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Accountability Measures within a Group #1

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Accountability Measures within a Group #1

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3 Group Work Strategies That Help Hold All Students Accountable

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From delegating roles to involving students in rubric design, here are group work strategies to help hold all students accountable.

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Encourage small-group effectiveness by clarifying the task, focusing on production, modeling successful behavior, monitoring progress, time, and noise, and building community.

Photo credit: VirginMoney via flickr (CC BY 2.0)

When teachers ask students to work on a task in groups, they issue an invitation for engagement and, potentially, for chaos! Here are five tips that can help encourage productivity and keep mayhem at bay.

1. Be clear and specific about the task.

There's nothing more frustrating than launching group work and seeing ten hands in the air or (worse) hearing students complain to one another, "What are we supposed to do?" If possible, limit initial verbal explanations to a general overview of the task and process. Then, provide crystal clear, detailed electronic or paper-based directions to each student in the group. Anticipate potential questions and areas of confusion by using a checklist format, providing visuals, or recording instructions for groups to listen to on iPads (this is particularly helpful if you have English learners in your class). Consider instituting a "1-2-3, Then Me" format in which students get one minute to read the directions silently, two minutes to discuss the directions with one another or with other groups, and three minutes to plan their approach to the task before they can ask you for assistance.

2. Make production the outcome.

Putting students in groups to simply "discuss" is a recipe for disaster. If students have to work toward producing something to turn in, present, or share with another group, they are less likely to linger in off-task conversations. Products should require all group members' participation or contributions. This might involve a graffiti-like poster in the middle of the table on which everyone records ideas, or a graphic organizer that every student completes. If each student is doing his or her own version of the task, announce that you'll be collecting one paper per group, to be revealed at the end of the activity. When time is up, use random criteria, such as "person in the group with the shortest hair" or "person with the birthday closest to the teacher's" to determine whose paper it will be.

3. Model successful transitions and interactions.

Show (don't just tell) students the basic mechanics that are critical to success in your classroom. Maybe it's how to move between stations, the process for using a discussion strategy, or how to talk during a "think-pair-share." Devote the first few weeks of class to conducting dry runs (i.e., students moving from place to place, students retrieving and returning materials, students using technology appropriately, etc.). Use volunteers to act out example and non-example conversations with "elbow partners." Post or provide sentence frames as scaffolds for group dialogue. This kind of up-front investment will pay off when students are able to move, transition, and converse efficiently.

4. Monitor progress, time, and noise.

Make students partners, if not primary agents, in keeping tabs on their progress, the time, and the noise level. If groups are producing something tangible, they (and you) can see what they have left to do. Use a decibel reader app (e.g., Decibel 10th, a free app by SkyPaw Co. Ltd), or launch a site like Bouncy Balls (from Google Chrome) for visually appealing ways to gauge the volume of the room. Track time with an online digital stopwatch or another easy-to-see timer. (Try this fun five-minute countdown timer from YouTube.) Make sure to give students less time than you think they need in order to build a sense of urgency. Check in when time is running low to see if groups require more. ("Fist to five -- how many more minutes do you need?") If some groups finish before others, have a next-step question or task ready for students to tackle.

5. Incorporate community builders.

Sometimes group work falters simply because students don't know, like, or respect one another -- yet. Full-class community-building activities are critical; but smaller, deliberately planted, group-level bonding moments also reap rich rewards in helping groups gel, release tension, and exercise courtesy. This might involve using an opening prompt like, "Before you start, share your favorite ice cream flavors," or asking students to fist bump each other as they complete each step of the task. Consider displaying fun anchor questions for students to discuss once they are finished. Anchor questions keep students from drifting into uncharted work or conversations, while providing a structure that lets students stretch beyond the content to discover connections with one another. They can be related to the content or task (e.g., "Where have you seen this topic portrayed in real life or in the media?") or appeal to general interests (e.g., "If you could have any superpower, what would it be and why?").

Teachers are more likely to design and implement meaningful group activities when they have the management strategies to do so. Taking the proactive steps like those we've described can enhance engagement while curbing the chaos.

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Encourage small-group effectiveness by clarifying the task, focusing on production, modeling successful behavior, monitoring progress, time, and noise, and building community. Photo credit: VirginMoney via flickr (CC BY 2.0) When teachers ask students to work on a task in groups, they issue an invitation for engagement and, potentially, for chaos!

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Teamwork is a coveted skill in the workplace , teaches empathy , and increases learning capabilities . But today's tech-centric kids are often focused on their individual efforts rather than on collaboration. Teamwork is one of the most important skills children need to get ahead in the world today, according to a Pew Research Center survey .

But with these six techniques, parents can teach their children teamwork.

1. Sign Kids Up for Organized Activities

Placing your children in an extracurricular activity that involves collaboration with a group is a great way to teach them the value of teamwork-especially if the children come from a single-child household. The key is to sign your young ones up for an activity that caters to their interests. Great examples include team sports, Scouts, chess club, yearbook committee, volunteer work, or dance class.

2. Embrace Group Socialization and Bonding

There are various games and activities that build teamwork in a group environment, but the trick is keeping the activities both fun and discreet. Let the phrase "teamwork activity" slip, and you'll likely hear groans from older kids who probably don't want to play an organized game.

Parents can organize some of these teamwork-based games intended for all age groups for play dates, birthday parties, or similar activities:

3. Fill Screen Time with Positive Examples

Kids will often find their heroes and mentors in the they watch, so it's important to fill their allotted screen time with programs that teach important character strengths. Common Sense Media's teamwork-promoting TV guide shares an excellent round-up of shows where teamwork is "intrinsic to the story, being repeated several times in the actions of a lead character, and 'wins' over character flaws such as thinking only of oneself."

