chinese Zodiac are Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig. There are also animals related to months and days.

Panda is loved by everyone; no one can despise such a cute fluffy animal. They are one of the rarest animals. China is well known for giant pandas. Being a rare animal there are provisions in China to keep them safe. Pandas are very human friendly animals. They mainly feed on bamboo and boy is China lacking bamboo? No way. There are millions of people a year who visit China to see a giant panda.

China is known to be the birth place of fireworks. Beijing Olympics was a self explanatory of their firework pioneering. It is said to be originated in China in 7th century. It was invented by Li Tian, Chinese monk during Song Dynasty. Fireworks consist of gunpowder and fireworks were invented soon after invention of gunpowder.

Firstly, understanding Feng Shui- Feng means wind and Shui means water. Feng Shui is believed to bring good fortune. Feng Shui is a combination of art and science that was approximately developed 3000 years ago in China. According to Chinese culture wind and water are associated with good health and thus with good health comes good fortune. Feng Shui assures balanced role of th ese elements in l ife. According to Chinese culture Feng Shui are of two types, a good one that brings good fortune and a bad one that brings misfortunes. Feng shui is based on the Taoist vision and understanding of nature, particularly on the idea that the land is alive and filled with Chi or energy. The theories of Ying and Yang and five elements are some basic aspects of Feng Shui.

Chinese food has been famous all over the world. It is a undeniable fact. In every corner of the world there are Chinese dishes available. There are big, fancy Chinese restaurants to small stores providing Chinese food. Chinese food has been famous for it contents of health. China is known for its unusually different food habits from the rest of the world too. Such unusual food habits include eating worms, bugs, lizards, snakes and many other animals. Whatever the food, China is known for that. It is also claimed Chinese people live longer than other human because of their food habits.

Kung Fu refers to any study, learning, or practice that requires patience, energy, and time to complete. Kung Fu is also famously known name for Chinese martial arts. This martial art is similar in moves with karate. Mostly in every Chinese movies Kung Fu is used to increase the entertainment value of the movie. Started with Bruce Lee when he displayed his Kung Fu in movies, his strength and agility made him famous across the globe but he made Kung Fu much more famous around the globe. Now Jackie Chan and Jet Li display some excellent Kung Fu skills on the big screen.

China is the most populated country of this world. 1.351 Billion or 1,360,720,000 to be precise as officially stated in 2012 is the population of China and it covers 19.05% of the world's population. China has been famous for its population and also imposed one child policy as a prevention method to get a hold of increasing population problem.

China is unarguably known for its Great Wall from Ancient times. The Great Wall of China is one of the most famous landmarks of the world. It has consecutively found its place in Seven Wonders of the World. It was listed as World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987. This Great Wall is 8,851 kilometers long that crosses plains, grasslands, mountains from east to west of China. This architectural wonder is the World's only monument visible from moon. It has been dated 2000 years old and many of the sections are now ruins yet the beauty never dies and thus appeals to millions of tourists around the world every year. The Great wall started from a few walls when in 221 BC when then Emperor Qin to strengthen his unified Chinese empire from Huns in the North ordered to build connecting walls built by others states. It was initially called Qin's Great Wall. The wall we see today was mostly built during Ming dynasty that was from 1368-1644.

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Top 10 Things China is known for - ListDen

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China is one of the most popular country in the world be it economy, army, history, art, sports, politics or in any aspect, China has a highlighted name in them all. China is not a unknown name for anyone in this world. China is known for one of the most rich cultures and tradition, history.

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For the purposes of this article, Ancient China's civilization refers to that period of Chinese history which began in the early 2nd millennium BCE, when a literate, city-based culture first emerged, to the end of the Han dynasty, in 220 CE.

By this time all the essential foundations of Chinese civilization had been laid down. As such, Ancient China was one of the most crucial periods and places in world history. Its achievements can still be powerfully felt today, in a modern China and its world-wide influence.

Timeline of Ancient Chinese History

1766 BCE: traditional date for the founding of the first historic dynasty in China, the Shang dynasty

1122 BCE: Western Zhou dynasty founded after the overthrow of the last Shang king

771 BCE: Eastern Zhou dynasty period begins after the sack of the Western Zhou capital; the first phase is traditionally divided into two: the Spring and Autumn (771-481 BCE) and the Warring States (481-221 BCE) periods

551-479 BCE: Confucius, China's preeminent philosopher, lives

221 BCE: The First Emperor, Qin Shih Huang, completes the conquest of all other Chinese states

202 BCE: The Han dynasty founded, after several years of chaos following the fall of the Qin

220 CE: the Fall of the Han dynasty is a convenient marker for the end point of the ancient period of Chinese history.

The Geography of Ancient Chinese Civilization

(For a more detailed description of the geography of China, and how it shaped its civilization, go to the "geography" section in the article The History of China.)

China is a vast country with a huge range of terrains and climates within it: mountains, deserts and coastlands and above all, the great river systems of China, the Yellow River to the north and the Yangtze to the south. All these have helped shape Chinese civilization.

The Yellow River region

The civilization of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River region of northern China, in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. This is a very fertile region; however the land needs irrigation to make the crops grow, and well-built river embankments to prevent catastrophic flooding.

In ancient times, the main crop in northern China was millet, a food still grown in many parts of the world as a major crop.

This region is regarded as the Cradle of China's Civilization. It was here that the earliest Chinese dynasties were based. Throughout the ancient period of China's history it formed the heart of the Chinese world, and it was from here that Chinese civilization spread out across the rest of China.

The Yangtze Valley region

To the south, the great Yangtze valley, with its warm, wet climate, was the first area in the world where rice was grown, sometime before 5000 BCE.

