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Physical Geography of Europe Part 1--Landforms and Waterways

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Southern Europe stretches from central Russia westward to Great Britain and Ireland and southward from central Sweden, southern Norway, and Finland to the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkan Mountains. This region is a forest and lowland clays. The soil is formed in a coniferous woodland setting making the soil horrible for farming.

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Central Europe is low mountains which are filled with large areas of forest.

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Europe lies much more north of the United States which has many effects on the seasons and affects the evolution of Europe's people. The lands are mixed with many forest, lowlands, and mountains.

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Northern Europe is lowlands which were used as farmland because of its flat lands and health soil. The lowland also include lakes, bogs (wetlands), heaths (land with poor soil), and there are areas of mixed forest.

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Europe has very large and healthy forest towards the center of Europe there are are different types of forest “that cover more than 40 percent of the continent” (Stated from M Libraries) such as Hornbeam, Beach, Oak, Mixed, Birch-Pine, Riparian, and Mountain forest. Europe has lots of natural resources such as iron ore, copper, lead, bauxite, manganese, nickel, gold, silver, potash, clay, gypsum, dolomite, and salt.

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Europe’s borders have many bodies of water around it such as the Atlantic Ocean on the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Europe has many rivers which are used for travel and trade but, Europe’s main rivers are the Danube and the Rhine. The seas in Europe are one of it most important natural resources which “they provide about 10 percent of the world fish” (Stated from M Libraries).

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Europe is currently home to 44 countries and many different languages and cultures. Europe's major religion is Christianity, Judaism, and Islam which these groups are spread out throughout the population.

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Major vegetation zones

The terms "natural," "original," and "primitive," as epithets applied to the vegetation of Europe, have no precise meaning unless they are related to a specific time in geologic history. It is nevertheless possible to envisage continental vegetation zones as they formed and acquired some stability during postglacial times, although such zones are only rarely recalled by present-day remnants.

Tundra vegetation, made up of lichens and mosses, occupies a relatively narrow zone in Iceland and the extreme northern portions of Russia and Scandinavia, although that zone is continued southward in the mountains of Norway. Vegetation of a similar kind occurs at elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,500 to 1,800 metres) in the Alps and the northern Urals.

Southward, the virtually treeless tundra merges into the boreal forest, or taiga. The more northerly zone is "open," with stands of conifers and with willows and birch thickets rising above a lichen carpet. It is most extensive in northern Russia but continues, narrowing westward, across Sweden. South of that zone, and without an abrupt transition, the "closed" boreal forest occupies a large fraction-mainly north of the upper Volga River-of Russia and Scandinavia. Thin-leaved and cold-resistant conifers, together with birch, predominate.

The northern vegetation may superficially suggest its primeval character, but the zone of mixed forest that once stretched across the continent from Great Britain and Ireland to central Russia has been changed extensively by humans. Surviving patches of woodland-associations of broad-leaved trees and some conifers, summarily described as Atlantic, central, and eastern-hint at the formerly extensive cover. Indeed, although as much as 80 percent of Europe's land was once forested, in the early 21st century various forests (including both boreal and mixed types) covered only about 30 percent of the continent.

In southern Europe, Mediterranean vegetation has a distinctive character, containing broad-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs as well as areas of scrub. Around the sea that vegetation is called maquis; it includes aromatic plants and small trees such as olives and figs. Scrub is scattered because of summer drought, particularly in areas where the soil is underlain by limestone or where there is little, if any, soil.

The wooded-steppe and grass-steppe vegetation zones are confined primarily to southwestern Russia and Ukraine, although they also extend into the Danubian lowlands ( see the Steppe). Semidesert vegetation characterizes the dry lowland around the northern and northwestern shores of the Caspian Sea.