Some favorites from the guide include:

4. Teach Kids to Encourage Others

Teaching children to look outside of their individual bubbles and notice the needs of others builds teamwork. Encourage your kids to cheer for their fellow teammates at sports events, praise their classmates' academic accomplishments, and ask their friends about important life events.

Parents know the best teaching experiences will happen under their own roofs, so the household needs a positive emphasis on teamwork. Teach and demonstrate to your kids that a successful household thrives because of everyone's cooperation. Give your young ones household chores, ask them to help their siblings or grandparents, and praise the moments when your kids make efforts to cooperate with others.

6. Read Stories about Working Together

Children's books offer timely lessons on teamwork. Read your little ones some of these classic books that offer valuable team-building takeaways:

Frederick . A different take on the classic Aesop fable The Ant and the Grasshopper , focuses on a field mouse who spends summer sitting on a rock by himself collecting colors and dreams while his mouse family collects food for the winter. When the food runs out, Frederick entertains the mice with stories and poems, proving everyone's role is valuable. Frederick

Amelia Bedelia . The quirky housekeeper Amelia Bedelia constantly messes up basic chores to hilarious results-dusting the furniture by putting dust on it or changing the towels by cutting them into new shapes. It illustrates an important teamwork message: communicate properly to avoid misunderstanding.

The Biggest Pumpkin Ever . Unbeknownst to each other, two mice are taking care of the same pumpkin-one at morning and one at night. They must agree to work together and share their ideas, turning the pumpkin into a jack-o'-lantern for Halloween.

Working on a team isn't always easy. Kids disagree and personalities clash. But it's in the team setting where kids will learn valuable problem-solving skills and build defining character traits. Practice some of these tips with your children so they can master teamwork.

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6 Tips for Teaching Your Children Teamwork | Macaroni KID National

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Teamwork is a coveted skill in the workplace , teaches empathy , and increases learning capabilities . But today's tech-centric kids are often focused on their individual efforts rather than on collaboration. Teamwork is one of the most important skills children need to get ahead in the world today, according to a Pew Research Center survey .

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One way to change the pace in your classroom is to do a small group activity. But what type of small group should you use? It depends on the size of your class, the length of time you have available, the physical features of the classroom, and the nature of the group task. Here are several options you could try. Consult the Centre for Teaching Excellence teaching tip " Group Work in the Classroom: Small-Group Tasks " for task ideas.

Buzz groups

Description: These groups involve students engaging in short, informal discussions, often in response to a particular sentence starter or question. At a transitional moment in the class, have students turn to 1-3 neighbours to discuss any difficulties in understanding, answer a prepared question, define or give examples of key concepts, or speculate on what will happen next in the class. The best discussions are those in which students make judgments regarding the relative merits, relevance, or usefulness of an aspect of the lecture (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999). Sample questions include, "What's the most contentious statement you've heard so far in the lecture today?" or "What's the most unsupported assertion you've heard in the lecture today?" Reconvene as a class and have a general discussion in which students share ideas or questions that arose within their subgroups.

Comments: This method is very flexible: it is easy to implement in any size of class and in most classrooms, even the most formally arranged lecture hall. Consider how to regain the attention of a large group: turning the lights off and on is one simple yet effective method.

Think-pair-share

Description: This strategy has three steps. First, students think individually about a particular question or scenario. Then they pair up to discuss and compare their ideas. Finally, they are given the chance to share their ideas in a large class discussion.

Comments: Think-pair-sharing forces all students to attempt an initial response to the question, which they can then clarify and expand as they collaborate. It also gives them a chance to validate their ideas in a small group before mentioning them to the large group, which may help shy students feel more confident participating.

Circle of Voices

Description: This method involves students taking turns to speak. Students form circles of four or five. Give students a topic, and allow them a few minutes to organize their thoughts about it. Then the discussion begins, with each student having up to three minutes (or choose a different length) of uninterrupted time to speak. During this time, no one else is allowed to say anything. After everyone has spoken once, open the floor within the subgroup for general discussion. Specify that students should only build on what someone else has said, not on their own ideas; also, at this point, they should not introduce new ideas (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999).

Comments: Some shy students might feel uncomfortable having to speak. Lessen their fear by making the topic specific and relevant or by giving each person a relevant quote to speak about. A variation to this method, which encourages students to listen more carefully to each other, involves requiring each person to begin by paraphrasing the comments of the previous student or by showing how his or her remarks relate to those of the previous student. For this variation, students will need less preparation time before the "circle" begins, but they may need more time between speakers.

Rotating trios

Class size: 15-30

Time frame: 10 or more minutes

Setting: a fair bit of space, moveable seating helpful (they could stand) Purpose: introduce students to many of their peers, generate ideas

Description: This strategy involves students discussing issues with many of their fellow classmates in turn. Beforehand, prepare discussion questions. In class, students form trios, with the groups arranged in a large circle or square formation. Give the students a question and suggest that each person take a turn answering. After a suitable time period, ask the trios to assign a 0, 1, or 2 to each of its members. Then direct the #1s to rotate one trio clockwise, the #2s to rotate two trios clockwise, and the #0s to remain in the same place; the result will be completely new trios. Now introduce a new, slightly more difficult question. Rotate trios and introduce new questions as many times as you would like (Silberman, 1996).

Comments: This type of group can be arranged with pairs or foursomes and works well with most subject matter, including computational questions. It would be difficult to implement in a large class, however.