Rice is one of the most nutritious plants in the world. From this region rice cultivation spread far and wide across southern China and into south-east Asia.

For much of ancient times, the Yangtze region remained outside the Chinese culture area. However, from about 700 BCE, the kingdoms and peoples here began to be gradually absorbed into the Chinese world.

The Chinese only expanded into the mountains and coastland of southern China in the later ancient period, after the rest of China had been unified under the rule of emperors. It remained a largely frontier region until later centuries.

The Steppes of Central Asia

To the north and west of the Yellow River region are the wide plains of central Asia. This landscape here is generally unsuitable for farming, and the people have mostly followed a nomadic way of life as herders of cattle, sheep and horses.

Modern scholars believe that various cultural influences travelled along this route in ancient times to help shape China's civilization. For example, skills in working with metals, and in particular, making bronze objects, seem to have come to China from the Middle East across central Asia. Later, the chariot also apparently arrived in China from the same direction.

The peoples of the steppe were tough warriors, and the mobility that their nomadic lifestyle gave them enabled them to raid swiftly into territory populated by more settled farming populations. They were a regular scourge to the Chinese in ancient times, as well as later.

Origins of Ancient China

The Xia Dynasty (2070 BCE - 1600 BCE) is the first dynasty in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles. The Records of the Grand Historian and the Classic of Rites say that Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty, was the grandson of Zhuanxu, one of the legendary "Five Emperors" who were the first rulers of China.

Yu was successful in stopping devastating floods and increasing the yields from farming (since the floods usually destroyed the crops), and the Xia tribe's influence strengthened. He was made the leader of the surrounding tribes, and soon afterwards was sent with an army to suppress a tribe which was causing trouble on the kingdom's borders. He won a great victory, which further strengthened his power.

Shun, the last of the "Five Emperors", was getting old, and abdicated the throne in favor of Yu, whom he deemed worthy. Yu's succession as the king marked the start of the Xia dynasty. Shortly before his death, instead of passing power to the person deemed most capable to rule (as had been the case in the past), Yu passed power to his son, setting the precedence for dynastic rule.

The archaeological evidence

Prior to the coming of cities and literacy (the hallmarks of Ancient Chinese civilization), major Stone Age farming cultures had been growing up in China since the 7th millennium BCE. One was located in the Yellow River region, the other in the Yangtze region.

The Yellow River region

The Yellow River region was the setting for the emergence of Chinese civilization into the light of history. By c. 4000 BCE, walled and moated towns had appeared. They continued to grow in size.

What looks very much like primitive Chinese characters had also appeared, inscribed on pottery. These characters became more complex as time went by. Other technical advances included the introduction of the potter's wheel (sometime after c. 3500 BCE), and the production of high quality jade ornaments (after c. 2500 BCE). Finds of luxury grave goods and the remains of large and complex buildings show that a wealthy ruling elite stood out from the population at large.
Metallurgy
Metallurgy reached China sometime around 2500 BCE, almost certainly from the Middle East via central Asia. At first this was restricted to copper work, but by c. 1800 BCE, knowledge of bronze casting had entered the Yellow River Valley.

At around the same time there was a dramatic increase in the size and density of some walled settlements in that region. These are the earliest-known cities in East Asia. The region had in fact seen the appearance of a fully urban, literate, Bronze Age civilization, and ancient China finally emerges into the full light of history with the first of its historic dynasties, the Shang.

Historical overview of Ancient China

Most of the history of Chinese civilization, including the ancient period, has traditionally been divided into dynasties - lines of kings or emperors from a single family, following each other on the throne from generation to generation.

During much of the ancient period, what would later be known as "Chinese civilization" was only gradually spreading across the area which today we know as "China". Thus the early dynastic rulers of China are known as kings, rather than emperors. It is only after the time of the First Emperor, who reigned over a united China from 221 BCE, that the imperial period of Chinese history began.

Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China

The early dynasties of ancient China

Archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the possible existence of the semi-legendary Xia Dynasty at locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. In 1959, a site located in the city of Yanshi was excavated containing large palaces which some archaeologists have identified as the capital of the Xia dynasty. Unlike the oracle bones of the Shang dynasty, there are no written records from the period to help confirm the Xia dynasty's existence.

Oracle Bones Found, Dating from the Shang Dynasty

Through the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have continued to uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs at locations linked to the Xia in ancient Chinese historical texts. At a minimum, the Xia dynasty seems to have marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the later Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.

The Shang dynasty period saw further strides in material culture, and some of the finest bronzes in world history were produced by Chinese craftsmen of the period. In due course, the Shang dynasty was succeeded by a new line of kings, of the Zhou dynasty.

A Western Zhou bronze gui vessel. Reproduced under Creative Commons
license 3.0

Under the early Zhou (or "Western Zhou") the cultural and political reach of ancient Chinese civilization expanded enormously. This, however, eventually resulted in fragmentation amongst numerous territorial princes. The authority of the Zhou kings declined, and the princes effectively became independent rulers.

The later Zhou (or " Eastern Zhou") dynasty period was characterized by constant warfare between increasingly large and powerful regional states. It was also a time when important innovations began to emerge, which were to characterize Chinese civilization down to the 20th century. It was at this time that the great philosophies which would shape the Chinese world, including Confucianism, emerged; and it was also the period to which the roots of that distinctly Chinese style of bureaucratic government can be traced.

The imperial dynasties of ancient China

The final phase of ancient China's history was characterized by the rise of strong, centralized states, which unified the Chinese people under a single imperial dynasty.