Shaping of vegetation zones

Climatic change

The primeval vegetation of Europe began to take shape as the climate ameliorated following the retreat of the Pleistocene ice sheets some 12,000 years ago. The microscopic study of pollen grains preserved in datable layers of peat and sediments has made it possible to trace the continental spread, in response to climatic improvement, of forest-forming trees. The double barrier of the Alps and the Mediterranean Sea had checked the southward retreat of trees at the onset of the ice ages, and there were relatively few indigenous species to return northward from unglaciated refuges. In the first postglacial climatic phase (the Boreal), spruce, fir, pine, birch, and hazel nevertheless established themselves as far north as central Sweden and Finland. During the succeeding climatic optimum (the Atlantic phase), which was probably wetter and certainly somewhat warmer, mixed forests of oak, elm, common lime (linden), and elder spread northward. Only in the late Atlantic period did the beech and hornbeam spread into western and central Europe from the southeast.

During postglacial times, therefore, when small numbers of humans were living within Europe, the continental surface was thickly clad with trees and undergrowth, except where tree growth was precluded by extreme cold, high elevation, bad drainage, or exposure to persistent gales. Even those areas where windblown loess was deeply deposited are now known to have had woods of beech, hawthorn, juniper, box, and ash, as did limestone plateaus. The Mediterranean peninsulas also had evergreen and mixed forests rooted in an ample soil.

Role of humans

From prehistoric times onward, with ever-increasing force, humans, seeking optimum economic use of available resources, have acted as a vigorous agent of vegetation change. The effects of grazing animals may well explain why some heathlands (e.g., the Lüneburg Heath in north-central Germany) replaced primeval forest. By fire and later by ax, forest clearance met demands for building materials for homes and ships, for fuel, for charcoal for iron smelting, and, not least, for more available land for cultivation and pasture. The mixed forests suffered most because their relatively rich soils and long and warm growing season promised good returns from cultivation. The destruction of woodlands was markedly strong when population was growing (as between about 800 and 1300 ce). It was later intensified by German colonization east of the Rhine and reached maximum scale in the 19th century. In southern Europe-where naval demands were continuous and sources of suitable timber sharply localized-tree cutting entailed, from Classical antiquity onward, serious soil loss through erosion, increased aridity, floods, and marsh formation. Farther north throughout the continent, as present distribution of arable land shows, forests were reduced to remnants; only in the north and below the snow line of Alpine mountains have forests of large and continuing commercial value survived. Another drastic vegetation change brought about by humans has been the virtual elimination of the wooded and grass steppes, which have become vast granaries.

Avebury© sbossert-iStock/Getty Images

On the more positive side may be noted the reclamation of marshlands and the improvement of the soil, through agriculture, of some hill grasslands and heaths. In timber-deficient countries the afforestation of hillslopes, chiefly with quickly growing conifers, has restored some of the former forests. Second-growth forests also have come to occupy some areas where poor agricultural land has been abandoned.

Plant imports

Humans have not only shaped the vegetation zones of Europe. They also have introduced many of the individual species of plants, both wild and cultivated, that commonly grow on the continent. To a perhaps surprising degree, European vegetation comprises a large number of plants originally from other parts of the world. Although some imported crops-notably citrus fruits, sugarcane, and rice-can grow only marginally in Europe, and then by irrigation, many others thrive throughout the continent. Originating as wild grasses in Ethiopia, cultivated varieties of wheat and barley reached Europe early, via the Middle East and Egypt, as did the olive, the grape, figs, flax, and some varieties of vegetables. Rice, sugarcane, and cotton, of tropical Indian origin, were introduced by the Arabs and Moors, especially into Spain. Citrus fruits, peaches, mulberries, oats, and millet reached Europe from their original Chinese habitats, and Europe owes corn (maize), tobacco, squashes, tomatoes, red peppers, prickly pears, agave (sisal), and potatoes-first grown for fodder but destined to become the cheap staple food for the large families of low-paid workers of the 19th century-to the Americas. Europe has drawn greatly on East Asia and North America for trees, especially ornamental trees, while some acacias and the eucalyptus derive from Australia. The commercially important sugar beet, however, was developed in Europe in the 18th century; its cultivation increased greatly in the following century, particularly after the British blocked the importation of cane sugar during the Napoleonic Wars.