Snowball groups/pyramids

Class size: 12-50

Time frame: 15-20 minutes, depending on how many times the groups "snowball"

Setting: moveable seating required

Purpose: generate well-vetted ideas, narrow a topic, develop decision-making skills

D escription: This method involves progressive doubling: students first work alone, then in pairs, then in fours, and so on. In most cases, after working in fours, students come together for a plenary session in which their conclusions or solutions are pooled. Provide a sequence of increasingly complex tasks so that students do not become bored with repeated discussion at multiple stages. For example, have students record a few questions that relate to the class topic. In pairs, students try to answer one another's questions. Pairs join together to make fours and identify, depending on the topic, either unanswered questions or areas of controversy or relevant principles based on their previous discussions. Back in the large class group, one representative from each group reports the group's conclusions (Habeshaw et al, 1984; Jaques, 2000).

Comments: This method takes time to unfold, so should be used only when the concepts under discussion warrant the time. Also, depending on the amount of time allotted, students may feel that certain nuances of their discussions are lost.

Jigsaw

Description: This strategy involves students becoming "experts" on one aspect of a topic, then sharing their expertise with others. Divide a topic into a few constitutive parts ("puzzle pieces"). Form subgroups of 3-5 and assign each subgroup a different "piece" of the topic (or, if the class is large, assign two or more subgroups to each subtopic). Each group's task is to develop expertise on its particular subtopic by brainstorming, developing ideas, and if time permits, researching. Once students have become experts on a particular subtopic, shuffle the groups so that the members of each new group have a different area of expertise. Students then take turns sharing their expertise with the other group members, thereby creating a completed "puzzle" of knowledge about the main topic (see Silberman, 1996). A convenient way to assign different areas of expertise is to distribute handouts of different colours. For the first stage of the group work, groups are composed of students with the same colour of handout; for the second stage, each member of the newly formed groups must have a different colour of handout.

Comments: The jigsaw helps to avoid tiresome plenary sessions, because most of the information is shared in small groups. This method can be expanded by having students develop expertise about their subtopics first through independent research outside of class. Then, when they meet with those who have the same subtopic, they can clarify and expand on their expertise before moving to a new group. One potential drawback is that students hear only one group's expertise on a particular topic and don't benefit as much from the insight of the whole class; to address this issue, you could collect a written record of each group's work and create a master document-a truly complete puzzle-on the topic.

Fishbowl

Time frame: 15 or more minutes

Setting: moveable seating and a lot of space preferable; if necessary, have inner group stand/sit at front of lecture hall and the outer group sit in regular lecture hall seats

Purpose: observe group interaction, provide real illustrations for concepts, provide opportunity for analysis

Description: This method involves one group observing another group. The first group forms a circle and either discusses an issue or topic, does a role play, or performs a brief drama. The second group forms a circle around the inner group. Depending on the inner group's task and the context of your course, the outer group can look for themes, patterns, soundness of argument, etc., in the inner group's discussion, analyze the inner group's functioning as a group, or simply watch and comment on the role play. Debrief with both groups at the end in a plenary to capture their experiences. See Jaques (2000) for several variations on this technique.

Comments: Be aware that the outer group members can become bored if their task is not challenging enough. You could have groups switch places and roles to help with this. Also note that the inner group could feel inhibited by the observers; mitigate this concern by asking for volunteers to participate in the inner circle or by specifying that each student will have a chance to be both inner and outer group members. Although this method is easiest to implement in small classes, you could also expand it so that multiple "fishbowls" are occurring at once.

Learning teams

Description: For this type of group, students are divided into groups at the beginning of the term. When you want to incorporate small group discussion or teamwork into your class, you direct the students to get into these term-long learning groups. Groups of four work well, because each foursome can be subdivided into pairs, depending on the activity.

Comments: Students get to know a small number of their classmates well over the course of the term, and may come to see their team mates as study partners even outside the classroom. Using learning teams eliminates the time it takes to organize students into groups each time you wish to use group work. However, because students will be working with each other over an extended time period, be very careful about how you assign them to groups. Have students submit data cards about themselves at the beginning of term, possibly even completing a short personality inventory. You might want to ask them also to suggest the names of two or three classmates with whom they would and would not like to work.

Support

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help. View the CTE Support page to find the most relevant staff member to contact.

References

Brookfield, S.D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Habeshaw, S., Habeshaw, T., & Gibbs, G. (1984). 53 Interesting Things to Do in Your Seminars & Tutorials. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services Ltd.

Jaques, D. (2000). Learning in Groups: A Handbook for Improving Group Work, 3rd ed. London: Kogan Page.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.4. Washington, D.C.: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University.

Race, P. (2000). 500 Tips on Group Learning. London: Kogan Page.

Silberman, M. (1996). Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subject. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

This Creative Commons license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon our work non-commercially, as long as they credit us and indicate if changes were made. Use this citation format: Group Work in the Classroom: Types of Small Groups. Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo.

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Group Work in the Classroom: Types of Small Groups | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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One way to change the pace in your classroom is to do a small group activity. But what type of small group should you use? It depends on the size of your class, the length of time you have available, the physical features of the classroom, and the nature of the group task.