The Qin dynasty emerged when one of the states into which China was divided conquered all the others and unified China under its rule. Its king took the title Qin Shih Huang, "First Emperor".

The Qin dynasty is famous for imposing a rigid unity on Chinese society, and in building an early version of the Great Wall of China. The Qin regime's very rigidity, however, made it a short-lived dynasty. It was brought down by regional forces which it had failed to tame and by a peasantry which it had ruthlessly exploited.

The Han dynasty

The next of these unifying dynasties, however, would rule China for some 400 years. This was the Han dynasty, arguably the most important of all China's dynasties.

Under the Han emperors the Chinese became so used to being ruled as a single nation that to this day they call themselves the Han people.

It was under the Han that Confucianism triumphed to become the ruling ideology of China. At the same time, an empire-wide bureaucracy, staffed to a large extent by officials recruited and promoted on merit, and imbued with Confucian thought, came to govern China. Even the examination system for recruiting officials, which would come to play such an important role in Chinese life. can trace its roots back to this period.

The end of ancient China

The Han dynasty lasted until 220 CE, when it broke up into several successor states. Thus began a period of weakness for China, when no single dynasty was able to establish its rule over the whole country for several centuries. This opened the way for non-Chinese peoples from surrounding regions to establish their own states within China.

This was a dark period in Chinese history, but by no means as dark as the period which followed the collapse of the western Roman empire in Europe. Society was disrupted, trade declined and many cities shrank, but even in barbarian-occupied areas, administrations staffed by Confucian-educated officials continued to govern. Chinese civilization was preserved intact until, a few centuries later, new dynasties would once again rule the whole of China.

The Civilization of Ancient China

The Confucian bureaucratic state which governed China for more than two thousand years of history first evolved in Ancient China. All of the key governing institutions of imperial China came into being at this time.

The Emperor

China's pre-20th century state was associated above all else with the rule by emperors - monarchs who ruled the whole of China, and often neighboring regions as well. They belonged to different dynasties, lines of rulers who followed each other on the throne from generation to generation.

China's history is traditionally divided into such dynasties, and this was just as true of ancient China as later periods, as we see in the historical summary above.

As we noted, the early rulers, of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, styled themselves "kings". From the late 3rd century BCE, however, the monarchs of the Qin and Han dynasties ruled over a united China, and as a result they styled themselves "emperors". In this they were followed by rulers of China until the end of the last imperial dynasty, in the early 20th century CE.
The Mandate of Heaven
Chinese rulers bore the title "Son of Heaven". They claimed to be Heaven 's representatives on Earth. Emperors were viewed as sacred figures: to disobey them was to disobey Heaven.

The concept of the "Son of Heaven" was closely linked to the idea, very influential in Chinese history, of the " Mandate of Heaven ". By this, a dynasty received divine authority to rule. However, it was believed that if emperors ruled badly or unjustly, their dynasty was liable to lose this mandate. In these circumstances, it was legitimate for rebels attempt to replace the dynasty with a new one, which (by dint of successfully seizing the throne) had shown that it now enjoyed the Heaven's favor.

Emperors were surrounded by courts. These consisted of the royal family and its attendants, as well as ministers and officials responsible for helping the emperor in governing the huge country.

The court was housed in the royal palace, located in the capital. It was the political center of the state, and what went there ultimately affected the entire empire. In particular, the decline of dynasties - the Han dynasty is a very clear example - can often be traced to events at court.

The Civil Service

The ancient period of China's history saw the emergence of one of the most impressive governing institutions in world history, the Chinese civil service. This astonishing organization pre-dated Western civil services by some two thousand years.

The roots of Chinese bureaucracy go back to the later Zhou dynasty, when the territorial princes were centralizing the government of their states. It came to maturity under the Han dynasty. During Han times, the civil service became a huge organization, employing many thousands of officials. It was responsible for keeping law and order, collecting taxes, maintaining irrigation systems and flood defenses, and a host of other tasks to do with keeping China governed effectively.

More remarkably still, the Han dynasty inaugurated a revolutionary new system of recruiting public officials - by examining candidates for public posts. The examination system was established one of the most revered institutions in Chinese history.

Ancient China saw the transformation of armed forces from feudal forces based around aristocratic warriors, in Shang and early Zhou times, to mass armies composed largely of infantry troops, in the late Zhou, Qin and Han periods. These armies were made up of different kinds of recruits: long service, professional soldiers, peasant conscripts, and non-Chinese tribesmen.

(The balance between these different types changed from period to period, as is detailed in the section on defense in The State in Ancient China.)
The Great Wall 0f China
The defenses of China never relied solely on military manpower, however. In the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, the northern and western border states most exposed to raids by steppe nomads had begun to build long walls made of beaten earth to help keep these raids out. After the unification of China under the Qin, the new imperial regime merged these walls into a single system of defense. These walls were he ancestors of the famous Great Wall of China, refurbished into its present form under the Ming dynast y, in the 15th century CE.

Economy and Society in Ancient China

Population

During the ancient period, the Han (as the Chinese would later call themselves) spread, through settlement and the assimilation of indigenous peoples, across northern China and down into the Yangtze region (this process is covered in the article Society in Ancient China). Population censuses began being taken during the Han Empire, which record a population of about 50 or 60 million. This makes it, along with the Roman Empire, the largest state in the Ancient World.

Even by the end of the Han dynasty the heart of Chinese civilization lay in the Yellow River region of northern China. It was here that the two capital cities, first Chang'an, and then Louyang, were located. The Yangtze region, and even more the far south and southwest, remained under-populated frontier regions inhabited largely by non-Chinese peoples.