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The terms "natural," "original," and "primitive," as epithets applied to the vegetation of Europe, have no precise meaning unless they are related to a specific time in geologic history. It is nevertheless possible to envisage continental vegetation zones as they formed and acquired some stability during postglacial times, although such zones are only rarely recalled by present-day remnants.

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Learning Objectives

1. Describe the various climate types and physical landforms of the European continent.

2. Explain how Europe's physical geography has supported its development.

3. List Europe's various natural resources.

4. Summarize the environmental concerns Europe faces.

From the Roman Empire to the European Union (EU), Europe's historical pattern of development is a model study in regional geography. From historic empires to diverse nation-states to a multicountry union, the continent struggles to confront the cultural forces that unite and divide it. The powerful impact European colonialism has had on the world since the Industrial Revolution is still felt today. The rural-to-urban shift prompted by the Industrial Revolution first impacted Europe and continues to impact developing countries. Understanding the geographic region of Europe is essential to understanding our world. This short summary of the basic concepts will provide a valuable lesson in globalization, which affects every human being on the planet. The concepts and principles that apply to Europe can also apply to other countries and regions.

Figure 2.1 Map of Europe

Location and Climate

Europe is a northern continent. All the British Isles, for example, fall above the fiftieth parallel. If we compare Europe's position on a globe with that of the contiguous United States, we see that much of Europe lies north of the United States. Paris, France, is at about the same latitude as Fargo, North Dakota. Athens, Greece, is at about the same latitude as St. Louis, Missouri. Europe's northern position affects its growing seasons and people's moods, and it should be taken into consideration as an important influence in the evolution of the European character. Europe is also surrounded by bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean borders Europe on the west, the Arctic Ocean borders Europe to the north, and many seas surround the various peninsulas and coastal regions.

The oceans exert significant influence on the world's climates. The oceans collect and store vast amounts of solar energy, particularly around the equator, and transport that heat with their currents. Ocean currents can move water for thousands of miles from one temperature zone to another. Because oceans can absorb so much heat, maritime climates are often milder than continental ones, with smaller temperature variations from day to night as well as from winter to summer. This influences not only temperature but also precipitation patterns over wide regions of Europe and the rest of the world. Water moderates coast environments in a number of ways. Water heats and cools more slowly than land. This heat inertia allows coastal communities to have climates that tend to be more moderate than one might imagine for places so far north. Interior Europe does not benefit from coastal waters and can have winters as cold as those found within the upper midwestern United States.

The Gulf Stream is perhaps the most important current for Western Europe's climate and is responsible for producing a temperate climate for a northern latitude location. Most of Western Europe has a moderate type C climate. The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, where the waters are warmed. This powerful current follows the Eastern Seaboard of the United States before crossing the Atlantic Ocean for Europe. The Gulf Stream's most dramatic effect can be found in the western coastal islands of Scotland, which has a mild enough climate to support some forms of tropical flora, even though it is a degree of latitude as far north as Hudson Bay, Canada.

The coast of Norway provides another example. While most of Norway's coastal area lies within the Arctic region, it remains free of ice and snow throughout the winter. People living farther inland and closer to Eastern Europe and Russia encounter the colder type D climates. Colder air sweeps down from the Arctic north or from eastern Siberia and provides colder winters in this eastern region. The Mediterranean Sea moderates the temperature to the south, providing a type C climate around its shores. Type C climates meet up with type E climates at or near the Arctic Circle in Norway and in Iceland.

Four Main European Landforms

Europe has four main landforms, many islands and peninsulas, and various climate types. The four main landforms include the Alpine region, Central Uplands, Northern Lowlands, and Western Highlands. Each represents a different physical part of Europe. The wide-ranging physical environment has provided Europe with an abundance of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to diversity of the number of species in an ecosystem and the quantity of members in each species. The physical environment also provides natural resources and raw materials for human activities. Europe's moderate climates and favorable relative location are supported by its access to the many rivers and seas. These advantageous developmental factors supported the development of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, which gave rise to highly technical and urban societies. Europe has emerged as one of the core economic centers of the global economy. Associated with the urbanization of Europe are high human population densities that have placed a strain on the natural environment. As result, there has been significant deforestation and the loss of natural habitat, which has in turn has decreased the realm's level of biodiversity.