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 3 steps to ensure support is provided to all class members during an assignment

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 3 steps to ensure support is provided to all class members during an assignment

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1) Develop a strong relationship with each student so that they are not afraid to ask questions or voice their concerns
2) Walk around the classroom and check in on how the students are doing with the assignment
3) Make sure the instructions for the assignment are clear and easy to understand

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Build Character Build Success: RESPONSIBILITY

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Accountability Measures within a Group #3

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Accountability Measures within a Group #3

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Peer Assessment Tool for TBL and Group Projects

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When we first introduce the group assignment to our students we establish our expectation for professional teamwork delivered by all teammates. We emphasise that we will adjust individual grades fairly, proportional to the peer-assessed contribution of each teammate to their team's delivered outputs. In short, we let the students know that we will be holding them accountable for their actions in the team and their contributions to the work produced by the team. In addition to informing students of our expectations, educators must also provide them with the tools to help students hold themselves accountable.

There is a smorgasbord of tactics from which the teacher can select to raise a student team's effectiveness through improved accountability. These tactics for accountability include class policy, contracts, project plans, team roles, and responsibilities, mandated collaborative tools, journaling, and the writing of a concluding reflective essay.

Class policy for group assignments

Class policy refers to your institution's policies and your own expectations regarding teamwork. Relevant institutional policies include

Academic integrity

Peer assessment and self-assessment

Equity and diversity

Countering harassment

Student complaints resolution

Student disciplinary process

Your personal policy or expectations could include

Recommended process for managing and/or excluding teammates who freeloader.

Advice on managing personal workload and stress

Advice on keeping teammates advised of changed personal circumstances

A statement that you use teammate peer assessment as a basis for adjusting personal grades above or below the team result you will award for each team's delivered outputs. Later you'll explain how the peer assessment works and you'll give students practice at using the peer assessment process.

Examples of how these policies and expectations are presented in an extract from a course syllabus by Peter Mellalieu. Peter recalls
"I make it clear to students that they need not carry a freeloader in their team. However, they must first seek to manage the free-loader to give them the opportunity to contribute. If that fails, they can apply my 'three strikes' process. A strike against a student includes behaviors such as failing to respond to communications, failing to attend a scheduled meeting, or delivering unsuitable, unprofessional, or plagiarised material. However, I explain I must know in advance that a team is proceeding towards excluding a teammate. There may be a special circumstance of which the team might not be aware that requires my diplomatic intervention."
Teammate peer assessment, feedback, and grading

The ultimate accountability is awarding students individual grades based on their contribution to task and contribution to team harmony and performance. The process that we recommend begins with teammate peer assessment, proceeds to teammate peer feedback, and concludes with a personal result derived from teammate peer assessment.

Teammate peer assessment engages teammates using a form of peer assessment to rate each other's contribution to their team's processes, outputs, and outcomes as they pursue together a group assignment. The peer assessment typically includes quantitative ratings and qualitative evidence to support the awarded ratings. Based on each student's relative peer-assessed contribution, a personal (grade) result may be calculated and awarded.

Teammate peer feedback communicates to teammates in a personalised report the quantitative and qualitative results of teammate peer assessment. Ideally, the report includes developmental advice from each teammate directed towards raising the report recipient's individual effectiveness for their current and future group assignments. Typically, the communication of the peer feedback report is the first stage for constructive, courageous conversations between teammates as they clarify understanding of the feedback received, and the implications for the adjusted behaviours recommended by their teammates.

Personal result from teammate peer assessment is a grade awarded to one teammate calculated from the relative teammate peer-assessed score received by that teammate combined mathematically with the team result awarded by the teacher for that team's total outputs (essays, reports, presentations, software, designs, prototypes, posters...). Typically, the personal result is calculated automatically above or below the team result in proportion to the relative (peer assessed) contribution of each teammate.

Psychological contracts, project plans, and team responsibilities
Psychological contracts
Using Psychological contracts as part of your group assignments is a great way to hold students accountable. Psychological contracts allow students to take an active role in setting the tone for group interaction, group contracts can help "motivate ownership of learning" ( Hesterman, 2016, p. 5 ). Writing group Psychological contracts can also help students identify expectations of one another, communicate those expectations, and practice articulating their expectations.

The Teaching, Learning, and Technology Center at UC Irvine has a great sample group psychological contract form as does the University of Waterloo . The important thing to remember is that you dedicate time in class for the student teams to craft their own contracts. Having students co-create their group contracts will result in better engagement and individual accountability.
Project plans
If you've got a real meaty project for your students, then requiring them to develop a simple project plan as part of the assessment is a fantastic way for students to understand all of the tasks that need to be done in order to complete the project. Once they understand the tasks and dependencies, then they can decide who is going to do what and the date that the task needs to be completed. Remember, a project plan is a living document. You will have teams that underestimate the time required to complete a task or discover that they left out a task. It's ok to amend and adjust as necessary.

Project management tools that we recommend are the following:

- excellent tool that integrates well with Google Drive.

- easy to use and integrates well with Slack

- easy to use and also integrates well with Slack

Team responsibilities
Some projects may lend themselves to have students mimic workplace roles such as project lead, project manager, writer, researcher, editor, and so forth. If this is the case, then it is a great opportunity to have rotating roles to ensure that each student in the group has a go at each of the roles, thus ensuring that all of the students have greater exposure to as many areas of the project as possible. Again, this tactic inhibits students pursuit of a 'divide and conquer' approach).

Rather than mimic workplace roles, students can choose from a list of general project roles such as facilitator, checker, explorer, Carnegie Mellon presents a list of possible roles for group projects that will get the ball rolling. You can even have students create their own roles.

Collaborative tools (Google Docs and Slack)

Having insight into the assessment groups' progress, processes and communication is critical. The level of insight to which we refer means that you would be able to quickly see when groups actually start working on their projects, the level of participation from each group member, and the quality of their communication. This can be realized if you use collaborative tools like Google Docs and Slack to which you are a shared viewer. We believe that it is important to note that it is not enough to simply require your students to use these tools. You must demonstrate that you are taking a hands-on approach. This need not be more complex than commenting on their communication in Slack or adding a comment to their Google Doc. For example, "It looks like you guys are running a bit behind schedule. You need to pick it up."