While the great majority of people remained engaged in agriculture and lived in farming villages, the ancient period saw towns and cities spread across China. Most of these were administrative centers, where provincial officials were based along with their staffs. Many were tiny by modern standards. The Han censuses show only twelve cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants; most of the rest would have been far smaller. Nevertheless, the capital of Han China was always among the largest cities in the world - at times, THE largest. Chang'an, the capital of the early Han emperors, had a quarter of a million inhabitants, and the later Han capital, Louyang, half a million.

Ancient China's economy and society was based on agriculture. The vast majority of Chinese families lived in small farming villages, dotted across intensively cultivated landscapes.

Chinese agriculture possessed, from ancient times, its own characteristics. Almost everywhere, it was dependent on the careful and unremitting management of water: to irrigate the fields of millet in North China, keep back the river floods near the great rivers, and swamp the paddy fields of southern China.

Their social position and economic condition of farmers has been different at different time. In early times, under the Shang and early Zhou, they were serfs, semi-servile bondsmen tied to their particular lords. From middle Zhou times, as the old feudal aristocracy disappeared, more and more of them became free owners of their small farms. Later again, in later Han times, their status declined again.

Whatever the farmers' condition, as the centuries went by Chinese agriculture became more and more productive. New crops and the spread of iron tools and new techniques led to more intensive farming. From later Zhou times, government became active in promoting agriculture, especially by bringing new land under irrigation, These various factors resulted in population growth.

Trade and industry in Imperial China

As agriculture became more productive and population increased, trade and industry also grew. The introduction of coinage in later Zhou times facilitated trade, and technological innovations such as the development of steel-making contributed to industrial expansion.

Another major factor was state intervention. Under the Qin and Han, the standardisation in such things as weights and measures and road building would have had a major impact.
International trade
International trade first gained prominence under the Han dynasty. By gaining control over the eastern steppes of central Asia, the Han enabled the Silk Road, that great trade route across Asia to the Middle East and Europe, to become established. At the same time, the conquest of south China opened up the maritime trade to south east Asia. Although the south remained an underpopulated frontier zone in ancient times, a few important ports were established on the coast. It was in this period that Canton began its long history as a center of international commerce.
Merchants and craftsmen in Chinese society
Craftsmen must have formed a privileged class in early China. Their products, including some of the finest bronzes ever produced, must have been highly valued by the ruling elite in Shang and early Zhou times, and this must have conferred a certain status on their makers.

In middle and later Zhou times, merchants became more influential as a class, and the economic expansion under the Han dynasty especially benefitted the urban classes. Government policies designed to keep merchants in their place could not halt them from growing in numbers and wealth.

The Ruling Classes

The societies of early China, under the Shang and early Zhou dynasties, were dominated by an hereditary feudal aristocracy. Later, however, the position of this group declined, and a new social class emerged, that of the gentry - small landowners who provided rulers with their growing number of officials. By the time of the Qin and Han dynasties, a career in government was effectively open only to members of the gentry class.

By mid-Han times, however, a new super-elite of great landowners was emerging, its members enriched by holding high office. This new class would dominate Chinese society and politics in the centuries that followed.

In pre-modern China, the family was of almost sacred significance, an attitude giving rise to, and reinforced by, the practice of ancestor veneration.

The existence of ancestor veneration is attested in the earliest texts from ancient China, the Shang dynasty oracles, and throughout China's long history the rise and decline of "higher" religions and modes of thought - Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism and so on - never undermined the practice, which might with some justification be thought of as the basic sacred tradition of China.

Women had a subordinate place in the Chinese family from ancient times. Their duty was to obey, first their fathers, then their husbands, and then, after their husbands' deaths, their eldest sons. This should not be exaggerated, however: children of both sexes were taught to obey and respect their parents.

Culture in China

Ancient beliefs and practices

It seems clear that many of traditional Chinese religious and philosophical ideas and practices were already present when written records begin, and probably for long before. Such elements as divination, ancestor veneration, feng-shui, the Dao and the supreme god Di are all evidenced in the Shang oracle bones inscriptions.

Zhou Schools of Thought

It was in mid- and late-Zhou periods, however, that the schools of thought developed which were so profoundly to influence Chinese thinking down to the 20th century. Four of these stand out as by far the most influential.
Confucianism
This taught that people must accept their place in society if society is to be harmonious. However, social relationships should be reciprocal. Thus, while a son should obey his father, the father should act considerately towards the son. ( More on Confucianism)
Daoism
The Daoists believed that a person must live in accordance with the flow of nature; trying to change the way things are is futile.( More on Daoism)
Mohism
The philosopher Mozi (c. 468-382) believed that anything that helped people's welfare and contributed to peace was good; anything that did not was bad. People should practice universal love, and not live selfishly. ( More on Mohism)
Legalism
The legalists said that the most important thing was that the state should be strong. To achieve this, all people should obey the ruler and his officials without question. For his part, the ruler should do whatever it takes to strengthen the state, whether it is immoral or not. ( More on Legalism)

Throughout China's long history these philosophical strands have never been mutually exclusive. Many educated Chinese have been Confucians in public life, Daoists in the privacy of their own homes, and when serving in an official post have happily pursued Legalist policies. The different philosophies have also deeply influenced each other so that, for example, the dominant of the three, Confucianism, has had strong Daoist and Legalist elements within it.

At first, though, these four schools seem to have regarded themselves as exclusive rivals for people's allegiances. The Qin dynasty came to power through the application of Legalist principles, and sought to eliminate all other schools of thought. After that dynasty fell, however, the Han dynasty enshrined Confucianism as the official ideology of the state. As such, it was probably forced to take in ideas from other schools, particularly Legalism and Daoism, in order to remain relevant to the needs of government and officials.