Rivers are abundant in Europe and have provided adequate transportation for travel and trade throughout its history. Most of Europe is accessible by water transport either via the many rivers or along the extensive coastlines of the peninsulas and islands. Two main rivers divide Europe: the Danube and the Rhine. Both have their origins in the region of southern Germany on or near the border with Switzerland. The Rhine River flows north and empties into the North Sea in Rotterdam, Holland, one of the world's busiest ports. The Danube flows east through various major European cities, such as Vienna, Budapest, and Belgrade before emptying into the Black Sea.

Alpine Region

The High Alps, which range from eastern France to Slovenia, are central to the Alpine region. Included in the Alpine Range are the Pyrenees, located on the border between France and Spain; the Apennines, running the length of Italy; the Carpathians, looping around Romania from Slovakia; and finally, the shorter Dinaric Alps in former Yugoslavia. Mountains usually provide minerals and ores that were placed there when the earth's internal processes created the mountains. Mountains also isolate people by acting as a dividing range that can separate people into cultural groups.

The Alpine region encircles the Mediterranean coastlines, which have more temperate type C climates that are particularly warm with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. This climate type allows for the cultivation of food products such as olives, citrus fruit, figs, apricots, and grapes. Evergreen scrub oaks and other drought-resistant shrubs are common in the Mediterranean region.

The Central Uplands

The region bordering the main Alps to the north, which includes a large portion of southern Germany extending eastward, is known as the Central Uplands. These foothills to the Alps are excellent sources of raw materials such as forest products and coal, which are valuable resources for industrial activities. The Central Uplands are also good locations for dairy farming and cattle raising. This middle portion of the continent has a mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, and the vegetation includes oak, elm, and maple trees intermingled with pine and fir trees. There are four distinct seasons in this region with moderate amounts of precipitation year round.

Northern Lowlands

Similar to the breadbasket of the midwestern United States, Europe's Northern Lowlands possess excellent farmland. Major agricultural operations here provide for a large European population. The land is flat to rolling with relatively good soils. The Northern Lowlands are a great plain that extends across northern Europe from southern France, north through Germany, and then all the way to the Ural Mountains of Russia. This area is typified by prairies and areas of tall grasses and is mostly used as farmland. The lowlands area also contains bogs, heaths, and lakes. The eastern part of this great plain around Ukraine is characterized by a steppe biome. It is a flat and relatively dry region with short grasses and is generally an agricultural region. This eastern area has great swings in temperature, both from day to night and from summer to winter. Winter temperatures in the eastern steppe can drop to below −40 °F, with summer temperatures reaching as high as 105 °F. This is similar to the steppes of eastern Montana or western North Dakota in the United States.

Western Highlands

On the western edges of the European continent arise short rugged mountains called highlands that extend throughout Norway, parts of Britain, and portions of the Iberian Peninsula of Portugal and Spain. These Western Highlands hold sparser populations and are less attractive to large farming operations. Agriculture is usually limited to grazing livestock or farming in the valleys and meadows. The Scottish Highlands are noted for their wool products and Highland cattle. In England, the central chain of highlands called the Pennines proved valuable during the Industrial Revolution because they enabled hydropower and, later, coal mining. Coal mining was prominent in the highland regions of Wales. In the far northern regions of Scandinavia , tundra environments prevail. In this coldest and driest biome, permafrost dominates the landscape, and the land becomes soggy for brief periods during the few weeks of summer. The flora consists primarily of lichens, mosses, low shrubs, and wildflowers.

Natural Resources in Europe

The physical landforms of Europe provide a diversity of geographic opportunities that have catapulted Europe through the Industrial Revolution and into the information age. With an abundance of natural resources, European countries have gained wealth from the land and leveraged their geographic location to develop a powerhouse of economic activity for the global marketplace. Europe has placed a strong focus on manufacturing activity to take advantage of its natural resources. The highly urbanized society has struggled to find a balance between modernization and environmental concerns. Industrial activities have contributed to the degradation of the environment and the demise of a number of species.