We wrote a detailed blog post on using Google Docs for group projects that will help you get started.

While Google Docs will give you insight into progress and processes, Slack is the tool that will provide insight into their communication. If you are not yet familiar with Slack, it is one of the most popular communications tools used in industry. Slack is also catching on with leading-edge tech adopters in education , as Professor Phil Simon of ASU reflects
As I entered my second year as a full-time college professor , I wanted to shake things up a bit inside the classroom. I had known for a few years about how was gaining traction as a new communication and collaboration tool in the private sector. I was intrigued. I did some and, this semester decided to give it a shot. My rationale here was straightforward. First, I was curious to noodle with a tool that has received so much hype . Second, in all likelihood, my students will not use a proper learning management system (LMS) such as Blackboard or Canvas after they receive their diplomas. On the other hand, they will almost certainly use a new collaboration tool at some point in their careers. Why not introduce one of the most powerful and ones while they are still in school?
We, too, came to the realization that learning management systems tend, in practice, to be little more than a one-way communications platform 'broadcasting' content and communications outward from the teacher. Specifically, Patrick adopted Slack as the communications tool of choice for all of his classes. He now has insight into all group discussions. He can see immediately if groups are struggling and can identify unconstructive communication. Another advantage of using Slack is that it connects seamlessly with apps that are already used to manage group projects like Google Docs, Trello, and Asana. Since adopting Slack, Patrick has found his students are much more engaged and productive in their group projects.

Conclusion

The foundation for every successful group assignment is student accountability. Set the expectation when you introduce the group assignment by including the class policy for group assignments. Once you've set the stage, then create student buy-in by letting them co-create their psychological contracts. From this point on it's about providing students with the tools to communicate and collaborate effectively and that provides the educator with the visibility to monitor group activity if needed. Having a formative peer assessment activity halfway through the project will allow students to see how their peers believe they are performing. If this is done at the midpoint of an assignment, then there will be enough time for students to get back on track if they did not meet their peers' performance expectations.

Though accountability is crucial to the success of group assignments, it is but one piece of the puzzle. To help you with the other pieces, we have written an ebook titled, "How to teach using team assignments: The 7 step formula for fair and effective team assessment."

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Accountability: The Key to Successful Group Assignments - Peer Assessment Tool for TBL and Group Projects

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When we first introduce the group assignment to our students we establish our expectation for professional teamwork delivered by all teammates. We emphasise that we will adjust individual grades fairly, proportional to the peer-assessed contribution of each teammate to their team's delivered outputs.

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Accountability Measures within a Group #2

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Accountability Measures within a Group #2

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Not Just Group Work -- Productive Group Work!

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To ensure productive group work, teachers must communicate expectations, strategically build groups, structure activities, scaffold work with a supportive classroom culture, and stress individual accountability.

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Theories / Methodologies regarding working together #1

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Theories / Methodologies regarding working together #1

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What you'll learn to do: Describe the study and theories of group and teamwork

We talked at some length about self-managed teams. They're often high-performing, but found only in certain situations within organizations. They're not that common.

More often than not, leaders are called upon to lead their groups and teams to goal fulfillment. How is that done? How can one leader walk into a group situation and see which steps are necessary to make that group a high-performing team?

We'll talk about the history of groups and teamwork, and how leadership theories have developed since the Industrial Age. Early theories lay the foundations for later ones, and, after we take a look at all of them, we'll see if we understand any more about what makes a good leader than we did when we started.

Learning Outcomes

Differentiate among early team management theories

Differentiate among modern team management theories

Discuss strategies for managing teams today

Early Management Theories

Once you have a group of people (or a team of people), they will need to achieve goals and objectives. We know how the group came together, how they will function effectively and how they will become a team. So let's talk now about how the group will be managed.

Management of people didn't really become a subject of scientific study until the turn of the twentieth century, when researchers began to understand that there was more to the motivation and hard work of an employee than just a paycheck. Before that . . . well, managing people wasn't exactly an art.

During the industrial revolution at the turn of the 19th century, the United States entered a phase where significant changes occurred in the areas of transportation, agriculture and manufacturing, allowing us to produce goods quickly and efficiently. James Watt invented the steam engine, which shortened transportation times and allowed us to move goods faster. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, opening the door to quicker, more efficient cotton harvesting.

But even as Francis Cabot Lowell invented his water-powered mill, it wasn't to lessen the burden of his laborers. Women would work in his plant 12 to 14 hours a day, and they were paid better than ladies at other textile manufacturers . . . for a while. But when Lowell wanted to increase his profits and meet customer demands, he cut his employees' pay and lengthened their hours. Because of that, trade unions formed, strikes occurred and the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association was created.

We were a long way from the "take care of your employees and they'll take care of you" notion.

There were still management problems, though, and they presented problems for these new factory owners. Large numbers of people had to be managed, trained, controlled, and motivated. Materials and tools needed to be supplied. Managers looked to handle these issues scientifically.

Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor was an engineer for Bethlehem Steel in 1889, when he decided to analyze the issue of soldiering, which is when workers are deliberately working under capacity.

He observed workers unloading iron off of rail cars and loading steel onto them. Taylor studied the movements, tools, and processes of the workers and determined that, while they were currently loading about 12.5 tons a day, they were clearly capable of loading 47.5 tons a day. He recommended that workers be provided incentives in the form of wage increases to meet new loading goals. These recommendations, when followed, led to increased production for Bethlehem Steel.