In late Han times and after, Daoism, and even more, Buddhism, came to prominence. Buddhism was the first belief-system from outside China to have a widespread impact on the Chinese people.

Literature

Apart from works on divination and religious rites, literature in Ancient China really got going in mid-Zhou times - the time of Confucius and other philosophers.

A number of works, dating to Zhou and Han times, gained the status of " Classics ", and came to be viewed almost as religious texts. They embodied the foundations of Confucian thought, and would have a profound influence on Chinese civilization.
Works of history
The other major strand of Chinese prose literature was history. The Han historian Sima Qian (c. 145-87 BC) set the standard for historical writing for the next two thousand years. Henceforth, history would be a major feature of Chinese literature.

So far as poetry was concerned, here again the Han period set in place foundations which would be followed and elaborated upon for hundreds of years. Two strands became popular: the first, Shih, consisted of short poems written in a compact, spare style; the second, Fu consisted of longer, more ornate verses. The interaction between these two styles would give a particular character to Chinese verse, reflecting a varying mix of the discipline of Shih with the expressiveness of Fu.

Apart from the beautiful bronzes dating to Shang and early Zhou times, few works of art have come down to us from Ancient China. Nevertheless, wonderful small clay models of houses, horses and people designed to be placed in graves show that Han artists strove for realism as well as lively movement. Also, writings from the Han period mention lively paintings adorning the walls of fine houses.

Further Study

Click here for the start of a sequence of maps showing the history of Ancient China

For a sequence of maps showing ancient China in the broader context of East Asian history: history of East Asia

Themed articles:
The State institutions in Ancient China The Economy of Ancient China Society in Ancient China Thought and Culture in Ancient China
Also, the article on The Origins of Civilization has a small section dealing specifically with China.

The broader regional context is covered in The history of East Asia.

Dynasties in Ancient China:
Shang dynasty China Zhou dynasty China Qin dynasty China Han dynasty China Divided China
The main sources I have used for the history of ancient China are:

Hucker, C.O., China's Imperial Past, Stanford, 1975 - the most informative of the books I have used, and very readable.

Roberts, J.A.G., The Complete History of China, Sutton, 2004 - also a very good introduction, and also highly readable.

Eberhard, W., A History of China, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1977 - very useful to be read in conjunction with other general histories, but to be used with caution - it embodies some sociological models which have been ditched in recent years.

An even older book, but enormously informative and insightful, is Fitzgeralds, C.P., China: A Short Cultural History, Barrie & Jenkins, 1953 (despite the title, not that short - 624 pages).

A recent book which has been well received is Keay, J., China, A History, 2010. (I haven't yet read this, but I have read his India, A History, which is good).

Loewe, M., Crisis and Conflict in Han China, Allen & Unwin, 1975, offers a brilliant insight into the workings of Han government.

A lavishly illustrated work on archaeology for the general reader which includes good sections on China, is Renfrew, C. (ed.), Past Worlds: The Times Atlas of Archaeology, Times Books, 1995, p. 92-3, 146-7, 190-5

A work on general archaeology aimed more at students, but eminently readable and with very useful coverage of ancient China and the roots of Chinese civilization, is Scarre, C. (ed.), The Human Past, Thames & Hudson, 2005, p. 234ff., 552ff.

If you want a quick introduction to the archaeology of ancient China, try the small but beautifully illustrated handbook by Debaine-Francfort, C., The Search for Ancient China, Thames & Hudson, 1999.

For an insightful look at government in ancient China, see Finer, S. E., The History of Government, I, Ancient Monarchies and Empires, OUP, 1999, p. 442ff.

The Ancient History Encyclopedia has a very useful series of pages on Ancient China: start at the general Ancient China page and follow the appropriate links.

The British Museum's website Ancient China is a wonderful teaching resource.

Wikipedia's coverage of Ancient China is as usual vast, and is particularly useful if you want to chase down a specific topic (though coverage of some topics can be a bit patchy).

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Ancient China: Chinese Civilization And History to 220 CE | TimeMaps

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For the purposes of this article, Ancient China's civilization refers to that period of Chinese history which began in the early 2nd millennium BCE, when a literate, city-based culture first emerged, to the end of the Han dynasty, in 220 CE. By this time all the essential foundations of Chinese civilization had been laid down.

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The History and Culture of Chinese Kites

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Introduction to history and culture of Chinese kites, including construction, Weifang Kite traditions and more.

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Each New Year's Eve comes with a couple of ingredients without which it is impossible to imagine any of the celebrations. After the eggnog, the tinsel, the Christmas lights and Christmas tree, one of the things that everybody expects to see and wrap up the year with is a good fireworks show.

However, you my not be familiar with the true origin of fireworks. Fireworks were invented way back in the 7th century, during the rule of Tang Dynasty in China. They were found at various festivals around China, and eventually, they became popular in other cultures and societies.

In China, producing fireworks was regarded as a special art and science. Very soon, it developed into a distinct profession; hence, producers had a special acknowledgement in Chinese society, as they were required to provide invaluable knowledge on how to set up good fireworks displays. On a further note, Chinese people believed that fireworks could expel evil spirits, as well as to bring about good fortune and happiness.

Later on, fireworks started being used for entertainment purposes. Records show that one of the first such was held in the year 1110, when a huge martial demonstration was held to entertain Emperor Huizong of Song and his court.

In 1264, another record indicates of a rocket-propelled firework for a feast that Emperor Lizong of Song dedicated to his mother, Empress Dowager Gong Sheng.