Different regions of Europe are blessed with fresh water supplies, good soils, and various minerals. Chief among the mineral deposits in Europe is iron ore, which can be found in Sweden, France, and Ukraine. Other minerals exist in smaller quantities, including copper, lead, bauxite, manganese, nickel, gold, silver, potash, clay, gypsum, dolomite, and salt. Extraction activities have supported the continent's industrialization.

The ready access to vast areas of the Atlantic Ocean and a number of major seas, lakes, and rivers has elevated fish to an important natural resource in Europe. The seas around Europe provide about 10 percent of the world's fish catches. Mirroring the situation around the world, European fishing activity increased as population increased. Europeans are becoming increasingly aware of the effects of overfishing. Stocks of Atlantic cod and Atlantic mackerel are considered to be at risk because of the twin threats of overfishing and changes in the environment that are affecting natural mortality and slowing spawning. Stocks of eastern North Atlantic bluefin tuna are also attracting attention for the same reason. Other species of fish in the North Atlantic and the Baltic Sea are considered overexploited. Changes to the fishery are a major concern for strictly ecological reasons and also because fish comprise such a significant portion of the European economy.

The countries of Europe, with the formation of the EU, began to work toward shared research and policies with respect to the fishery. The Common Fisheries Policy was drafted and includes strict and extensive rules and guidelines for fishing, particularly of cod. The rules are so strict and thus so controversial that Norway and Iceland decided to opt out of the EU rather than agree to abide by these rules. The effect of these rules is incompletely known, but the cod stocks in the North Sea do not seem to be rebounding as quickly or substantially as expected.

Forest covers more than 40 percent of the continent's land area, with the majority on the Russian side. Forests exist primarily in the less populous Nordic and Baltic countries and in Central Europe. About half the forest land in Europe is privately owned. Interestingly, there are several different forms of private ownership, including large family holdings, holdings by forest industries, and small to very small holdings by thousands of individuals. Most of the forested land is managed, and about 85 percent of the forests produce exploitable resources. The percentage of forested land in Europe is rebounding because of an extensive tree-planting initiative since 2000. Pollution has caused great harm to the forests of Poland, the Czech Republic, and eastern Germany, and acid rain and air pollution have seriously harmed forests such as the Black Forest of southern Germany, which has also experienced heavy logging activity.

Soil resources are of critical importance. Soil is necessary for growing food, supporting livestock, supporting other natural resources such as the forests, and supplying groundwater. Soil resources are only just beginning to receive attention in Europe. Problems to be addressed include loss of topsoil from development and building activities, older-style agricultural practices, mining, contamination from industries and other sources, and acidification as a result of acid rain.

Coal, now substantially depleted, is abundant in several areas of Great Britain, including some offshore areas, as well as in the industrial centers of Germany and in Ukraine. Other coals deposits are found in Belgium, France, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, and Russia. The burning of coal has produced high levels of air pollution. Acid rain has been a major concern in the northern countries, where wind currents carry pollutants north into Scandinavia from the industrial regions of Central Europe. In Scandinavia, acid rain has diminished fish populations in many of the lakes. Forest health is also being challenged, which is diminishing the economic conditions of regions that depend on forests for their economic survival.

Petroleum and natural gas deposits exist underneath the North Sea and were first tapped in the 1970s. Five European countries have rights to these resources, including Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, with Norway holding the bulk of the rights. The governments of these five nations agree that, although tapped only decades ago, half the North Sea oil reserves have been consumed.

Before the extraction of petroleum products from the North Sea, Russia and the former Soviet Union's other republics supplied petroleum to Europe. These areas still have a number of active extraction operations. Hydroelectric power has been important in Europe as well. With both coal and oil resources largely depleted and the desire to avoid the environmental damage caused by dams, the European Energy Commission is devoting substantial energy and resources to encouraging use of renewable resources such as wind and solar energy. In March 2007, European leaders agreed that a binding target of 20 percent of all energy must be from alternative sources by 2020. Also, 10 percent of the transportation fuels used by EU members must be sustainable biofuels.

Key Takeaways

The Gulf Stream provides a moderate type C climate for much of Western Europe. Eastern Europe can experience colder type D climates.

Europe has four main physical landforms that provide a diversity of natural resources. The North European Lowland holds the majority of its agricultural potential.

An increase in population has also increased the demand on the environment. Various environmental concerns are becoming more evident. Acid rain from industrialization has caused extensive damage to forests and fish populations in northern Europe. Atlantic fisheries are also experiencing a decline in production.

Discussion and Study Questions

1. Identify and locate the four main physical landforms of Europe. What are the main features of each?

2. How do these landforms and natural resources provide wealth, opportunities. and advantages to the European community?

3. Why is there a higher concentration of acid rain in northern Europe? How is acid rain affecting the environment?

4. What two rivers act to naturally divide Europe? Which rivers flow through Paris and London?

5. Track the flow of each of the two main rivers and identify the major cities that each flows through.

6. Where are the major mountain ranges of the Alpine region?

7. How does the Alpine region contribute to the economies of the countries of Europe?

8. Why do the countries of Western Europe have more moderate type C climates even though they are in the northern latitudes?

9. How does agricultural production vary with physical landforms or climate changes?

10. How are Europeans addressing the decline in the North Atlantic fishing industry?

Geography Exercise

Identify the following key places on a map:

Alpine region

Alps

Apennines

Black Forest

Black Sea

Carpathians

Central Uplands

Danube River

Dinaric Alps

Iberian Peninsula

Mediterranean Sea

North Sea

Northern Lowlands

Pyrenees

Rhine River

Scottish Highlands

Strait of Gibraltar

Ural Mountains

Western Highlands

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Describe the various climate types and physical landforms of the European continent. Explain how Europe's physical geography has supported its development. List Europe's various natural resources. Summarize the environmental concerns Europe faces. From the Roman Empire to the European Union (EU), Europe's historical pattern of development is a model study in regional geography.

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Europe has a long history of human development and is considered the birthplace of Western Civilization.

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Part of the Plant geography section shows the vegetation of Europe. Besides bog and heath there are seven Central European forest types: Hornbeam forest, Beach forest, Oak forest, Mixed forest, Birch-Pine forest, Riparian forest and Mountain forest. The botanical wealth of the Alps is spread over three areas: northern limestone Alps, central primary rock Alps and southern limestone Alps. The various elevational stages, such as montane, subalpine and alpine, can be recognised. Additional displays show Jura, Central European low mountains and Scandinavia.A large area is dedicated to the Iberian Peninsula. Here two contrasting zoobiotic vegetations are placed side by side: the Tomillares on limestone, with Labiatae, and the Atlantic Heath on acid soil, with Ericaceae and Genisteae. A touch of three forest types can be seen: thermophilous bush with Abies pinsapo and Pinus pinaster, and Oak-Scots Pine forest and Birch-Corsican Pine-forest of acid soil. The mountain flora is represented in displays of the calcareous Pyrenees, the central Spanish primary rock mountains and the southern Spanish Xero-Acanthetum, with corresponding endemics.
The Mediterranean aspect is continued via Southern Europe - with Abies nebrodensis - to the Balkan peninsula. Here the differences between the humid uplands ( Aesculus, Ostrya) and the dry uplands ( Abies cephalonica) can be seen. The alpine areas show various endemics and tertiary relics like Haberlea and Ramonda, and a patch of Xero-Acanthetum with Astracantha. Seasonal highlights are in spring, when many geophytes are in flower, and in summer, when the perennial herbs from the mountains are in colour.
Text: Werner Schwarz
The Little Tour ends here. Back to Main Map of the Garden.

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Part of the Plant geography section shows the vegetation of Europe.Besides bog and heath there are seven Central European forest types: Hornbeam forest, Beach forest, Oak forest, Mixed forest, Birch-Pine forest, Riparian forest and Mountain forest. The botanical wealth of the Alps is spread over three areas: northern limestone Alps, central primary rock Alps and southern limestone Alps.