The process that Taylor laid out was a template for other organizations:

1. Each task should be studied scientifically to determine the best way to perform it.

2. Workers should be carefully selected and trained to perform the tasks.

3. Managers and workers should cooperate to ensure efficient production.

4. Managers should plan, and workers should be responsible for implementing those plans.

Bureaucratic Management Approach

Rather than concentrate on increasing worker productivity and efficiency, the administrative approach to scientific management focused on helping managers coordinate organizational duties.

Max Weber developed a bureaucratic approach to management. A German citizen, Weber was interested in industrial capitalism, particularly how it was successful in some areas and not in others. Weber traveled to the United States to observe industrial capitalism, and determined that the U.S. used professional managers, business and economic relationships, whereas in Germany people were given positions of authority based on social standings and connections, and businesses were highly linked to family.

In order to help eliminate the practice of social privilege and favoritism prevalent in family-owned businesses, Weber proposed the bureaucratic approach. Bureaucracies have a negative connotation today, but in the true definition of the word bureaucracies are impersonal structures based on clear authority, responsibility, formal procedures and separation of management and ownership.

In his approach, Weber proposed:

Hierarchal management structure.

Division of labor.

Formal selection process for new employees.

Career orientation.

Formal rules and regulations.

Impersonality.

Weber didn't anticipate the problems that would come from his approach (division of labor leading to boredom, formal rules leading to "red tape"), his bureaucratic method is in practice among many organizations today, and his idea that hiring and promotion should be based on capability and not social standing is written into US labor laws.

Administrative Management Approach

In his administrative management approach, theorist Henri Fayol proposed five basic management functions that are still an important part of management practice today. In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he talked about those functions:

Foresight: an organizational plan for the future.

Organization: implementation of the plan.

Command: select and lead workers.

Coordinate: make sure all activities are coordinated and helping to reach goal.

Control: ensure activities are going as planned.

French-born Fayol came to some of these basic concepts when he witnessed the shutdown of a mine. A horse had broken its leg, and the mine had to be shut down because no one had the authority to purchase a new one. Seeing this as a failure of management to provide the right resources, he began his studies of management structures.

Fayol's studies also produced fourteen principles that could guide management behavior, but felt that they weren't rigid or exhaustive. Five of those principles still exist in current management theory and practice:

Unity of command.

Fairness and equity.

Discipline and order.

Scalar chain of command.

Teamwork and subordination of individual interests.

Weber's bureaucracy approach informs most organizations today and Fayol's approach helps us understand the basics of management no matter what the industry or situation. Now let's look at some studies and research that bring in the human relations approach.

Humanistic Viewpoint

Mary Parker Follett's teachings, many of which were published as articles in well-known women's magazines, were popular with businesspeople during her lifetime. But she was virtually ignored by the male-dominated academic establishment, even though she attended Radcliffe University and Yale and was asked to address the London School of Economics. In recent years her writings have been "rediscovered" by American management academics, and she is now considered the "Mother of Modern Management."

Follett developed many concepts that she applied to business and management, including the following:

A better understanding of lateral processes within organizational hierarchies. These concepts were applied by DuPont Chemical Company in the 1920s in the first matrix-style organization. A matrix organizational structure uses a grid rather than a pyramidal system to illustrate reporting paths. An individual may report both to a functional manager (such as sales or finance) and to a product manager.

The importance of informal processes within organizations. This is related to the idea of authority deriving from expertise rather than position or status. For example, an informal group may form in an organization (during or outside of official work hours) to socialize, form a union, or discuss work processes without management overhearing.

Noncoercive power sharing, which she called integration, to describe how power operates in an effective organization. She wrote about the "group principle" that characterized the whole of the organization, describing how workers and managers have equal importance and make equal contributions.

Coining the term "win-win" to describe cooperation between managers and workers. She also talked about empowerment and facilitation rather than control.

Promoting conflict resolution in a group based on constructive consultation of equals rather than compromise, submission, or struggle. This is known as the constructive conflict concept.

Follett devoted her life's work to the idea that social cooperation is better than individual competition. In her 1924 book Creative Experience, Follett wrote "Labor and [management] can never be reconciled as long as labor persists in thinking that there is a [management] point of view and [management] thinks there is a labor point of view. These are imaginary wholes which must be broken up before [management] and labor can cooperate."

We've talked before about Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger, and the Hawthorne Studies. They visited the Western Electric Hawthorne Works to determine the affects of lighting on productivity. As we know, they learned much more about the workers than just whether they did better in a well-lit atmosphere. They learned that their observation alone increased worker productivity, that workers value their social relationships and rely on group norms to restrict their productivity output.

There were several different flaws in the Hawthorne studies and their methodologies, but it spurred on studies by Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Frederick Herzberg and David McClelland, all approaching their research from the source of motivation of the worker and how that can be manipulated to increase productivity.

Modern Management Theories

These early scientific and humanistic approaches to managing people gave way to more studies on how to achieve more productivity, efficiency and profit. Those theories and findings became the basis for further learning.

Systems View

The systems view of management suggests that organizations are a complex collection of interrelated parts, working toward a common purpose.

In the systems view, a system is defined in two ways: externally, by its purpose and internally, by its subsystems and internal functions.

Externally, the concept dictates that each system has a role to play in the system at the next level up. For instance, a company that makes boxed macaroni and cheese creates its product for the system at the next level, the boxed macaroni and cheese market. The boxed macaroni and cheese market impacts the next level systems, like the food industry.

Internally, the system view looks at subsystems and internal functions. Each of these systems interrelates and contributes to the overall purpose of the parent system. So, the accounts receivable and accounts payable departments contribute to the overall purpose of the finance department, which contributes to the overall purpose of the organization and so on.

Managerially speaking, an organization looks to the system above it in the hierarchy to define its purpose, and then organizes its subsystems to serve that purpose. A manager's duty is to operate the systems in his charge to support the larger systems.

Contingency View

The contingency view of management suggests that the effective management of an organization depends on various contingency factors, so if a manager is going to be successful he or she must understand the different aspects of an organization and the factors that can affect performance.

What kinds of variables affect the performance of an organization and its workers?

For one, an organization's size is a contingency factor. Small organizations can behave informally and are often more flexible than larger organizations. They can make decisions faster, and managers have direct control over processes. Large organizations require indirect control mechanisms, and they can't change direction quickly the way a smaller organization can. But they can have divisional structures with workers that are highly specialized, and this may not be appropriate for a smaller organization.

Environmental change and uncertainty also impact the way an organization is managed. A organization with centralized processes works best with a stable environment. Certainty and predictability allow an organization to create policies, rules and procedures to fit the way they do business. An organization with decentralized processes is an advantage when there's a unstable environment. Organizations in an unstable environment need to be able to respond quickly to changes, thus they require specialization for non-routine tasks and problems.

Work technologies have an impact on organizations as well. The technology to do the work impacts the type of worker that needs to be hired, the span of management to manage those workers, and so on.

What about customer diversity? Globalization? A business must adjust for all of these contingencies as well. The contingency view is based on the idea that there's no one best way to manage an organization, and that managers should be ready to adjust to different situations as they present themselves. Conversely, researchers suggests that managers themselves perform differently in different situations, and their success is as much situational as it is based on their talents and behaviors. We'll talk more about that in a future module.

Chaos View

Chaos theory is a scientific principle that describes the unpredictability of systems, such as weather patterns, water flows and, if you're a Spielberg fan, the actions of human-engineered dinosaurs. Although they appear to be chaotic behaviors, they can be defined by mathematical formulas and are not as random as one might think.

Chaos management views pick up where contingency views leave off. In the early 1980s, Tom Peters, management guru, wrote a handbook explaining the Chaos Theory, specifically intended for managers. In it, he emphasizes that managers must be prepared for a constantly changing environment.

According to Peters, changing global environments and technology are evidence of chaos, and businesses should not just observe them without response. Peters suggests that the permanently installed hierarchal structure is a cause of inflexibility in organizations that's damaging. Not only should organizations be flexible with their structures, but they should be prepared to achieve their organizational results in a variety of ways.

The secret to capitalizing on the chaos view is a customer-responsive approach. Peters suggests that organizations review their vision and mission, and be open to and willing to embrace change.

Managing Teams Today

Now that we understand some basic approaches and views to managing people, both individually and in team settings, we can use some of these concepts to understand the ways that teams are incorporated into organizations today.

Think about Max Weber's bureaucratic approach to management versus what Tom Peters proposes in his chaos view of management. On one end of the spectrum, you have a highly- controlled, traditional organization, and on the other, you have a very flexible, unstructured organization.

On one end, Weber's end, of the spectrum, there is high management control, and on the chaos end, that's less so. Peters recommended we do away with the rigidity of the hierarchical structure to increase flexibility and focus on delivering to customers. So . . . is his suggestion a more team-based organization, with high employee involvement and control? Maybe.

Today's organizations tend to be more middle-of-the-road in their use of teams. They've kept some of their managerial control and traditional structure, and use teams to accomplish work on specific tasks.

As organizations move to more team-based structures, the control shifts from management to employees. Upper management still sets the general direction, vision, mission, goals and objectives. But then employees, with that understanding, make decisions and control their own activities. If an organization is going to see a team succeed, they need to:

Provide a clear standard of high performance expectations. Management can set expectations-preferably challenging expectations, as we learned earlier-and then teams decide how to accomplish those goals on their own.

Provide organizational support. The organization's structure and culture must support the success of the team. Organizations that forego an all-individual reward system and remove other cultural barriers are more likely to see their teams succeed.

Adjust internal and external leadership. Team leaders should guide groups but not necessarily dictate what has to be done.

Researchers like Taylor, Weber and Fayol never got to the point where they could conceive of a team in a working environment. But those concepts that still exist in management principles studied today certainly don't exclude the use of teams, do they? Teams undoubtedly look for the most efficient way to perform, they reward their members based on achievement and experience, they understand the importance of management decision makers and resource managers in their numbers. Those principles are still at work every day.

Consider the structural elements of an organization as they conceived them and how they change (but don't disappear) in a team-based organization.

Traditional Organization

Team-Based Organization

In spite of all those traditional organizational elements being in place for team-based organizations, there are a lot of growing pains and changes needed if an organization is going to go from a traditional one to one based on teams. What would make an organization do that?

Organizations like Goldman Sachs, American Airlines and Kellogg's do fine with a traditional organizational structure, with teams used to tackle particular tasks and issues. But some organizations, like Lucent Technologies, have adopted a team-based structure throughout several of their areas.

SEI Investments

SEI Investments in Pennsylvania adopted a team-based organizational structure when its CEO realized that the company lacked competitive advantage. SEI declared their new strategy: Become more responsive to customers than other firms in the industry. The decision to restructure as a team-based organization was the result of that strategy.

SEI decided to form teams specifically to handle a client problem. Once that problem was handled, the team disbanded, and then another one was created to address the next client. As a result, SEI became more profitable, realizing their strategy of becoming more responsive to customers than other companies in the industry.

SEI's teams were tied to their strategy, and organizations that don't get specific in attaching team goals to strategy are setting themselves up for failure. When teams aren't clear on how they're furthering organizational strategy, they lose focus and motivation. In most cases, those teams won't live up to expectations. Jon Katzenbach, director at McKinney & Co and team-based organizational expert, points out that it's not about the numbers for teams. "Teams aren't motivated by numbers-even big numbers," he explained. "They're motivated by something to do in the marketplace, like beating a competitor.

Pre-industrial revolution, our economy was based on the textile merchant, the grocer, and all the individual business owners that made their towns go. But once the industrial revolution found its way to the United States, managers were suddenly faced with the task of managing many workers and ensuring that they reached some level of productivity. Science and research improved efficiency, and as the world changed, new views emerged to help managers adapt.

Teams and team-based organizations are not an entirely new concept, but as we continue to innovate and realize what teams can do to help organizations realize their goals, we will continue to use these management approaches to help us move forward.

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Organizational Behavior / Human Relations

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We talked at some length about self-managed teams. They're often high-performing, but found only in certain situations within organizations. They're not that common. More often than not, leaders are called upon to lead their groups and teams to goal fulfillment. How is that done?

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Theories / Methodologies regarding working together #2

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Theories / Methodologies regarding working together #2

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Lev Vygotsky and Social Learning Theories

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Social learning theories help us to understand how people learn in social contexts (learn from each other) and informs us on how we, as teachers, construct active learning communities. Lev Vygotsky (1962), a Russian teacher and psychologist, first stated that we learn through our interactions a…

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Theories / Methodologies regarding working together #3

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Examples

Collaborative learning can be implemented in the college classroom through a variety of ways:

Presentation - A foreign language instructor divides students into conversation groups. Their task is to perform a dialogue in front of the class pretending that they are ordering food at a restaurant. The groups have 30 minutes to prepare their conversation and 10 minutes to present it to the class. This activity culminates a course unit where students have learned vocabulary and phraseology around everyday conversations in the language.

Problem Sets - After learning the steps for conducting several statistical tests, students in a statistics course are divided into groups and assigned a problem set. In well-functioning groups, all students contribute equally by working through the problems and offering assistance to one another until each group member fully understands the solution.

Case Study - A sociology instructor implements case studies in the course around pressing issues. Students within each group take on particular roles and debate the issue under discussion.

Comparative Work - A writing instructor has groups write the same general letter to different audiences, adjusting tone, wording, and style to reach their unique assigned readers. Groups then read out their letters and discuss similarities and differences based on audience.

Jigsaw - A literature instructor breaks class into groups to close read and discuss a passage from John Milton's Paradise Lost. After some time, the instructor uses the jigsaw method by creating new groups comprised of representatives from each original group. New groups share what they discussed previously, and explore new ideas.

Recommendations

Group size - In general, smaller group sizes are desirable, typically between 3 - 4 students per group. When groups are too large, equitable student contribution can be challenging. When groups are too small, they may not experience as many benefits from the ideas and contributions of others.

Stable vs. alternating groups - Depending on the goals of the activities and instructor preference, groups can be stable throughout the semester or change more frequently. There are pros and cons to both approaches. Stable groups grant students more time to become accustomed to how they work together. However, dysfunctional stable groups are less likely to achieve class learning outcomes. In general, for the group process to occur more effectively, members must spend significant time working together. Alternating groups help students by refreshing their expectations and enabling them to work with other members of the class. However, students may also find forming connections with their group members more challenging. In general, groups may be formed randomly or the instructor can deliberately form groups using particular attributes (e.g. ability level or demographics).

Group expectations and accountability - With regards to more time-intensive projects, students expect accountability of individual group members. To mitigate potential conflict, instructors can have groups come together before starting a project to develop an agreement around how the group will function. During this time, group members can also assign one another roles (e.g. facilitator, researcher, recorder, presenter) and delineate responsibilities. Finally, this agreement can address expectations around attendance in class and group meetings outside of class. For a more structured approach to balancing individual and group participation, instructors can also consider Team-Based Learning.

Confidential peer evaluation - As another accountability measure, instructors can ask students to confidentially evaluate their peers on their contributions to the project. Instructors can choose whether to use these scores in determining final grades for a project.

Group and individual grades - To account for individual as well as group contribution, instructors can consider including both individual and group assignments for the project. In doing so, both efforts can be accounted for in the grading process, motivating students to perform well on their own while contributing to the group's progress.

Additional Resources

Cohan EG and Lotan RA. (2014). Designing Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogeneous Classroom. Third Edition. New York, New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Collaborative Learning: Group Work - Cornell Center for Teaching Innovation

Group Work - Brown Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning

Working in Groups - Harvard Bok Center for Teaching and Learning

References

Chaiklin S. (2003) Chapter 2. The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky's Analysis of Learning and Instruction. In, Vygotsky's Educational Theory in Cultural Context. A Kozulin, B Gindis, V Ageyev, S Miller (Eds). New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. P. 65-82.

John-Steiner V and Mahn H. (1996). Sociocultural approaches to learning and development: A Vygotskyian framework. Educational Psychologist 31(3-4):191-206

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Collaborative learning can be implemented in the college classroom through a variety of ways: Presentation - A foreign language instructor divides students into conversation groups. Their task is to perform a dialogue in front of the class pretending that they are ordering food at a restaurant.

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What is Reciprocity | Explained in 2 min