The 'Chinese Flowers'

With their in-depth research into early pyrotechnics, the Chinese already had the knowledge that helped them become the first civilization to introduce gunpowder into warfare. By the 14th century, rocket propulsion would become very common.

In 1240, the Arabs also acquired knowledge of gunpowder and its uses from China. A Syrian record attributed to Hasan al-Rammah tells of various rockets, fireworks, and similar devices. The record suggests all this has been derived from Chinese sources. In one passage of his writing, he refers to fireworks as 'Chinese flowers'.

The 'Chinese flower' came to prominence across Europe in the mid 17th century. That was the peak of the chinoiserie, a period when Europeans will frequently interpret and imitate Chinese and other East Asian artistic traditions. By large, this discipline featured decorative arts and garden design, and huge influence is also evident in literature, theater, and music. Fireworks were no exception.

Lev Izmailov, the Russian ambassador to China during the time of Peter the Great, reported on one occasion that "they make such fireworks that no one in Europe has ever seen."

By 1765, there was already a publication that depicted accurate methods and compositions of how to produce many types of Chinese fireworks. And in 1749, George Handel composed Music for the Royal Fireworks in order to celebrate the Peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Read another story from us: New Year's Eve Ball Drop is one of the most iconic events in USA
All these events highlight how fireworks became so popular for entertainment purposes and in festivities across the world, and how the so-called 'Chinese Flower" would become an invaluable part of each New Year's Eve experience.

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Fireworks were invented in China in the 7th century to scare away evil spirits

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Each New Year's Eve comes with a couple of ingredients without which it is impossible to imagine any of the celebrations. After the eggnog, the tinsel, the Christmas lights and Christmas tree, one of the things that everybody expects to see and wrap up the year with is a good fireworks show.

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Used in Ancient China as early as the Qin dynasty (221 BCE - 207 BCE) or before, Chinese compasses were invented for more than just helping people find their way when traveling. Compasses were originally developed for aligning buildings with directions (north, south, east or west), and as a tool used in fortune telling.

Original Chinese Compass Design

The Ancient Chinese compass was made from iron oxide, a mineral ore. Iron oxide is also known as lodestone and magneta.

The most popular style of the first Chinese compass used a lodestone (which automatically points to the south) and a bronze plate. The lodestone was carved into the shape of a spoon. The spoon was placed on a flat plate of bronze. As the bronze plate was moved, the lodestone spun around and came to a stop in a north-to-south orientation with the handle pointing to the south. The "magnetized" lodestone aligned itself with the Earth's magnetic field. This style of compass was called a "south-pointer". The bronze plate was also marked with constellations, cardinal points, and other symbols important to the Ancient Chinese.

Another style of compass was made by placing an iron needle that had been rubbed with a lodestone on a piece of wood and floating the wood in a bowl of water. The water allowed the wood to move or spin around until the iron oxide needle was pointing south.

How the Chinese Compasses was used

The original use of Ancient Chinese compasses was for maintaining harmony and prosperity with one's environment and for telling the future.

If your home or business was placed in the right direction, then you would have a good life including good health and much wealth. Today, we know this practice as feng shui.

If you wanted to know the best time and location to get married or to have a burial, then the fortune tellers would use a fortune telling board that included a lodestone to give you the information you needed.

Additionally, the Ancient Chinese used the compass for navigation - to find their way home when traveling. The use of the compass for travel also gave the advantage of being able to travel no matter the weather condition. If clouds or fog masked the sun or the stars, you could still travel because the compass would point you in the right direction.

Comparing Ancient Chinese Compasses and Modern Compasses

There is one major difference between the Ancient Chinese compass and the compasses of today - pointing to the south (Ancient Chinese) versus pointing to the north (today's compasses).

It doesn't matter whether a lodestone pointing to the south is better or worse than a magnet pointing to the north. As long as the person using the compass knows what type of material the compass is made from, they can travel in whatever direction is best for them knowing that their compass will point them in the right direction - north or south, east or west.

Chinese Compass Navigation

One of the first recordings of using a compass for navigation was during the Northern Song dynasty (960 CE - 1126 CE). These compasses were made by floating a magnetized needle in water. The needle could move freely in the water and point to the earth's magnetic poles no matter the movement from the ship or boat.

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Chinese Compass History: Invention, Dynasty and Navigation

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Used in Ancient China as early as the Qin dynasty (221 BCE - 207 BCE) or before, Chinese compasses were invented for more than just helping people find their way when traveling. Compasses were originally developed for aligning buildings with directions (north, south, east or west), and as a tool used in fortune telling.

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Paper invented in China

Since the invention of writing, people had been trying to come up with something easier to write on than papyrus or parchment, and also something easier and cheaper to make.

But it took 3000 years to come up with paper! Paper was invented around 100 BC in China. In 105 AD, under the Han Dynasty emperor Ho-Ti, a government official in China named Ts'ai Lun was the first to start a paper-making industry.

How Ts'ai Lun made paper

Ts'ai Lun seems to have made his paper by mixing finely chopped mulberry bark and hemp rags with water, mashing it flat, and then pressing out the water and letting it dry in the sun.

He may have based his idea on bark cloth, which was very common in China and also made from mulberry bark. Hemp cloth was also common in China. Ts'ai Lun's paper was a big success, and began to be used all over China. With paper available, Buddhist monks in China began to work on ways of mass-producing prayers. By 650 AD they were block-printing prayers.

Paper reaches Japan, Korea, and Iran

Even after people in China began to use paper, it took another thousand years before people were using paper all over Eurasia. By the 400s AD, people in India were also making paper, and by the 600s paper had reached Korea and Japan too.

With the expansion of the Islamic Empire into Pakistan about 700 AD, people in the Abbasid Caliphate also began to use paper.

For the traders of the Silk Road, paper had a big advantage: it absorbed ink, so you couldn't erase it. On papyrus, the ink sat on top of the surface and you could just wash it off. But erasing left marks on paper. That made forgery harder. Bankers and businesses started to require paper for contracts.

Paper, books, and movable type

At first traders bought their paper from China, Central Asia, and India. But by 800 AD Islamic manufacturers were making their own paper.

As paper reached West Asia, people began to make it into books, instead of the scrolls that people used in China and India.

That plan spread eastward, and by about 1000 AD, people were making books even in China and India. To go with the new book format, printers in China invented movable wooden type.

History of paper in Europe

Europeans were still using parchment, or buying paper at high prices from Egypt. But that soon changed. By 1250 AD, Egyptian paper-making technology reached Italy, and the Italians made good paper and sold it all over Europe.

Then the Black Death wrecked the paper industry in Egypt. In 1338, French monks began to make their own paper. Europeans used water wheels (destroying salmon runs) to power paper mills, so they could make paper more cheaply.

By the 1350s, Europeans were selling paper (along with other things like sugar and sewing thimbles) to people in North Africa and Mamluk Egypt and West Asia.

By 1411 - nearly a millennium and a half after it was invented - people in Germany began to produce their own rag paper out of linen rags. Once they had learned to make paper, they became more interested in also learning about Chinese printing, and a man called Gutenberg produced the first printed Bible in 1453.

(This rag paper was still much more expensive than modern paper, which is made from wood with chemicals added).

Paper invented in Mexico

By this time, people in the country of the Aztec (modern Mexico) had also, independently, invented paper. Their paper was made out of agarve plant fibers, and people used it to make books.

New inventions using paper

Meanwhile, in China people were using paper in more and more different ways. They were using paper for kites (650 AD), playing cards (800 AD), folding fans (1100s AD), and even, by the 1300s, for toilet paper!

Did you find out what you wanted to know about the history of paper? Let us know in the comments!

Bibliography and further reading about the history of paper:

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Who invented paper? Ancient China and the history of paper

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Since the invention of writing, people had been trying to come up with something easier to write on than papyrus or parchment, and also something easier and cheaper to make. But it took 3000 years to come up with paper! Paper was invented around 100 BC in China.

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Gunpowder (or gun powder) is a mix of chemical substances ( charcoal, sulfur and saltpeter). It burns very quickly, and creates gases. Those gases use up more space than the gunpowder they come from, so they push outward. If the gunpowder is in a small space, the gasses will push on the walls of the space, building up pressure. In a gun, the pressure pushes against a bullet, causing it to fly out at high speeds. The pressure is not high enough, though, to destroy the gun barrel.

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese, the first references of black powder, which is a form of gun powder date to the 9th century, when Roger Bacon described the formula of black powder. According to legend, Chinese alchemists were looking for a formula to create the elixir of life, or the mythical potion that causes whoever drinks it to become immortal, when they accidentally created gunpowder. Because the powder was highly flammable, or burned very easily, they decided to call it "fire medicine". Shortly after the discovery, the Chinese weaponized the substance, or made weapons out of it, and throughout the centuries they would make many weapons using gunpowder, including rockets, bombs, flamethrowers, and land mines before making cannons and guns. The oldest weapon that uses gunpowder dates back to a bronze handheld cannon made in northeastern China in 1288.

Images for kids

Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD.

Stoneware bombs, known in Japanese as Tetsuhau (iron bomb), or in Chinese as Zhentianlei (thunder crash bomb), excavated from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011, dated to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274-1281 AD).

A 'flying-cloud thunderclap-eruptor' firing thunderclap bombs from the Huolongjing

In the year 1780 the British began to annex the territories of the Sultanate of Mysore, during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. The British battalion was defeated during the Battle of Guntur, by the forces of Hyder Ali, who effectively utilized Mysorean rockets and rocket artillery against the closely massed British forces.

1840 drawing of a gunpowder magazine near Tehran, Persia. Gunpowder was extensively used in the Naderian Wars.

In Spanish: Pólvora para niños

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The history of sericulture in China is a long one. The oldest silk found in China has been dated to about 3630 BC, which means that it is from the Chinese Neolithic period. This silk was found in the Henan Province, a region widely regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization.

Another example of very old silk in China is a group of silk threads, a braided silk belt and a woven silk cloth fragment dated to circa 2570 BC. These items were excavated from the Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang, in the Zhejiang Province. The Liangzhu was the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta.

The oldest known written reference to silk is on a bronze fragment found at the Shang Dynast site at Anyang. The Shang Dynasty existed from circa 1600 to circa 1050 BC.

A small ivory cup adorned with a carved silkworm design found in China is thought to be between 6000 and 7000 years old.

The legend of Hsi-Ling-Shih

According to Chinese myth, sericulture and the weaving of silk cloth was invented by Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih, the wife of the mythical Yellow Emperor who is said to have ruled China in about 3,000 BC. Hsi-Ling-Shi is credited with both introducing sericulture and inventing the loom upon which silk is woven. In Chinese texts, she is sometimes referred to as The Goddess of Silk.

Only for a select few

For a long time, silk was a material reserved for the Emperor of China and those very close to him, such as important family members and very high-ranking dignitaries. Some very old and possibly semi-legendary sources write about how the Emperor always wore white silk within his imperial palace, and yellow silk when venturing outside. The principal wife to the Emperor and the heir to the imperial throne are also described as wearing yellow silk when showing themselves outside the palace.

The use of silk spreads

Gradually, the restrictions on who could wear and use silk in China began to vanish, and more and more people - who could afford the precious material - could be seen sporting silk clothing and decorating with silk ornaments.

Eventually, silk production grew to become quite a large industry in China. Silk was used for a variety of things, from fishing-lines and bowstrings to musical instruments. Earlier, documents had been written on silk cloth. Now, Chinese paper makers developed techniques for making more affordable, yet still luxurious, paper where silk rags were mixed with other naturally occuring fibers to make the pulp.

Soon, silk was present in so many aspects of Chinese life that it began altering the language. Even today, well over 200 of the 5,000 most commonly used characters in Mandarin texts have silk as their "key".

Silk as a currency / commodity

During the Han Dynasty, silk became somewhat of a currency. There are for instance documents from this era telling us about farmers who paid their taxes in grain and silk. When taxes were paid in silk, it also ment that the state would make its payments in silk, and civil servents could for instance get their salary in the form of silk. The cost of something could be described using lenghts of silk as the unit of measurment, just like many other societies would use weight units of gold or silver.

Since silk was highly valued and appriciated outside China as well, lenghts of silk became a well-established trading commodity between China and foreign countries. It remain an important commodity to this day and you can buy a number of different silk based securities and financial instruments including futures, binary or over/under options, and ETFs.

The Chinese monopoly begins to faulter

The Chinese autorities worked hard to keep everything pertaining to silk production a secret to retain the nation's monopoly, but eventually information began to slip out - partly through Chinese migrants that settled abroad and made a living there from silk making.

Silkworm cultivation for silk production, also known as sericulture, reached Korea around the year 200 BC, but it would take until after 300 AD before the practice was established as far away as India.

According to legend, sericultur reached the Kingdom of Khotan (today's Hetian) in 440 AD. A Khotan prince courted and won the hand of a Chinese princess, and when she left China she brought silkmoth eggs with her in secret, hidden inside her voluminous hair-do.

Sericulture reaches the Byzantine

Around the year 550 AD, two monks affiliated with the Nestorian Church arrived to Emperor Justinian's court in Byzantine. Inside their hollow bamboo staves, they were smuggling silkmoth eggs. Under the care of the monks, the eggs hatched into larvae, and the larvae eventually spun cocoons and developed into the adult moths that became the ancestor silkmoths of the Byzantine silk industry.

The Byzantine church and state took silk production very seriously and set up imperial silk workshops. Just like pretty much everyone else, those involved wanted to keep the sericulture secrets to themselves to avoid competition.

Still, the Byzantine silk industry was never able to compete with China when it came to high-quality silk. The Byzantine Empire became a notable producer of low-grade and medium-grade silk, but for consumers willing and able to pay for high-qaulity silk, imports carried along the Silk Road from China was still the way to go.

By the 6th century, silk weaving had been established in Persia. Over time, Persian silk weavers developed their own patterns rather than simply trying to copy established Chinese ones.

It would take until the 1100s before silk production was established in Europe. During the time of the Second Crusade, 2,000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople arrived to Italy, setting up their business there.

The Silk Road

The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its lenght. It was this trade that made it possible for people in places located far away from any silk cultivation and silk weaving to wear and use silk. For instance, silk has been found with an ancient Egyptian mummy in the village of Deir el Medina; a mummy dated to 1070 BC.

Official dispatches

During the 2nd century BC, the Chinese Emperor Han Wu Di dispatched ambassadors far and wide, and one of the many types of precious gifts they carried with them was silk. These embassadors travelled east as far as Persia and Mesopotamia.

Ancient Rome gets silk from the Silk Road

Exactly when the Ancient Romans first came into contact with silk remains unknown, and it is also quite possible that it took a long time before knowledge of silk - a very precious material - became widespread among the commoners.

We do know that during the 4th century BC, mentionings of Seres - The Kingdom of Silk - begin to appear in Greek and Roman texts.

We also know that as late as 53 BC, Roman soldiers were so startled by the sight of the bright silken banners carried by the Parthian troops at the Battle of Carrhae that they fled in panic, indicating that they were probably not at all familiar with the material.

As a precious material, silk - imported through the Silk Road - eventually became the hallmark of well-off Romans. By the 3rd century AD, the Roman Emperor Heliogabalus, who reigned 218-222, reportedly wore nothing but silk.

In 380 AD, when the Roman Empire had already split into West Rome and East Rome, the Roman soldier and historian Marcellinus Ammanius writes that " The use of silk which was once confined to the nobility has now spread to all classes without distinction, even to the lowest. "

When the Gothic leader Alaric I beseiged the city of Rome in the early 400s, his demand for sparing the city included 4,000 tunics of silk.

Some remarkable finds of very old silk has been made in places located along the Silk Road. One of these amazing finds were made by the Hungarian-born British archeologist Aurel Stein in 1907 as he was exploring The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas near Dunhuang. Dunhuang, located in northwestern Gansu, was once one of the pit stops along the Silk Road.

What Stein found in one of the cave rooms was more than 10,000 manuscripts and silk paintings, silk banners, and textiles. It is believed that these treasures were hidden in this room around the year 1015, by Buddhist monks fearing an Tangut invasion. They hid the items in the cave room and sealed it up, and did such a good job that the items remained hidden for nearly 900 years.

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The history of sericulture in China is a long one. The oldest silk found in China has been dated to about 3630 BC, which means that it is from the Chinese Neolithic period. This silk was found in the Henan Province, a region widely regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilization.