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Of all the birds in the world, none may be as clever and cruel as brood parasites. These opportunistic animals dump their eggs into another species' nest to avoid wasting time and energy on childcare (some female parasites literally have a larger memory complex in their brain to help them remember and hone in on targets). Their life strategy is built on tricking other birds, so perhaps they've earned the nasty reputation that precedes them-some parasites' very first act upon hatching is to kill their adopted "siblings." This is survival of the fittest at its most ruthless, and with about 100 parasitic bird species out there, it seems to be working.

Many hosts don't take this assault lying down, of course. Over time, they've evolved brilliant defenses against these crazy tactics. And as both sides continue to fight to get the upper hand, bizarre stories and discoveries keep coming out of the woodwork. Take it from Claire Spottiswoode, who's been studying brood parasites for a decade, with both the University of Cambridge in England and the University of Cape Town in South Africa, and has been loving it. "I can't think of a topic that shows evolution more vividly," she says. "You can't not be fascinated." She does her field research in Zambia, home to 31 species of brood parasites.

Spottiswoode says there are three major ways the freeloaders try to outsmart their hosts. "At each of those stages the parasite is trying to deceive the host, and at each stage the host is evolving," she says.

Step One: Invade the Nest

The parasite waits patiently to try to sneak its spawn into another bird's nest. As soon as the owners leave, it darts into their home and lays a single egg. And sometimes, rather than biding its time, it adopts a disguise to scare its victims right out of their nests. A pair of papers from 2008 and 2011 proposed that Old World cuckoos evolved to resemble raptors-with barred underparts and decurved bills-to keep hosts at bay. "Hosts are less likely to approach them closely because they're worried they'll be eaten," Spottiswoode says.

Other parasites use the "wolf in sheep's clothing" method to breach the nest, Spottiswoode says. Her team published a paper last year that showed that female Cuckoo Finches go undercover as harmless Southern Red Bishops to fool their host, the Tawny-flanked Prinia. (They often foil birders, too.) But the prinia is catching on: It now attacks both Cuckoo Finches and Southern Red Bishops to avoid taking any chances.

The prinia isn't the only host species that errs on the side of caution: Many go berserk when they spot a parasitic bird near their nest, Spottiswoode says. "They attack [the invaders]. They land on them. They peck them." Some species even rely on several adults to keep a lookout, making them particularly adept at repelling invaders. Black-collared Barbets in Africa are one example: They've been observed to team up and kill parasitic Lesser Honeyguides by crushing them with their big beaks.

Meanwhile, some hosts defend their nests by rigging them. Weaverbirds, for instance, construct narrow doorways to keep the freeloaders out-or trap them inside. "There are striking examples of entrance tubes catching cuckoos as they try to enter the nest," says David C. Lahti, an assistant professor of biology at Queens College in New York. "And then the weaverbirds tear them apart."

Step Two: Disguise the Eggs

The parasites' eggs have a number of tricks up their shells, too. They often mimic host eggs in color and shape-so the nest owners don't notice the eggs aren't theirs-and also have thicker shells and shorter incubation times, which allow the invading offspring to hatch first. It's a real problem for species that aren't used to brood parasitism, especially in North America, where songbirds have been exposed to Brown-headed Cowbirds due to habitat fragmentation. "Many birds wouldn't even make the distinction between a purple egg and a white egg," Spottiswoode says. The endangered Kirtland's Warbler, for instance, can't tell the difference between warbler and cowbird eggs; they'll raise pretty much anything that's in their nests. Thanks to the parasites' overwhelming success, at one point there were fewer than 200 pairs of Kirtland's Warblers. The species now depends on humans to cull cowbirds to survive.

But not all hosts are so naive. Birds like Pied Wagtails and Red-faced Cisticolas can pick up on the slightest differences by using visual cues. Another recent study by Spottiswoode's team found that in some species, females go so far as to lay eggs with unique spots, squiggles, and colors that serve as a sort of signature. If they spot a forgery, they'll push the egg overboard, not incubate it, or abandon the nest altogether. Scientists have also discovered that Superb Fairy-wrens in Australia essentially teach their embryos a password -one that only fairy-wrens can learn-while they're still in the egg. If the nestlings don't tweet the password as part of their begging calls later, then the fairy-wrens know that they've got the wrong chicks.

Step Three: Murder the 'Siblings'

If the parasite makes it out of its egg (cue the Jaws theme), then it's often time for a real massacre. In the dramatic clip above, a newborn Common Cuckoo wiggles its way around the Reed Warbler's nest, using its shoulders and back to push out all three of the host's eggs. Brood parasites, it seems, are basically born evil-the honeyguide, for example, while still blind and featherless, will stab the host's chicks to death with its hooked beak.

Once the real offspring are out of the picture, the parasites are left alone to be raised by their adoptive parents. This can result in an almost comical mismatch during mealtime: a small and exhausted warbler feeding a mammoth Brown-headed Cowbird chick, trying to satisfy the black hole of its beak. Common Cuckoo chicks can even echo the begging calls of a whole brood of Reed Warblers to get triple the amount of food.

These serial-killer chicks do meet their match in some hosts, however. In 2010, scientists discovered that two gerygone species in Australia have learned to recognize Little Bronze-Cuckoo chicks and fling them out of the nest as soon as they hatch. (As Spottiswoode points out, "we're still left with the mystery of why [this defense is] not more widespread.") Reed Warblers, on the other hand, have been found to use a community-wide alert system where birds use alarm calls to point out cuckoo eggs to their neighbors.

But once again, the parasites have come up with a back-up plan. Bronze-cuckoo species in Australia have young that closely resemble their host nestlings. Even more bizarre are the parasitic indigobirds of Africa: They have freaky markings on the roofs of their mouths that mimic those of their nest mates. These patterns are found in a number of finches, perhaps to serve as guides for when the parents have to feed their chicks in the dark. But in a parasite-infested nest, they doubly serve as signs of ruin.

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The Brilliant Ways Parasitic Birds Terrorize Their Victims

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Of all the birds in the world, none may be as clever and cruel as brood parasites. These opportunistic animals dump their eggs into another species' nest to avoid wasting time and energy on childcare (some female parasites literally have a larger memory complex in their brain to help them remember and hone in on targets).

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Here's a bunch of different examples to research further

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Here's a bunch of different examples to research further

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Sometimes, completely different species or organisms forge close or interdependent relationships, to the advantage of at least one of the parties involved. This interaction is called 'symbiosis'.

It's not easy to come up with a narrow definition of symbiosis. In fact, symbiotic relationships can be divided into several groups:
Clownfish swimming among anemones
All organisms or species involved in the relationship not only benefit from it, but it's also essential or indispensable for their survival.

All parties involved in the relationship benefit from it, as it improves their biological fitness, but it's not strictly necessary for their survival.

Commensalism

Only one party involved in the relationship benefits from it, without harming the other one.

Parasitism

When a species or organism (parasite or host) benefits from the relationship at the expense of the other party (host), usually harming them.

Apart from groups based on behaviour, symbiosis may also have different levels of integration: from the initial level, in which different organisms or species benefit from coexisting, to a higher level, where they end up sharing genetic material. The latter case can explain the appearance of animals and plants on our planet, but that's a whole other debate. In this article, we'll go through some fascinating examples of symbiotic relationships in the animal kingdom.

Ants and aphids

A clear example of mutualism is the relationship established by some types of ants with aphids. The latter secrete a dense liquid that is very rich in carbohydrates called 'honeydew'. Ants feed on it, so they literally herd the aphid colonies to protect them from potential predators. By doing so, they allow aphids to procreate in a safer environment.

Termites, protozoa and bacteria

Termites feed on wood and other organic substances, but their bodies aren't ready to digest them. To do so, they need the help of another species: protozoa. These unicellular organisms live in the stomach of termites and are in charge of digesting wood cellulose, which they feed on. Protozoa also have bacteria that transform the remaining cellulose into nitrogen, which is then absorbed by the termites. Additionally, the termite offspring consume the feces of adult termites to gain the protozoa and bacteria they need. Three parties are involved in this relationship, and none of them would survive without the rest.

Sloths, algae and moths

Sloths are extremely slow animals. They're most vulnerable when they descend to the ground to defecate, only once per week. Why do they put themselves at such high risk? A type of moth that inhabits their fur takes advantage of the descent to the ground to lay its eggs in the sloth's droppings. After they hatch, the new moths fly up to the crowns of the trees and settle in the fur of sloths. They then produce a natural fertilizer that boosts nitrogen levels, allowing algae and fungi to grow on the fur. Sloths have a number of cracks in their fur; water accumulates in them, allowing the algae to grow. Sloths feed on these organisms to supplement their low-energy diet.

Crocodiles and Egyptian plovers

Another clear example of mutualism is the relationship between these two species. Crocodiles have the strongest and fastest bite in the animal kingdom. To keep their most precious asset in top condition, they're constantly replacing the 80 teeth in their snout (they do this 2 or 3 times per year). The food debris that accumulates between their teeth can cause infections and severe health issues, so they allow plovers to feed on this lodged food.

Sharks and remoras (sucker fish)

The relationship between sharks and remoras is a clear example of commensalism. Instead of having a dorsal fin, remoras have developed a powerful sucker that adheres to the body of sharks, from which they obtain food and protection. This allows sharks to get rid of certain parasites that live on their skin, but they get a lot less out of this relationship than remoras do.

Spiny-tailed lizards and the fat-tailed scorpion

Desert lizards are extremely territorial when it comes to their dens. These are cool, shady places that are often raided by foxes and other predators. Fat-tailed scorpions like to be in the shade and offer the lizards protection from predators in exchange for living with them in their dens. This is another clear example of mutualism, from which both species have obtained an advantage that's key for their survival.

Goby fish and blind shrimp

Goby fish have excellent vision, while blind shrimp, as their name implies, can barely see. Shrimp keep their dens clean and in perfect condition, and they share them with goby fish for protection. In exchange, the goby fish will stay by the shrimp at all time, and will give a slight tail flick as a sign for them to hide when it sees a potential threat.

Narrow-mouthed toads and tarantulas

Tarantulas usually hunt small toads, but they make an exception for narrow-mouthed toads. These small amphibians keep tarantula eggs pest and insect-free, in exchange for their protection and for shelter. Scops owls usually hunt narrow-mouthed toads, but they'll think twice if there's a tarantula guarding their prey.

Tarantula and narrow-mouthed toad. BBC Earth.

Snails and green-banded broodsacs

That of green-banded broodsacs is one of the most shocking examples of parasitism in the animal kingdom. This parasite invades the body of the snail and grows until it adopts a tubular or worm-like shape inside the animal's antennae. The thick antennae develop an eye-catching colour and make a pulsating movement to attract birds. The parasite also invades the snail's brain, forcing it to wander around the leaves like a zombie in plain sight, without the ability to hide. When a bird eats one of these antennae, the parasite lays its eggs in the bird's digestive system. The eggs will then infect other snails, as they feed, amongst other things, on bird feces. If a snail is lucky enough to survive, it'll grow a new infected antenna.

Caterpillars and Glyptapanteles wasps

The relationship between parasitic species can be extremely cruel, as the case of the Glyptapanteles wasp shows. This wasp introduces its eggs in the body of a butterfly caterpillar. When they hatch, the larvae feed on the caterpillar's fluids - without killing it - until they reach a considerable size. Then, they exit its body by making a hole through its skin. Once outside, they form a cocoon to undergo metamorphosis. But the nightmare doesn't end there. The wasp previously introduced part of its DNA in the caterpillar, forcing it to follow its commands. The caterpillar will remain by the larvae until they complete their metamorphosis, even using its silk to protect them. Once the process is complete, the caterpillar dies of dehydration and starvation.

There are many other examples of symbiosis in the animal kingdom, such as clown fish and anemones, buffaloes and oxpeckers, moray eels and shrimp, hippos and black sharkminnows, scops owls and blind snakes, flukes and certain types of fish, etc. These are some of the best-known examples and they help us to understand how species can adapt in order to survive, even if that means turning to beings that are completely different to them.

I'm a photographer, designer and future zoologist. I write about wildlife and do the artwork for Zoo Portraits and other creative projects.

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Symbiosis in the animal kingdom. Mutualism, commensalism & parasitism

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Sometimes, completely different species or organisms forge close or interdependent relationships, to the advantage of at least one of the parties involved. This interaction is called 'symbiosis'. It's not easy to come up with a narrow definition of symbiosis.

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Mutualism is a relationship between two organisms in which both benefit. It is a type of symbiosis which improves the biological fitness of both parties. The two organisms usually come from widely different types, often from different phyla or even kingdoms. The term is not used for any cooperation between animals of the same species.

Edouard van Beneden (1809-1894) introduced the term into evolutionary biology and ecology in the 1870s.

Examples:

Mycorrhiza: relationship between roots of plants and fungi.

Rhizobia: relationship between roots of plants and bacteria which promotes nitrogen fixation.

Many relationships between insects and flowering plants, where the insect gets food, and the plant gets transfer of pollen.

Gut flora: many relationships between gut bacteria and herbivores. The bacteria digest cellulose, and get a regular supply of nutrients. Almost no animal can digest cellulose by itself.

Lichen: an extremely close relationship between algae and fungi. Probably a mutualistic relationship, but less clearly.

Figs: each fig tree species is pollinated by its own wasp species.

Cleaner fish: small fish which pick parasites and dead matter from the mouth and body of much larger fish. The larger fish responds to the 'dance' of the cleaner by going passive.

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Mutualism is a relationship between two organisms in which both benefit. It is a type of symbiosis which improves the biological fitness of both parties. The two organisms usually come from widely different types, often from different phyla or even kingdoms. The term is not used for any cooperation between animals of the same species.

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Parasitism is a form of one-sided symbiosis. The parasites live off the host. They may, or may not, harm the host. Parasitoids, on the other hand, usually kill their hosts. A parasitic relationship is the opposite of a mutualistic relationship. Examples of parasites in humans include tapeworms and leeches. World-wide, the most serious cause of human death by a parasite is malaria.

A definition:

A parasite is an organism drawing nutrients from a living host. It lives in or on another organism, getting from it part or all of its food. It usually shows some degree of adaptive modification, and causes some degree of damage to its host.

Parasites on humans

"Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived from our primate ancestors and some acquired from the animals we have domesticated or come in contact with during our relatively short history on Earth. Our knowledge of parasitic infections extends into antiquity".

Biological context

When the above definition is applied, many organisms which eat plants can be seen as parasites, because they feed largely or wholly on one individual plant. Examples would include many herbivorous insects: the Hemiptera or true bugs (leafhoppers, froghoppers, aphids, scale insects and whiteflies). The larvae of Lepidoptera usually feed and mature on a single individual of the host plant species, and what they eat accounts for most of the food for their complete life span. Moreover, caterpillars can and often do serious damage to the host's foliage. Other orders also have many parasitic herbivores: Thysanoptera (thrips), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies).

Parasites of larger animals account for much research done for veterinarian and medical purposes. These parasites include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, flatworms ( flukes and tapeworms), nematodes (roundworms), arthropods ( crustacea, insects, mites). Parasitic wasps and flies are of great interest to the entomologist, and may be used in biological control.

On the other hand, many blood-sucking insects (such as mosquitoes) have only brief contact with a host, and so perhaps should not be regarded as parasites. p5

A huge number of species are parasitic. A survey of the feeding habits of British insects showed that about 35% were parasites on plants, and slightly more were parasites on animals. That means that nearly 71% of insects in Britain are parasitic. Since British insects are better known than those elsewhere (because of the length of time they have been studied), this means that the majority of insect species throughout the world are parasitic. Also, there are several other invertebrate phyla which are wholly or largely parasitic. Flatworms and roundworms are found in virtually every wild species of vertebrate. Protozoan parasites are also ubiquitous. Hence parasitism is almost certainly the most common feeding method on Earth.

"It is clear that parasitism as a way of life is more common than all other feeding strategies combined". p8

Terminology of parasitism

Ectoparasites live on the outside of a plant or animal.

Endoparasites live inside a plant or animal. Intracellular parasites live inside cells; Intercellular parasites live in the spaces between cells.

Parasitoids are organisms whose larval development takes place within another organism's body, resulting in the death of the host. There are twelve Superfamilies of wasps which are entirely or mainly parasitoid, such as the ichneumonoid wasps, whose species number over 80,000. The interaction between the parasitoid and the host is fundamentally different from true parasites and their host, and shares some characteristics with predation.

A is a third party that carries the parasite to the host. Thus, with malaria, the mosquito is the vector, the Plasmodium protozoan is the parasite, and the mammal is the host. The mosquito is an ectoparasite as well as a vector.

An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite.

Kleptoparasites steal food from other species.

Brood parasites (such as the Cuckoo) induce other species to raise their young. The Cowbird is another brood parasite.

Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants or termites.

Dispersal and reproduction

Parasites are adapted to small, separated habitats. For a parasite, each host is an island surrounded by a hostile environment. For a small organism, the distances between hosts, or groups of hosts, is a hazard. Adaptations to bridge this hazard are:

So parasites exist in small, genetically similar groups with little flow of genes between them. In consequence, they have adaptations to solve their problems of dispersal and reproduction.

Parasites are highly specialised

Parasites face an environment which varies in time and space. Consequently, both local (geographic) races and polymorphism occur. Both may occur in the same species. Parasites are very specialised feeders: many species have only one host at any stage of their life cycle. A few use more than two host species.

Complex life cycles

Many parasites have complex life-cycles. Tremadodes, the flukes, are a parasitic class of flatworms (Platyhelminths), with over 20,000 species. Most of them infect molluscs in the first part of the life-cycle, and vertebrates in the second part. The biology of scrub typhus is even more complex. It involves these factors:

1. The pathogen bacterium Rickettsia.

2. Chiggers, which are ectoparasitic mites.

3. Small mammals, especially rats.

4. Scrubby vegetation with moist conditions

5. Humans passing through patches where the above are present.

The occurrence of all these factors together would be limited in space, and brief in time. This is typical of the ecology of parasitic infections.

Rapid speciation

Both evolutionary rates and speciation rates can be high. Sibling species are very common in the bug Erythroneura, in which about 150 transfers from one host to another has resulted in about 500 species in the genus.

The clearest evidence comes from the large size of many parasitic families.

"Even though some parasitic taxa evolved much later than predatory taxa, families of parasites on plants are on average almost eight times larger than those of predators, and families of parasites on animals are over ten times larger". p26

Sometimes there is good evidence of the speed of speciation. For example, five or more species of the moth Hedylepta must have evolved within 1000 years in Hawaii, because they are specific to banana, which was only introduced then.

Adaptive radiation

Adaptive radiation in parasites is extensive. Its development in each taxon (group) depends on:

The diversity of the hosts. How many species there are in the group being parastised, and how different they are from each other.

The size of the host target: body size, population, geographical distribution.

The evolutionary time available for colonisation of hosts.

The selective pressure for evolutionary modification.

Diversity of hosts is a big factor. If many related species of host are available, then many related species of parasite will evolve. Mites on Lepidoptera families or fleas on mammals and birds are good examples. Eichler's rule goes as follows:

"When a large group of hosts consisting of a wide variety of species is compared with an equivalent group consisting of few representatives, the larger group has the greater diversity of parasitic fauna".

The two British oaks support some 439 species of parasite directly, and indirectly many hundred more which parasitise these parasites. "It would certainly be an underestimate to say that the two British species of oak are the primary products for a thousand species of parasite". p28 Obviously, the large size of these trees is a factor in the number of parasite species. In general, this holds whether the host is a plant or an animal. A larger bird will harbour more species of ectoparasite than a small bird.

More time, more species

One of the reasons large trees have so many parasites is that they may have lived a long time in a particular area compared with other types of plant. They have had longer to accumulate parasites.

Parasites can be most useful in sorting out the phylogenetic relationships of their hosts. Sibling host species have been discovered when their parasites diverged. Common ancestors of present-day parasites were themselves parasites of the common ancestors of present-day hosts.

Selection for co-evolution

As the host evolves defences, so the parasite evolves to cope with this. This is co-evolution.

Consider two families of host plants, the Umbellifers ( fennel, cumin, parsley, hemlock) and the Gramineae ( grasses). The umbellifers have many aromatic species, and are chemically diverse and pharmaceutically interesting. Their resins and oils are defences against herbivory and parasitism. On the other hand, grasses have one big defence to herbivores: their stony inclusions in their cells wear down the teeth of herbivorous mammals, but they have few chemical defences. Both families are attacked by leaf-miner flies. There are four times as many grass species as there are umbellifers, but there are twice as many leaf-miner species on the umbellifers.

"This is apparently because the chemical diversity of potential hosts within the Umbelliferae has forced specialisation of the parasites. Eighty-two percent of the species of leaf-miner attack only one genus each".

Sympatric speciation

This is speciation which does not require geographical isolation. Ernst Mayr, the chief exponent of geographical speciation, admitted that host races of phytophagous animals "constitute the only known case indicating the possible occurrence of incipient sympatric speciation".

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Parasitism is a form of one-sided symbiosis. The parasites live off the host. They may, or may not, harm the host. Parasitoids, on the other hand, usually kill their hosts. A parasitic relationship is the opposite of a mutualistic relationship. Examples of parasites in humans include tapeworms and leeches.

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Commensalism is a type of relationship between two organisms. In commensalism, one organism is helped while the other is not affected. In practice, it is difficult to show that the passive organism is not harmed. For example, some birds live in holes in trees. Does this damage the tree? Mites, which cannot fly, often hitch a ride on insects. Does this affect the insect's fitness? There is no definite answer to such questions.

Orchids, mosses, and lichens all grow on tropical trees. They need sunlight, and by being higher up they get to the sunlight. All that can be said for sure is that the trees continue to live and reproduce, and so it is assumed that these epiphytes do not affect their host plant.

Pierre-Joseph van Beneden (1809-1894) introduced the term into evolutionary biology and ecology in the 1870s.

Amensalism

Amensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism is harmed or inhibited and the other is unaffected. Examples of amensalism include the shading out of one plant by a taller and wider one and the inhibition of one plant by the secretions of another (known as allelopathy).

Related pages

Images for kids

Remora are specially adapted to attach themselves to larger fish that provide locomotion and food.

Inquilinism: Tillandsia bourgaei growing on an oak tree in Mexico

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Commensalism is a type of relationship between two organisms. In commensalism, one organism is helped while the other is not affected. In practice, it is difficult to show that the passive organism is not harmed. For example, some birds live in holes in trees. Does this damage the tree?

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Symbiosis with video links :: Symbiotic Relationships

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In a symbiotic relationship, one member always benefits from the relationship. The other member may also benefit, or it may be harmed or unaffected by the relationship.

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What do you think this courageous bird is doing in the crocodile's mouth? Why isn't the crocodile doing anything to her?
This tiny bird is called the Egyptian Plover bird.

She gets into the crocodile's mouth and picks out the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth.

What does she do with them? She eats them and often this completes her diet.

This cleans the crocodile's teeth and keeps his mouth fresh and free from infections.

This cleans the crocodile's teeth and keeps his mouth fresh and free from infections.
So, the Plover bird gets her food and the crocodile gets his mouth cleaned. In this way, both are able to help each other! Let us get to know a little bit more about these creatures :
A crocodile is a carnivore which means it eats all kinds of animals that live in the water and even cattle. They have strong jaws. They do not chew their food, just swallow the entire prey into their stomach where it is broken down.It is while swallowing that the bits of flesh get stuck in their teeth.
You will find them swimming just like this beneath the surface of water with their eyes and nostrils just above.
Often you will find them lazing around in the sun with their mouth wide open. They have powerful jaw muscles and can keep their mouth open for a long time.

Let us look at the Plover Bird closely .

She lives in pairs or in small groups near water bodies, just like our crocodile does.

She flies in groups. When a pair lands after the flight, they greet each other by raising their wings in a way that shows the black and white marks on them. They greet each other regularly!

They recognize the crocodile's need when it is lying with his mouth open and bits of food stuck in between. They get into its mouth boldly, eat the food and fly away.
Even when a Plover Bird is not around, his teeth still need to be cleaned!

And a crocodile needs all this cleaning in spite of the following fact :
A crocodile can grow new teeth through out his life. Each time an old tooth falls out a new one will grow up to replace it! The Egyptian Plover Bird, as the name suggests is found in Egypt in Africa. Crocodiles on the river Nile are the ones that benefit from their service. Nile crocodiles are the second largest in the world and are so ferocious that they can walk to areas much far from their water home to catch cattle prey. Can crocodiles communicate, like us?
If you have gone through the article on Bats on this website, you may have read about the way we produce sound through vocal chords. But crocodiles do not have a vocal chord!

They have a voice box at the back of their throat through which they force air from their lungs to the nostrils.

A young crocodile calls to the adult when he is in danger and also makes a lot of noise while being fed. Big crocodiles growl and hiss at each other. They also pose and move their bodies in different ways to communicate different things to a fellow crocodile.

Let us now take a dip in the deep sea where you will find living beings helping each other in even more unique ways.
*The header image of this page is for representative purpose.
Click : The Cleaner Shrimp

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Crocodile and the Plover Bird What do you think this courageous bird is doing in the crocodile's mouth? Why isn't the crocodile doing anything to her? This tiny bird is called the Egyptian Plover bird. She gets into the crocodile's mouth and picks out the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth...

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Look at these two photos of the same organism.

Now observe what is it doing near the fish 's mouth.

It is doing exactly what the Plover bird did for the Nile Crocodile : cleaning the teeth.

But it does so in a different way. Let us see how.

First, the organism is called " The Cleaner Shrimp". It is called a decapod as it has has ten feet.

It stays near Coral Reefs in seas. In the photographs above, you can see them looking like stones in the background.
We will learn about corals later. They are tiny organisms that live in the sea in colonies. These colonies are called Coral Reefs. They are called "Rainforests of the Sea"
So, our cleaner shrimps live near the coral reefs .

They form pairs or larger groups and set up a " cleaning station ".
This is how shrimps get together to form a Cleaning Station.
Their bright colour tells the fish that they are not ordinary shrimps, who can be eaten. When found together in groups, fish immediately know that they have set up a station. Some kinds of cleaner shrimps even perform dances to advertise about and invite fish into their new cleaning station.

A big fish swims slowly into the cleaning station, very calmly so that the cleaning shrimps know that they are not going to be eaten. They even pose in a certain way to show the shrimps that they are safe. They may point in a certain direction or even open the mouth wide.

If the fish is small, a single shrimp is able to clean it .

A single shrimp cleaning a small cardinal fish in various ways.

A larger fish called Moray Eel needs an entire group.

Moray Eel is a fierce predator in the sea. Yet, it is very harmless before the shrimps and lets them do their cleaning.

Cleaner Shrimps look for dead scales, parasites, bits of food in the fish's mouth. They pluck these things with the help of their small pinchers and eat them. Then they enter the fish's body through their mouth, clean their throat and then exit through the gills. They crawl over the entire body of the fish and clean it.

The fish feels fresh and clean ; safe from infections which those parasites may have caused and the group of cleaner shrimps get their food together.

This is how both fish and cleaner shrimps are able to help each other.

Cleaner shrimps are not the only living beings who clean the fish in the seas. There are other small cleaner fish who also do the same thing. One among them is the Cleaner Wrasse.

Click : The Cleaner Wrasse

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The Cleaner Shrimp Look at these two photos of the same organism. Now observe what is it doing near the fish 's mouth. It is doing exactly what the Plover bird did for the Nile Crocodile : cleaning the teeth. But it does so in a different way. Let us see how.

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This is the Cleaner Wrasse.

It also sets up cleaning stations like the shrimp. Many big fish line up at these to get themselves cleaned. At a cleaning station, different kinds of fish gather quietly, spreading their fins and opening their mouths to get cleaned. At any other place many among them would attack each other.

Another type of Cleaner Wrasse called Blue - Streaked Cleaner Wrasse is found in the Indian Ocean.

Look at the fish shown below? Doesn't this look exactly the same as the Blue Streaked Cleaner Wrasse we saw just before?

It is a different fish which looks just the same! It is called the Sabre-toothed blenny.
Big fishes confuse it with the Bluestreaked Cleaner Wrasse. It comes near them and pretends to clean them. The moment the big fish gets ready for it, instead of cleaning their scales, they bite at it and run away!
It knows that it looks just like the Cleaner Wrasses and also behaves the way they do, to trick the fish. This is called mimicry, which means acting or looking like any other living being.

One last fish, which we will get to know is the Neon Goby, which also cleans big fishes in a similar manner.

Many Goby Fishes live together with a kind of shrimp called Pistol Shrimp and they help each other in a very unique way.

The next section tells us how.

Click : Pistol Shrimp and the Goby Fish

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The Cleaner Wrasse This is the Cleaner Wrasse. It also sets up cleaning stations like the shrimp. Many big fish line up at these to get themselves cleaned. At a cleaning station, different kinds of fish gather quietly, spreading their fins and opening their mouths to get cleaned. At any other...

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While we are talking about the animals of the sea and how they help each other, let us get to know about a famous partnership.

This is a Goby Fish. What do you think it is doing at the opening of the hole?

The photographs above show you that it is something the Goby Fish does all the time.

What is it doing at the gate of the hole?

It is guarding the burrow / hole of his friend Pistol Shrimp, who is digging within the burrow

and finding his food there!

Pistol Shrimps are almost blind . While digging, he often needs to come out and pile the sand outside. What if there is a prey outside, waiting for him to come out?

That is where he gets help from the little Goby. Let us see in the next photograph how .

You can see the brown Pistol Shrimp at work with its claws. See how he is holding on to the Yellow Goby who is guarding him while he works.

Another photograph below shows the same thing.
Pistol Fish has attached his antennae to the Goby. How does this help the blind Pistol Shrimp ?
The shrimp keeps contact with the Goby's tail or its fin all the time with the help of his antennae. If a big predator fish comes near, the Goby moves its tail a few times. Through the antennae the Pistol Shrimp is also jerked. He gets alert and immediately goes deep inside the burrow. If the predator fish comes very very close, the Goby rapidly turns back and dashes into the hole!
The Pistol Fish uses the Goby as an eye!
The small Goby eats fish even tinier than itself outside of the hole and keeps in touch with other Goby fish outside, who may be guarding the burrow of their own friend.

During the night, the Goby also comes into the burrow. Pistol Shrimp closes the entrance with sand and both friends spend the night together. Next morning, the Shrimp builds the gate of the burrow again and then only starts looking for his food inside the burrow.
The Goby fish is the watchman and the Pistol Shrimp is the house keeper of this unique family! The female Goby even hides her eggs in the Pistol Shrimp's burrow. Pistol Shrimp even cleans the Goby's fins of worms and parasites with the help of his claws!
The picture below shows them once more in their unique friendship.

Talking of Pistol Shrimps,

Why is a Pistol Shrimp called so? From where does it get the word " Pistol " in his name?

Let us find out.

Click : From Where does the Pistol Shrimp get its name ?

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Pistol Shrimp and the Goby Fish While we are talking about the animals of the sea and how they help each other, let us get to know about a famous partnership. This is a Goby Fish. What do you think it is doing at the opening of the hole?

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parasitism, relationship between two species of plants or animals in which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without killing the host organism.

Parasites may be characterized as ectoparasites-including ticks, fleas, leeches, and lice-which live on the body surface of the host and do not themselves commonly cause disease in the host; or endoparasites, which may be either intercellular (inhabiting spaces in the host's body) or intracellular (inhabiting cells in the host's body). Intracellular parasites-such as bacteria or viruses-often rely on a third organism, known as the carrier, or vector, to transmit them to the host. Malaria, which is caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium transmitted to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito, is an example of this interaction. The plant ailment known as Dutch elm disease (caused by the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi) can be spread by the European elm bark beetle.

A different form of parasitism called brood parasitism is practiced by most species of cuckoos and all cowbirds. Those birds do not build nests of their own but deposit their eggs in the nests of other species and abandon them there, with the hope that adult birds of other species will raise the abandoned young as their own. The cowbird's parasitism does not necessarily harm the host or the host's brood; however, the cuckoo may remove one or more host eggs to reduce the suspicion surrounding the presence of its egg, and the young cuckoo may heave the host's eggs and nestlings from the nest.

Another form of parasitism, such as that practiced by some ants on ants of other species, is known as social parasitism. (Social parasitism is a condition where a parasitizing ant species depends upon the labour provided by a host ant species within the context of a mixed-species colony.) Parasites may also become parasitized; such a relationship, known as hyperparasitism, may be exemplified by a protozoan (the hyperparasite) living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog.

Sexual parasitism, which is actually a type of specialized reproduction, is most commonly associated with deep-sea anglerfish, where it occurs in more than 20 species. In these fish, males are much smaller than females. (In the case of the northern seadevil, or deep-sea angler, Ceratias holboelli, females may be more than 60 times the size of males.) Females possess a luring apparatus to entice prey, but males do not. However, males possess the visual and olfactory acuity to locate females so that they might obtain food. Males attach themselves to females with their jaws, and in some cases the tissues and circulatory systems between the sexes are joined. Thereafter, the male serves as a sperm-producing organ on the female, since transformation makes him completely dependent upon her.

Other forms of sexual parasitism also exist, including those in which the genetic material from one parent is discarded by the other parent despite the effort made by the other parent to produce and deliver it. For example, young resulting from the pairing of sailfin mollies ( Poecilia latipinna) and Atlantic mollies ( P. mexicana) are females that can produce only clones of themselves. They need sperm from males of either of the two species to start the process; however, since all offspring are clones of their mother, no male DNA is passed on.

Parasitism differs from parasitoidism, a relationship in which the parasite always kills the host. Female insect parasitoids lay their eggs in or on the host, upon which the larvae feed on hatching. Most parasitoids are wasps; however, some other members of order Hymenoptera (which includes ants and bees) have also evolved to become parasitoids. A few members from other insect groups have adopted this strategy, including some flies, some species of butterflies and moths, several beetles, and one caddisfly species.

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Parasitism, relationship between two species of plants or animals in which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without killing the host organism. Parasites may be characterized as ectoparasites, which live on the body surface of the host, or endoparasites, which live within a host's body.

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How Mosquitoes Use Six Needles to Suck Your Blood  _  Deep Look

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Symbiotic relationships are an important component of life in the ocean. In such relationships, plants or animals of different species may be dependent on one another for survival. They may share habitats or lifestyles or interact in a specific way to benefit from the presence of another organism.

We often refer to animals living in tandem as 'associates.'' The relationship between associates and their hosts can be described as mutualistic, commensal, or parasitic. In a mutualistic relationship, both animals benefit from living together. Commensal organisms cause no harm to their hosts, but receive some benefit from living with them. Parasites actually feed off their host organism, thus causing harm to the host.

Although there are many ways organisms interact with one another, most symbioses involve clever ways to obtain food or protection. For example, ophiuroids (brittle stars) are often found living within the branches of corals, using their hosts to get further up off the seafloor into the water column to feed or for protection. At hydrothermal vents, chemosynthetic bacteria live inside of animals in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship where the animals support the existence of the bacteria and the bacteria provide food to the animals in an environment where light does not penetrate. And different types of marine parasites, including worms, isopods, and copepods, infect a variety of host species, including crabs and fishes.

Deep-sea symbioses are poorly understood and less well documented relative to symbiotic relationships frequently encountered in shallower habitats.

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Symbiotic relationships are an important component of life in the ocean. In such relationships, plants or animals of different species may be dependent on one another for survival. They may share habitats or lifestyles or interact in a specific way to benefit from the presence of another organism.

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Symbiosis (pl. symbioses) means living together. It describes close and long-term relationships between different species. The term was used by Albert Bernhard Frank to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. and by Anton de Bary in 1879, as "the living together of unlike organisms".

A symbiont is an organism living in a relationship with another species in which one or both get benefits. When one species lives inside another species, or a microscopic symbiont lives inside the cells of a host, it is called an endosymbiont.

The relevance of symbiosis is its frequency and its evolutionary significance. There appear to be no higher plants or animals without symbionts. Those symbionts are of great importance to the larger organisms, who in most cases would be unable to live as they do without their symbionts. Mycorrhiza in higher plants, and gut flora in insects and vertebrates are examples. Humans are no exception.

Furthermore, most of these associations are between organisms not just from different species, but from different kingdoms. And lastly, the cells of all eukaryotes contain organelles which are descendants of symbiotic relationships which began at least a billion years ago. Mitochondria and plastids are examples. The conclusion must be that symbiosis has been highly significant in the evolution of life.

Definition

The definition of symbiosis has been controversial. Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to all kinds of lon-term biological interactions.

After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions). The restrictive definition (where symbiosis means mutualism only) is no longer used.

The widest definition includes parasitism (in which one organism is helped and the other organism is hurt), mutualism (in which both organisms are helped), commensalism (in which one organism is helped and the other is not affected), and competition (in which both organisms are hurt).

Types of symbiosis

The various forms of symbiosis include:

Type 1: Partners keep their bodies separate

Symbiosis does not always benefit both partners. This is what may happen:

parasitism, in which the association has disadvantages for one of the two. One may even destroy or kill the other. (+ -)

mutualism, in which the association has advantages for both (+ +)

commensalism, in which one member of the association benefits while the other is not affected (+ 0)

competition, in which both members of the association are fighting over food or other needs. (- -)

Type 2: Partners live as one organism

This kind of symbiosis is called endosymbiosis. Examples are:

Almost for certain, this happened to form the eukaryote cell. That's the type of cell all animals and plants are made of. The organelles inside the cell, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, contain some DNA. This DNA is the remnant of a once separate bacterium. The theory is that the eukaryote cell evolved by the fusion of several bacteria or archaea organisms.

Examples of symbiosis

An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between clownfish that live among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The clownfish protects the anemone from other fish. Clownfish waste excreted provides vital nutrients, and they can boost their hosts' oxygen supplies at night too. The stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the anemone fish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.

Another example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby live. The shrimp is almost blind, and is vulnerable to predators when above ground. When a predator approaches, the goby touches the shrimp with its tail as a signal. When that happens both the shrimp and goby quickly retreat into the burrow.

A lichen is an intimate combination of a fungus with an alga. The alga lives inside the fungus, which must have the alga to survive. The alga, on the other hand, can survive on its own. The result of the union is a flat, coloured lichen which grows on rocks and other surfaces in the open air.

Herbivores are host to gut bacteria which help them digest plant material. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose, and almost no animal has developed an enzyme to digest this material. Therefore, at least for herbivores which eat leaves, the bacteria are essential.

Some species of ants 'farm' aphids, protecting them from predators, and moving them from one feeding site to another. The ants consume the sweet sticky fluid which aphids secrete after sucking plant sap.

Images for kids

In a symbiotic mutualistic relationship, the clownfish feeds on small invertebrates that otherwise have potential to harm the sea anemone, and the fecal matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. The clownfish is additionally protected from predators by the anemone's stinging cells, to which the clownfish is immune. The clownfish also emits a high pitched sound that deters butterfly fish, which would otherwise eat the anemone.

Bryoliths document a mutualistic symbiosis between a hermit crab and encrusting bryozoans; Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania

Flea bites on a human is an example of parasitism.

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Symbiosis (pl. symbioses) means living together. It describes close and long-term relationships between different species. The term was used by Albert Bernhard Frank to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. and by Anton de Bary in 1879, as "the living together of unlike organisms".

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The brown-throated three-toed sloth is a truly unique animal that inhabits the rainforest canopies of Central and South America. The term sloth is synonymous with the word slow, and sloths certainly live up to that definition.

Sloths evolved to expend very little energy because their diet does not provide them with a lot of calories and nutrition. Brown-throated sloths primarily eat tough, rubbery rainforest leaves. These leaves are also full of toxins (a form of protection for the rainforest trees). But sloths have developed a digestive system to handle these highly indigestible leaves. Their stomachs are multi-chambered, similar to a cow's stomach, and house a mix of bacteria which helps to slowly break down the leaves. It takes two weeks for a sloth to digest one meal - the slowest digestion time of any mammal!

Sloths are specially adapted to live among the treetops. Their fur hangs upside down, running from their stomachs to their backs. This is because sloths themselves usually hang upside down. The orientation of their fur helps the rain water flow away from their body.

In addition, sloths have large curved claws to help them effortlessly grasp branches and vines, and hang comfortably while they eat and sleep. Brown-throated three-toed sloths, as you may have guessed, have three toes and three claws per foot. But interestingly, even two-toed sloths have three toes per foot! The difference is that they only have two claws on each.

Brown-throated sloths have the ability to rotate their heads like owls. They can turn their heads up to 300 degrees due to their unique neck structure. They have nine cervical vertebrae (the bones in the spine that support the head), as opposed to the seven that most mammals have. This allows for greater rotation, which helps the sloth scan for predators like spectacled owls, harpy eagles and snakes.

Once a week, brown-throated three-toed sloths descend from the rainforest canopy to urinate and defecate. Although their large curved claws help them immensely in the treetops, they make traveling on the ground very difficult. Sloths crawl very awkwardly and slowly on the ground, making them easy targets for predators like ocelots.

But sloths take the risk to climb down to the ground because of a symbiotic relationship they have with the flora living in their fur. Sloth fur is rife with macro- and microorganisms like algae, fungi and moths. While these organisms benefit from having a sheltered place to live among the long coarse hairs, the sloth also gains from the relationship. The algae provides supplemental nutrition for the sloth and tints the fur green, which helps camouflage the sloth among the leaves. The fungi helps fend off parasites known to cause diseases like malaria and Chagas disease. The moths provide fertilizer for the algae.

When sloths descend from the canopy, they come in contact with the beneficial fungal spores in the soil. In addition, the moths have a chance to lay their eggs in the sloth's dung. In this way, a complete ecosystem thrives between the sloth and the organisms living in its fur.

Another unique trait of sloths is that they rely on solar energy to regulate their body temperature. With such a slow metabolism, sloths must sunbathe in order to keep their body temperature up. In this way, sloths are similar to reptiles.

Male brown-throated three-toed sloths can be easily distinguished from females because they have a bright orange patch with a black stripe on their backs. This patch has scent marking glands that attracts female sloths. Alpha males have a larger patches than other males.

The mating season for brown-throated sloths is in the spring, which is July-November in South America and February-May in Central America. Female sloths give birth to one infant at a time. The baby sloth spends 5-10 months attached to its mother, using her body like a jungle gym. This helps prepare the baby for life hanging in the treetops.

Conservation Status

The brown-throated sloth is classified as a species of least concern by the IUCN because it has a wide distribution in the Amazon forest.

But the sloth faces many ongoing threats. Due to deforestation and development, sloths are losing critical habitat. They are forced out of the trees in search of new territory, often getting hit by cars when they cross roads. Sloths are also sold as pets on the black market to tourists.The poachers take baby sloths from their mothers and cut off their teeth and claws. These infants usually do not survive long.

What You Can Do to Help

To help three-toed sloths, you can help protect their habitat. Donate to organizations like the World Land Trust or WWF.

You can also support sloth rehabilitation centers like Sloth Sanctuary or APPC.

Brown-throated Three-toed Sloth Distribution

Sloth Resources

About the Author

Abi Cushman is a contributing editor of Animal Fact Guide and My House Rabbit. When she's not writing about weird animal facts, Abi writes and illustrates funny books for kids. Her picture books, and Animals Go Vroom!, are available now from Viking Children's Books.

To learn more and to download free activity sheets, visit www.abicushman.com. Follow her on Twitter at @AbiCushman and on Instagram at @Abi.Cushman.

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Sloth Facts | Three-Toed Sloths | Brown-throated Sloth

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The brown-throated three-toed sloth is a truly unique animal that inhabits the rainforest canopies of Central and South America. The term sloth is synonymous with the word slow, and sloths certainly live up to that definition. Sloths evolved to expend very little energy because their diet does not provide them with a lot of calories and nutrition.

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Clownfish or anemonefish are a variety of saltwater fish. Thirty species are recognized. Depending on species, anemonefish are overall yellow, orange, or a reddish or blackish color, and many show white bars or patches. The largest can reach a length of 18 centimetres (7.1 in), while the smallest barely achieve 10 centimetres (3.9 in).

Distribution and habitats

Anemonefish are native to warmer waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, including the Great Barrier Reef and the Red Sea. While most species have restricted distributions, others are widespread. Anemonefish live at the bottom of shallow seas in sheltered reefs or in shallow lagoons. There are no anemonefish in the Atlantic.

Symbiosis and mutualism

Anemonefish and sea anemones have a symbiotic, mutualistic relationship, each providing a number of benefits to the other. The sea anemone protects the anemonefish from predators, as well as providing food through the scraps left from the anemone's meals and occasional dead anemone tentacles. In return, the anemonefish defends the anemone from its predators, and parasites.

One theory about how they can survive the sea anemone poison is the mucus coating of the fish may be based on sugars rather than proteins. This would mean that anemones fail to recognize the fish as a potential food source and do not fire their nematocysts, or sting organelles.

Reproduction

Anemonefish lay eggs on any flat surface close to their host anemones. In the wild, anemonefish spawn around the time of the full moon. Depending on the species, anemonefish can lay hundreds or thousands of eggs. The male parent guards the eggs until they hatch about six to ten days later, typically two hours after dusk.

In the aquarium

Anemonefish make up 43% of the global marine ornamental trade, and 25% of the global trade comes from fish bred in captivity, while the majority are captured from the wild.

When a sea anemone is not available in an aquarium, the anemonefish may settle in some varieties of soft corals. Once an anemone or coral has been adopted, the anemonefish will defend it. Anemonefish, however, are not obligatorily tied to hosts, and can survive alone in captivity.

In popular culture

In Pixar's 2003 film Finding Nemo and its 2016 sequel Finding Dory, main characters Marlin and Nemo are clownfish. The species depicted in the film is A. ocellaris.

Images for kids

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Clownfish or anemonefish are a variety of saltwater fish. Thirty species are recognized. Depending on species, anemonefish are overall yellow, orange, or a reddish or blackish color, and many show white bars or patches. The largest can reach a length of 18 centimetres (7.1 in), while the smallest barely achieve 10 centimetres (3.9 in).

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A 1992 study conducted at the University of California's Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Biology confirmed what Native Americans recognized centuries before: Coyotes and badgers hunt together. In fact, you're far more likely to witness coyotes seeking out food alongside badgers than hunting with other coyotes. Generally, the wild dogs hang out in loose family units or lead solitary lives. They rarely hunt in packs, but the sparse prairie and desert vegetation can make it challenging to stalk prey stealthily [source: Minta, Minta and Lott].

When coyotes and badgers team up, the pairs track small, burrowing animals such as prairie dogs and ground squirrels. If the prey is above ground, the coyote usually chases it down, and the badger takes over the hunt if the prey descends underground. And not only do they find food together, but coyotes also have more success in this partnership than if they go it alone. Coyotes with badger cohorts catch an estimated one-third more ground squirrels than solo coyotes [source: Line].

This isn't to imply that the two animals are friends -- they're essentially competing for the same meal. Instead, it all boils down to energy savings. Badgers and coyotes conserve energy by sharing the workload of trapping elusive and fast-moving prey. Likewise, each animal takes advantage of the other's hunting adaptations. Coyotes have keener eyesight for spotting prey than badgers. On the other hand, badgers can sniff out prey underground. Say the badger is busy digging for a squirrel while the coyote stalks around up top. A frightened squirrel bursts forth from a burrowing hole to escape the badger's prying claws. And little does that furry rodent know that a coyote is waiting for this very moment. It spies the squirrel scrambling away and pounces eagerly.

But doesn't the badger get the short end of the stick? Not quite. The tables can turn quickly in the prairie and desert ecosystems. If a hungry coyote chases around a prairie dog, for instance, the badger can benefit. The prairie dog dashes into its burrow, and the badger digs down quickly near the entrance and snags it. Or if a coyote is patrolling an area, rodents may stay inside their underground tunnels for protection, giving the badger more opportunity to locate them.

This unlikely collaboration has existed as long as humans have been around to notice it. Closer examination of the environment reveals a broad variety of similar symbiotic relationships in nature. And just as the Native Americans wove these observations into their folktales, we can glean lessons about the importance of cooperation and teamwork from partnerships like the badger's and coyote's.

Related HowStuffWorks Articles

More Great Links

Sources

Bright, William. "A Coyote Reader." University of California Press. 1993. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://books.google.com/books?id=rvsOkMa6KZgC

"Coyote." The Mammals of Texas. Natural Science Research Laboratory. Texas Tech University Museum. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/canilatr.htm

"Coyote." Nebraska Game and Parks Commission. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://www.ngpc.state.ne.us/wildlife/coyote.asp

"Coyote Social Organization." Davidson Department of Biology. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/behavior/Spring2004/holmberg/Holmberg4.html

Line, Les. "The benefits of badgers." National Wildlife. December-January 1996. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://secure.nwf.org/NationalWildlife/printerFriendly.cfm?issueID=103&articleID=1308

Minta, Steven C.; Minta, Kathryn A.; and Lott, Dale F. "Hunting Associations Between Badgers (Taixdea Taxus) and Coyotes (Canis Latrans)." Journal of Mammology. Vol. 73. Issue 4. 1992. (Dec. 22, 2008)http://www.jstor.org/pss/1382201

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Do coyotes and badgers work together to find food?

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A 1992 study conducted at the University of California's Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Biology confirmed what Native Americans recognized centuries before: Coyotes and badgers hunt together. In fact, you're far more likely to witness coyotes seeking out food alongside badgers than hunting with other coyotes.

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Biology4Kids.com! This tutorial introduces species relationships. Other sections include animal systems, cells, and plants.

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Symbiotic relationships - cooperation between two species to the benefit of one or both of them - are a useful survival strategy for plants and animals all over the world, and we find them in some pretty unexpected places. For example, if you look closely at the lumps and bumps on the skin of large, slow-moving whales, you might see colonies of one of its most common hitchhikers: barnacles!

In the case of barnacles and whales, only the barnacles benefit from attaching to the whales, but at no biological cost to the whale. This type of symbiotic relationship is known as commensalism. In this case, attaching to the whales gives the barnacles a stable place to live, a free ride, and access to plenty of food. But how do these two species meet in the wide-open ocean?

Barnacles, like many other species of marine invertebrates, begin their lives as microscopic larvae that are at the mercy of ocean currents. Since filter-feeding whales rely on plankton and fish near the ocean's surface, barnacle larvae are bound to cross paths with these gentle giants eventually. Scientists aren't exactly sure how barnacle larvae attach to whales, but some guess that barnacles in some locations have evolved to breed during whales' breeding seasons when the whales migrate to warm, shallow waters and move slower and travel within a smaller range. When a whale swims near an area of barnacle spawning, the drifting larvae likely embed themselves in the whale's skin and stay attached as they grow. As barnacles mature, they build their shells around their soft bodies and form tube-shaped cavities within it that anchor them to the whale, which replaces the top layer of its skin several times a day.

Interestingly, barnacles seem to be picky about where on a whale's body they will live. They seem to choose spots like the head and chin where water flow is consistent, which is probably due to their filter feeding strategy. As the whales migrate throughout the year, the barnacles get a free ride to plankton-rich waters and can have a feeding frenzy.

The incredible size of the world's great whale species allows them to support huge colonies of barnacles that weigh up to 1,000 pounds! While impressive to us, that kind of weight isn't much to a whale that weighs multiple tons itself. A fascinating pattern we see with whale/barnacle relationships is that specific species of barnacles generally live of specific species of whales, a likely result of geographic location of each. For example, the barnacle Coronula diaderma has only been recorded living on humpback whales and Cryptolepas rhachianecti live only on gray whales!

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Whales and Barnacles: An Unlikely Duo - National Marine Sanctuary Foundation

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Symbiotic relationships - cooperation between two species to the benefit of one or both of them - are a useful survival strategy for plants and animals all over the world, and we find them in some pretty unexpected places.

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5 of the Coolest Animal Partnerships (Symbiotic Species)

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Symbiotic Animal Relationships - Animals for Kids - Educational Video

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Interested in writing a parody? Check out this Taylor Swift parody! 

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Interested in writing a parody? Check out this Taylor Swift parody! 

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If you like the Beatles, then check this parody out! 

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If you like the Beatles, then check this parody out! 

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Like Jason Mraz? Here's the symbiosis parody for you! 

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Like Jason Mraz? Here's the symbiosis parody for you! 

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Symbiosis: A surprising tale of species cooperation - David Gonzales

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Monarch butterflies and milkweed are an example of commensalism.

Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits from the other without causing harm to it. The commensal organism obtains food, shelter, locomotion, or support. Commensalism can either be a brief interaction or a lifelong symbiosis.

The term "commensalism" was coined by Belgian zoologist and paleontologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden to describe the activity of scavengers trailing predators to eat the remains of their kill. There are four types of commensalism, depending on the relationship between the organisms.

Inquilinism is a relationship where one body depends on the other for permanent housing, such as a bird living in a tree hole.

Metabiosis is a relationship where one organism forms a habitat for the other. These include maggots living in dead bodies or hermit crabs using the shells of dead gastropod for protection.

Phoresy is commensalism relationship where an organism attaches to the other for transport. Examples are millipedes on birds and pseudoscorpions on mammals.

Microbiota organisms form communities within the host organism. These include bacteria on human skin.

Examples of Commensalism

Orchids Growing on Branches

Orchids are a family of flowering plants that grow on trunks and branches of other trees. The epiphytic plants are commonly found in dense tropical forests. Orchids rely on the host plant for sunlight and nutrients that flow on branches. They do not grow to be large plants and do not harm the host tree in any manner. Orchids have their photosynthesis process and do not extract any nutrients from the host plant apart from the water that flows on the outer bark. On the other hand, host plants gain no benefits from the orchards.

Livestock and Cattle Egrets

A typical commensal relationship is between livestock and cattle egrets. The egret is a species of heron that moves along with cattle or horses. Sometimes it can be seen on the back of the animal. Initially, it was believed that the birds fed on ticks and other parasites, but it was later discovered that the birds feed on insects hiding in vegetation, which get stirred when the animals feed. When the birds are not working alongside the animal, they hop on the back for a ride. They are light birds and do not limit the movement of the host.

Sharks and Remora Fish

The remora or suckerfish is a small fish that grows to about three feet. It is a member of the ray-finned fish. The remora forms a commensal relationship with large sea organisms, especially sharks, turtles, and whales. Its specially-designed suckers attach to the fins of the host animals and thus benefit for transportation and protection from predators. It also feeds on the leftover of sharks. The small size of the remora makes it less intrusive, and the shark barely feels its presence.

Beetles and Pseudoscorpions

Pseudoscorpions are tiny scorpion-like insects that grow to about half an inch in length. They are distinguished from real scorpions by a lack of stingers. Pseudoscorpions hide on exposed surfaces of host animals such as fur of mammals, and beneath the wings of bees and beetles. They gain transportation and protection from predators and weather elements. Pseudoscorpions cause minimal intrusion and do not harm the host insect due to their small size. They are also too small to be of any benefit to the host.

Milkweed and Monarch Butterfly

The monarch butterfly is common in North America. During the larval stage, it attaches to a specific species of milkweed that contains toxic chemical cardiac glycoside. The poison is harmful to vertebrates, and most animals avoid contact with the plant. Monarch butterflies extract and store the toxin throughout the lifespan. Birds find monarch butterflies distasteful and thus avoid eating them. Monarch larvae are resistant to the poison and are therefore not affected, and the milkweed is not a carnivorous plant; therefore, causes no harm to the developing butterfly.

Birds and Army Ants

The commensal relationship between army ants and birds is unusual since both can prey on the other. Birds trail army ants not to feed on them but to feed on insects escaping the ants as they move across the forest floor. The birds easily catch the prey while the ants remain unaffected. Due to their aggressive nature, painful bites, and poison, birds avoid eating ants.

Burdock Seeds on Animals

Many plants have evolved different dispersal features, including curved spines. Burdock plants are mostly found along roadsides. Their seeds are equipped with long curved spines that attach to the fur of animals and are transported to other areas. Burdock seeds are incredibly light that animals barely recognize their presence while their long hooks are not strong enough to pierce the skin of animals.

Whales and Barnacles

Barnacles are crustaceans that are unable to move on their own. During the larval stage, they stick to other organisms such as whales or attach to shells, ships, and rocks. They grow and develop on these surfaces without negatively affecting the host. Barnacles feed on plankton and other food materials as the whales move. This way, they benefit from transportation and nutrition. They do not feed on blood or flesh; therefore, they cause no harm to the whale.

Sea Cucumbers and Emperor Shrimp

The emperor shrimp is a crustacean that is common in the Indo-pacific region. It is often seen attached to sea cucumbers where they benefit from transportation and protection from predators without spending energy. The shrimp get off the host cucumber to feed and attaches to another when it wants to move to a different area. The emperor shrimp is small and light to affect the movement of the cucumber.

Caribou and Arctic Fox

The relationship between the caribou and the arctic fox is an example of commensalism in the tundra. The fox trails the caribou while the reindeer prowls for food. As it digs up the soil to expose lichen plants, subnivean mammals are attracted to the site, making them easy targets for the fox. The fox keeps its distance from the deer to avoid spooking it.

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Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits from the other without causing harm to it. The commensal organism obtains food, shelter, locomotion, or support. Commensalism can either be a brief interaction or a lifelong symbiosis.

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A heron and a hippo taking part in a symbiotic relationship.

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is a beneficial relationship between two or more living organisms of different species. Symbiotic relationships may be long-term, short-term, physical, biochemical, parasitic or mutually beneficial. Motivating factors that move organisms into symbiotic interactions are generally ones of nutrition, shelter, and defense. These reasons may be facultative (the organisms choose to co-exist though they may survive independently) or obligatory (the relationship must exist for the survival of both or one of the species). Various types of symbiotic associations exist including mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, and competition. Physical symbiotic relationships include endosymbiosis and ectosymbiosis. Endosymbiosis occurs when one organism attaches itself to the tissues of another. Rhizobium bacteria have an endosymbiotic association with leguminous plants attaching to the root nodules from which the bacteria fixes nitrogen. Ectosymbiosis occurs when the organism lives on the host's body.

Mutualism

In mutualism, organisms provide benefits to one another. These associations are the most common and exist in nature for a lifetime. Mutualistic interactions may be facultative or obligatory for the different species involved. Often, the species interact physically and biochemically. Nectar collecting birds and insects have mutually symbiotic relations with flowering plants because they need nectar from the flowers. After collecting nectar from the flowers, the birds and insects aid in pollination by transferring pollen from one flower to another. Sea anemone and clownfish depend on each other for protection from their predators.

Commensalism

Commensal relationships exist between species that provide benefits to one organism without significantly harming or helping the other organism. Hermit crabs for example use the shells of dead animals and other empty seashells for protection. In such a case, the organism which created the shell achieves no gain or loss. Cattle egrets that feed on disturbed insects during foraging do not benefit or harm the cattle. In commensal relationships, the organism may also depend on the other for shelter and transportation.

Parasitism

Parasitism is an antipathetic symbiotic relationship where one member in the relationship is harmed while the other benefits. Parasites live within (endoparasites) or outside (ectoparasites) the host's body. The parasites acquire nutrients and benefit the host in no way, sometimes causing infections and death. Most living organisms are known to host one or more parasites during their lifetime. Parasites such as ticks suck the blood of their hosts causing infections to the organisms. Humans are hosts to various parasites such as intestinal worms and fleas which may be spread through contact with the parasites when feeding, cleaning or coming into contact with contaminated areas.

Completion

Completion occurs when organisms fight to acquire a certain resource. The stronger and more adapted individual often deprives the weaker organisms of the resource. Competition exists in all ecosystems as food, water, and shelter resources are few and inadequate for all. Charles Darwin cited the importance of competition as a natural process of balancing the ecosystem.

Symbiosis in a broader sense

Symbiosis is cited as one of the important relationships that must exist between living organisms. While the term initially referred to mutually beneficial relationships, scientists have broadened it to encompass all relations within species in an ecosystem. Biologists such as Lynn Margulis have argued the significant role played by symbiosis in evolution and co-evolution where species develop certain adaptations depends on the relationships with other organisms.

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Symbiosis is a beneficial relationship between two or more living organisms of different species. Symbiotic relationships may be long-term, short-term, physical, biochemical, parasitic or mutually beneficial. Motivating factors that move organisms into symbiotic interactions are generally ones of nutrition, shelter, and defense.

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Giant kelp forms dense, underwater forests in coastal waters along western North America, South America, South Africa, Southern Australia and New Zealand. These forests have layers, just like a rainforest, and also experience seasonal variations in plant density. Some species within the kelp forest have developed close associations with one another resulting in an interdependence that has direct impacts on one or both organisms.

Sea Otters and Kelp

*** Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images

The mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship between sea otters and kelp is essential to the health of the entire kelp forest ecosystem. Sea urchins found in kelp forests typically eat drift kelp, but when it is scarce they eat living kelp plants. In some instances, entire kelp forests can disappear. However, s ea otters feed upon sea urchins, reducing the intensity of grazing pressure on the kelp. This allows the kelp to develop dense populations that, in turn, provide the otters with cover that protects them from predators and strands that anchor them in place while they rest.

Moray Eel and Red Rock Shrimp

Red rock shrimp cluster in groups on the rocky bottom of the kelp forest and provide cleaning stations for other species such as garibaldi and spiny lobsters. But they have a special, symbiotic relationship with the California moray eel. These shrimp often live in the same crevice as their partner eel. The shrimp rid the moray of dead skin and parasites. In return, the eel provides the shrimp with protection from predators.

Sunburst Anemone and Zooxanthellae

The sunburst anemone is often found attached to rocks within the kelp forest. These anemones have endosymbiotic zooxanthellae, or internal dinoflagellate algae. This relationship provides benefits for both species. The zooxanthellae are protected within the tissues of the anemone and receive carbon dioxide and nitrogen from the anemone's metabolism, which are used for photosynthesis. In exchange, the zooxanthellae provide the anemone with the oxygen and glucose formed during photosynthesis, which it uses to fuel its metabolic processes.

Bat Star and Annelid Worms

*** Comstock Images/Comstock/Getty Images

The bat star is one of the most common sea stars in the kelp forests along the west coast of the United States. A type of annelid worm that is able to live freely in the mud may also be found living in the grooves that run along the arms of a bat star. These commensal worms are able to scavenge food scraps from the bat star and may derive some protection as well, but do not benefit nor harm their host.

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Symbiotic Relationships in the Kelp Forest Ecosystem

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Giant kelp forms dense, underwater forests in coastal waters along western North America, South America, South Africa, Southern Australia and New Zealand. These forests have layers, just like a rainforest, and also experience seasonal variations in plant density.

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Can you imagine how your life might be without your best friend? Who would laugh at your terrible jokes or have your back any time you got into trouble? As humans, we rely heavily on friends for support, companionship and even when we want to kick back and have some fun. In fact, whether in social or professional spheres, it is generally accepted that forming strong bonds and partnerships with one another can often bring about positive results.

But did you know that such partnerships are also formed throughout the animal kingdom - and not just within a single species? Some creatures forge lifelong relationships with entirely different organisms in order to get through their days just a little easier. These types of alliances are known scientifically as symbiotic relationships, which can be separated into three different types: commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.

Commensalism is a type of symbiotic relationship between two different animal species whereby only one of them benefits. The other is neither helped nor harmed. The opposite of commensalism is parasitism, which involves one organism gaining from the inter-species relationship, but to the detriment of its host. Ticks are a well-known example of a parasite. Mutualism is the win-win form of symbiotic relationships, with both partners benefiting.

Below, I will introduce you to some of the most weird and unlikely examples of symbiotic relationships within the animal kingdom.

Nile Crocodile and Egyptian Plover

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6 Surprising Symbiotic Relationships - Wildlife Woods

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Can you imagine how your life might be without your best friend? Who would laugh at your terrible jokes or have your back any time you got into trouble? As humans, we rely heavily on friends for support, companionship and even when we want to kick back and have some fun.

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From Academic Kids

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Crocodile bird, shorebird belonging to the family Glareolidae (order Charadriiformes). The crocodile bird is a courser that derives its name from its frequent association with the Nile crocodile. Although naturalists note that a mutualism between the two species is possible, no authentic proof of it exists.

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Egyptian plovers and crocodiles have a unique symbiotic relationship. Crocodiles can't use dental floss, they get food stuck in their teeth. All that food rots their teeth and probably causes some...

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There are many unlikely animal pairings in the world, but some of the most uncanny ones involve birds. Wait, what? Those flighty animals the flit about and flee at the slightest sign of trouble? Precisely those. They have been known to climb in and clean the teeth of a crocodile, lounge on the backs of buffalo, moose, hippos, elephants and zebras and even to share a residence with ants - their natural prey. The first set of symbiotic wonders focused mainly on underwater matches - this set focuses on fliers of the friendly skies.

Plovers and Crocodiles

It looks like something out of a storybook - and in fact it can be traced back to accounts told thousands of years ago - a crocodile opens its mouth, invites a bird in before ... what? ::Chomp:: it swallows the sap alive? Amazingly, the crocodile remains still while the plover picks meat from its mouth. This cleans the crocodile's teeth and prevents infection while providing a somewhat scary meal for the hungry bird.

Honeyguides and Ratels

The honeyguide bird has something of a problem: it wants access to the juicy wax insides of a honeybee nest but lacks the ability to access it directly. It has learned, however, to lead other predators to such nests and then wait for the remains of the spoils. The honey badger (or ratel, shown above) is one such creature with which the bird works in collaboration, but honeyguides have also been known to lead humans to find nests. One native population finds honey three times faster because of these incredible birds.

Egrets and ... Everything Else

Egrets are strangely equal-opportunity symbiotics - they will ride on the backs of all kinds of large mammals, picking parasites from their fur or skin to nourish themselves, which, in turn, frees these animals of their burden - often kicked up to their backs while walking. Moreover, it is suspected that egrets also are more sensitive to changes in their surroundings and vigilant than their steeds, making them good at early warnings when it comes to environmental predators or other dangers.

Oxpeckers and Zebras

Oxpeckers, like egrets, free their furry companions of lice, ticks and other annoyances but of particular importance is their flying scream when predators approach - after all, zebras are more susceptible than many large mammal species (such as elephants and hippos shown above) to potential aggressors. However, their actions are not always completely in the interests of their hosts: they are suspected to sometimes nip open wounds on a zebra's back in order to encourage more parasites to take root for later meals.

Ostriches and Zebras

Oxpeckers aren't the only birds that zebras have been known to pair with - they also are often found in the company of giant flightless ostriches. Both of these species is justifiably concerned with approaching danger. Unfortunately, the ostrich has terrible senses of smell and hearing and the zebra has poor eyesight. Fortunately, the zebra can smell or hear certain dangers approaching while the ostrich can see others. Both are prepared to warn one another at a moment's notice so they can each flee as needed.

Woodpecker and Tree Ants

No one knows for certain how the arrangement works, but a certain species of woodpecker and tree ant are known to call temporary truces despite being mortal enemies most of the time. The southern rufous woodbecker and the black tree ant are normally predator and prey - but when the bird lays its eggs in the nest of the ants an agreement is made, a non-aggression pact of sorts, that protects the bird's eggs from attacks by the nest and the ants' nest from other birds while the chosen bird is nesting there.

Meat Ants and Leafhoppers

Other forms of ants, including meat ants, have been known to team up with other species as well, including butterflies and leafhoppers. Normally, meat ants are vicious and territorial - feeding on dead animals and forcing other species of ants to stay out of their way and forage at night. However, they make special exceptions for certain other creatures of the trees and skies that secrete substances they can feed on - not only do they leave these partners alive but they actually actively protect them from predators as well.

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7 Symbiotic Wonders of the Aerial World - WebEcoist

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There are many unlikely animal pairings in the world, but some of the most uncanny ones involve birds. Wait, what? Those flighty animals the flit about and flee at the slightest sign of trouble? Precisely those.

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Symbiotic relationships are interactions between two different biological species. Some scientists consider all interactions between organisms to be symbiotic, including parasitic relationships. However, symbiosis usually refers to mutualism, in which both organisms benefit from the interaction. In the bird world, there are many examples of these symbiotic relationships, but here are just a few of our favorites.

Nile Crocodile and Egyptian Plover

The symbiotic relationship between the crocodile and the plover bird is exemplary of two organisms working together. The plover bird flies inside the crocodile's mouth, which may seem dangerous for the bird. However, the plover bird is actually getting a meal of its own by eating the meat from between the crocodile's teeth. Meanwhile, the crocodile is also benefitting from this arrangement. Food stuck in the mouth of the crocodile can cause infection, and the plover bird's picking cleans the crocodile's teeth. Therefore, when a crocodile needs its mouth cleaned, it will open it and wait for the plover bird's help.

Water Buffalo and Oxpecker

The oxpecker is a medium-sized bird that can have a symbiotic relationship with a variety of hoofed mammals. Large mammals like the water buffalo are prone to ticks, which feed on their blood and can spread diseases and cause anemia. Luckily for the water buffalo, the oxpecker feeds on ticks. By eating the ticks from the hide of the water buffalo, the oxpecker gets a free meal, and the water buffalo gets cleaned of parasites.

Zebra and Ostrich

Like many symbiotic pairs, zebras and ostriches seem to be an unlikely match. However, they are crucial to each other's safety. While ostriches have poor senses of hearing and smell, zebras have bad eyesight. Ostriches and zebras often travel together because they can warn each other of possible dangers. The ostrich looks out for the zebra's enemies, and the zebra listens and smells for the ostrich's predators.

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Symbiotic Relationships of the Bird World

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Symbiotic relationships are interactions between two different biological species. Some scientists consider all interactions between organisms to be symbiotic, including parasitic relationships. However, symbiosis usually refers to mutualism, in which both organisms benefit from the interaction. In the bird world, there are many examples of these symbiotic relationships, but here are just a few of our favorites.

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Mutualism, association between organisms of two different species in which each benefits. Mutualistic arrangements are most likely to develop between organisms with widely different living requirements. Several well-known examples of mutualistic arrangements exist.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

commensalism, in biology, a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter.

The commensal-the species that benefits from the association-may obtain nutrients, shelter, support, or locomotion from the host species, which is unaffected. The commensal relation is often between a larger host and a smaller commensal. The host organism is essentially unchanged by the interaction, whereas the commensal species may show great morphological adaptation. This relationship can be contrasted with mutualism, in which both species benefit.

One of the best-known examples of a commensal is the remora (family Echineidae) that rides attached to sharks and other fishes. Remoras have evolved on the top of their heads a flat oval sucking disk structure that adheres to the bodies of their hosts. Both remoras and pilot fishes feed on the leftovers of their hosts' meals. Other examples of commensals include bird species, such as the great egret ( Ardea alba), that feed on insects turned up by grazing mammals or on soil organisms stirred up by plowing. Various biting lice, fleas, and louse flies are commensals in that they feed harmlessly on the feathers of birds and on sloughed-off flakes of skin from mammals.

Adam Augustyn.

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Commensalism | Definition, Examples, & Facts

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Commensalism, in biology, a relationship between two species in which one obtains benefits from the other without harming or benefiting it.

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parasitism, relationship between two species of plants or animals in which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without killing the host organism.

Parasites may be characterized as ectoparasites-including ticks, fleas, leeches, and lice-which live on the body surface of the host and do not themselves commonly cause disease in the host; or endoparasites, which may be either intercellular (inhabiting spaces in the host's body) or intracellular (inhabiting cells in the host's body). Intracellular parasites-such as bacteria or viruses-often rely on a third organism, known as the carrier, or vector, to transmit them to the host. Malaria, which is caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium transmitted to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito, is an example of this interaction. The plant ailment known as Dutch elm disease (caused by the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi) can be spread by the European elm bark beetle.

A different form of parasitism called brood parasitism is practiced by most species of cuckoos and all cowbirds. Those birds do not build nests of their own but deposit their eggs in the nests of other species and abandon them there, with the hope that adult birds of other species will raise the abandoned young as their own. The cowbird's parasitism does not necessarily harm the host or the host's brood; however, the cuckoo may remove one or more host eggs to reduce the suspicion surrounding the presence of its egg, and the young cuckoo may heave the host's eggs and nestlings from the nest.

Another form of parasitism, such as that practiced by some ants on ants of other species, is known as social parasitism. (Social parasitism is a condition where a parasitizing ant species depends upon the labour provided by a host ant species within the context of a mixed-species colony.) Parasites may also become parasitized; such a relationship, known as hyperparasitism, may be exemplified by a protozoan (the hyperparasite) living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog.

Sexual parasitism, which is actually a type of specialized reproduction, is most commonly associated with deep-sea anglerfish, where it occurs in more than 20 species. In these fish, males are much smaller than females. (In the case of the northern seadevil, or deep-sea angler, Ceratias holboelli, females may be more than 60 times the size of males.) Females possess a luring apparatus to entice prey, but males do not. However, males possess the visual and olfactory acuity to locate females so that they might obtain food. Males attach themselves to females with their jaws, and in some cases the tissues and circulatory systems between the sexes are joined. Thereafter, the male serves as a sperm-producing organ on the female, since transformation makes him completely dependent upon her.

Other forms of sexual parasitism also exist, including those in which the genetic material from one parent is discarded by the other parent despite the effort made by the other parent to produce and deliver it. For example, young resulting from the pairing of sailfin mollies ( Poecilia latipinna) and Atlantic mollies ( P. mexicana) are females that can produce only clones of themselves. They need sperm from males of either of the two species to start the process; however, since all offspring are clones of their mother, no male DNA is passed on.

Parasitism differs from parasitoidism, a relationship in which the parasite always kills the host. Female insect parasitoids lay their eggs in or on the host, upon which the larvae feed on hatching. Most parasitoids are wasps; however, some other members of order Hymenoptera (which includes ants and bees) have also evolved to become parasitoids. A few members from other insect groups have adopted this strategy, including some flies, some species of butterflies and moths, several beetles, and one caddisfly species.

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Parasitism, relationship between two species of plants or animals in which one benefits at the expense of the other, sometimes without killing the host organism. Parasites may be characterized as ectoparasites, which live on the body surface of the host, or endoparasites, which live within a host's body.

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Symbiosis refers to a protracted relationship between two species, where one of the species may either benefit from the association, be negatively affected or not affected in any way.

Commensalism

©Shem Compion

Fork tailed drongo.

Commensalism is a form of symbiosis. In commensalistic relationships, one of the species gains direct benefit from associating with the other, while the second species derives no benefit, but is not negatively affected in any way. Birds are masters of opportunism and may use other mammalian species particularly, to their advantage.

The fork-tailed drongo is a bold little black bird with a forked tail, as its name suggests, and a reddish eye. It is well known for its ability and tendency to mimic other birds' calls. The complexity of the tune copied and repeated is one of the criteria for which a female drongo might select a mate. Drongo's are particularly adept at mimicking the call of the pearl-spotted owlet. Drongo's are aerial hawkers, snapping insects out of the sky with acrobatic manoeuvres.

In this respect, they use large mammals such as herds of impala or buffalo to their advantage. As the herds move and feed, they disturb and flush out insects in the grass which the drongos catch. They perch around the feeding herbivores in between mouthfuls and wait for more insects to be flushed up. Then with the swiftness of a small fighter aircraft, they dart in behind the mammals' hooves to snap the insects out of the air. On occasion, if things are not happening quickly enough, drongos may even give a false alarm call setting the feeding animals to flight a short distance and then they quickly monopolize on the sudden flush of insects.

Birds that build their nests in trees are essentially entering a commensalistic relationship with that species of tree. The bird benefits enormously by having a substrate on which to build its nest and is sheltered and protected in the tree. The tree derives no benefit from the bird's nest being there but neither is it harmed in any way.

Tick Birds

©Shem Compion

Cattle egret.

The cattle egret is the well-known foot servant of buffalo, rhino and eland, patiently following these animals through the grassland. Insects disturbed by the movement of the mammal's hooves through the bush, provide a hearty meal for the egrets. But over an above the feast picked out of the grass, cattle egrets may also land and perch on these large herbivores removing ticks and other ectoparasites much like oxpeckers do. They were originally called 'tick birds' for this habit.

Mutualism

©Shem Compion

Red-billed hornbill foraging on the ground.

Mutualism is another form of symbiosis, but both species benefit directly from their interaction with one another.

Yellow and red-billed hornbills enjoy a mutualistic relationship with the dwarf mongoose. These species can often be found foraging together. Dwarf mongoose live in groups of about 12 individuals, and move through an area together, overturning stones looking for scorpions and other invertebrates. They are astute diggers as well. As the troop of mongoose forage, some of their prey escapes or too much is flushed out for the individual to grab. This is where the hornbill benefits.

Hornbills will quickly snap up whatever the dwarf mongoose miss. In return, the hornbills provide an alarm system, warning the mongoose of danger, that they may not detect, due to being absorbed in feeding. The hornbills even raise the alarm for aerial predators, that are only a threat to the mongoose and not themselves. This relationship is so successful that the hornbills will even wait for dwarf mongoose outside their burrows in the mornings, having followed them home the evening before. If the mongoose are slow to rise, the hornbills will call at the termite mound where the mongoose have bedded down, in an attempt to rouse them. Although both species benefit from their mutual association, this is not an obligatory form of mutualism, as both species can still exist without the other and their shared relationship.

By Megan Emmett

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Symbiosis refers to a protracted relationship between two species, where one of the species may either benefit from the association, be negatively affected or not affected in any way. ©Shem Compion Fork tailed drongo. Commensalism is a form of symbiosis.

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Different animals species help each other hunt, clean and protect themselves from predators.

You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours, say plenty of animals. Different animal species help each other out all the time in the wild, using their distinct skills to get things they both want, a phenomenon called "symbiotic relationships." Here are some of the coolest animal friendships we discovered.

Grey wolves and striped hyenas hunt together

Hyenas are taught to be tough by their parents and siblings. (Photo: njsphotography/Shutterstock)

Even though hyenas normally hunt alone, scientists were surprised to discover hyenas hunting in wolf packs in southern Israel this year.

"Animal behavior is often more flexible than described in textbooks," said Vladimir Dinets, an associate professor of psychology at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville, who coauthored the study. "When necessary, animals can abandon their usual strategies and learn something completely new and unexpected. It's a very useful skill for people, too."

Hyenas get to take advantage of wolves' impressive hunting skills. Wolves, meanwhile, make use of hyenas' strong sense of smell and ability to break large bones, rip through garbage and open tin cans.

Crabs carry venomous sea urchins on their backs

The seas are a whole different world. In this video, an urchin crab (it's called that because it does this so often) carries a fire sea urchin on its back through Indonesian waters. Crabs often carry sea urchins, some of them poisonous.

It sounds a little crazy, but there are benefits to having dangerous friends: they can protect you. By carrying around sea urchins, crabs can hide from predators and even use urchins as weapons. The urchins, meanwhile, get free rides.

Honeyguide birds lead people to beehives

The honeyguide bird, which lives in Africa, lets off a special call, alerting local indigenous peoples called the Hazda. When the Hazda start following, the bird leads them to a beehive. Her call changes when they get closer, letting people know they're getting hotter.

Why alert people like this? Well, humans are really good at a little thing called fire. By smoking out beehives, people calm bees, making them less likely to sting. This allows the Hazda to gather delicious honey for 15-20 minutes. They leave scraps of honeycomb for the honeyguide birds to finish off, making the hunt a good deal for both humans and birds.

"It's the most developed, co-evolved, mutually helpful relationship between any mammal and any bird," said anthropologist Richard Wrangham.

Oxpecker birds eat ticks on zebras' coats

Oxpecker birds and zebras are both native to sub-Saharan Africa. (Photo: MartinMaritz/Shutterstock)

Nobody likes to be covered in ticks, not even zebras. So these large mammals are happy when oxpecker birds hang out on their backs, eating the ticks and parasites that annoy zebras. The zebras are free from pesky pests, and the birds get delicious meals.

But wait! There's more! When the birds sense danger, they let out a warning call, alerting their four-hooved friends. Talk about a useful partnership.

Crocodiles let Egyptian plover birds pick leeches off their gums

Nobody knows for sure if this is a myth, but people have been talking about it for thousands of years: crocodiles are said to open their mouths and let Egyptian plover birds pick leeches off their gums, cleaning their teeth and keeping them free from infections. Crocodiles are a "bite first, ask questions later" kind of species, so if this really happens, it's pretty remarkable.

Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, was the first to write about this odd couple. Some sources say it has never been observed in nature, and the photographs and videos portraying it are fake. Then again, a good deal of people claim to have seen it, so the jury's out on this one.
MORE FROM THE GRAPEVINE:

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5 amazing symbiotic animal relationships you didn't know about

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Different animals species help each other hunt, clean and protect themselves from predators. You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours, say plenty of animals. Different animal species help each other out all the time in the wild, using their distinct skills to get things they both want, a phenomenon called "symbiotic relationships."

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FACT OF THE WEEK: Humpback whales are home to three different species of barnacles and one species of whale lice
MORE ON THIS: The relationship between these barnacles and humpback whales is an example of commensalism, where one species benefits and the other is unaffected. The barnacle benefits from this relationship because it is provided with a place to live and filter food. The whale seems to be not affected by this, and might even benefit as well. Humpback whales have been known to roll over when being attacked, so the predator is faced with a tough surface of barnacles instead of soft skin.

Whale lice are highly specialized - each species of whale has its own unique variety of whale lice. Their name is actually a misnomer, because while they look like human lice, they are actually a type of crustacean called cyamids. The relationship between whales and their lice is another example of commensalism, like barnacles. Whale lice feed on algae and whale skin, but there is no evidence that whale lice are harmful to whales.

FURTHER READING:

1. Danelesko T., 2013. What's On That Whale? Wild Whales - b.c. cetacean sightings network. http://wildwhales.org/2013/02/whats-on-that-whale/

2. Sajem Y., 2014. The Symbiotic Relationship Between a Barnacle Living on a Whale's Skin. Animals. http://animals.pawnation.com/symbiotic-relationship-between-barnacle-living-whales-skin-10968.html

3. Sandes A., 2013. Whale Barnacles and Whale Lice. Kimberly Whale Watching. http://kimberleywhales.com.au/whale-barnacles-and-whale-lice/

Written by Patrice Hostetter

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FACT OF THE WEEK: Hitchhikers | Pacific Whale Foundation

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FACT OF THE WEEK: Humpback whales are home to three different species of barnacles and one species of whale lice MORE ON THIS: The relationship between these barnacles and humpback whales is an example of commensalism, where one species benefits and the other is unaffected.

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For a hungry barnacle, the rim of a baleen whale's nostril isn't a terrible place to be. When the whale swims through a cloud of plankton for a meal, the barnacle - which also feeds on the tiny, floating organisms - gets free table service. All it has to do is extend its feathery, filtering arm and wait.

Barnacles regularly colonize the skin of filter-feeding whales, and they often do so in huge numbers - one humpback whale, for instance, can host almost 1,000 pounds of barnacles. (That may sound burdensome, but relative to a humpback's nearly 80,000-pound body, it's about as much extra weight as summer clothing on a human being.)

Whale-bound barnacles aren't just regular barnacles with wanderlust; they're different species, most of them unique to the brand of whale they piggyback on. The barnacle Coronula diadema lives only on humpback whale skin, for example, while gray whales host one called Cryptolepas rhachianecti. ¹

So how does a barnacle get onto a whale in the first place? Like other stationary marine invertebrates, barnacles begin their lives as larvae - tiny, shell-less swimmers that find a place to settle and develop into the sturdy barnacles we know. Easy enough when all you want to stick to is an immobile rock, but a whale?

"We don't really know how they're doing it," said John Zardus, a marine biologist at The Citadel military college in Charleston, South Carolina. For the last six years, Zardus has studied the barnacles that live on various marine animals, including whales. "These microscopic larvae that are swimming around in this huge ocean - how do they find a whale? ... It just seems preposterous, actually."

Research on whale barnacles is scarce, according to Zardus, because they're not the easiest beasts to get a hold of. The larvae are small and difficult to distinguish from other kinds of barnacle larvae, and the adults are so deeply embedded in the skin of their hosts that they have to be carved out, flesh and all. Zardus only gets samples to study when there's a dead, stranded whale he can take a chunk from - but if he takes too long to get to it, the barnacles will be dead, too.

Marine biologists speculate that the barnacles reproduce during the whales' breeding season, when the whales mill around in warm, shallow waters rather than moving through the open ocean. If that's true, Zardus said, the whales would swim in a thick soup of larvae; each barnacle parent can release anywhere from 10,000 to 20,000 spawn, and they survive for several weeks in the water. When a whale does swim by, research suggests, the drifting larvae pick up a chemical signal that tells them to hop on. ²

There's plenty of space to squat on a whale, but barnacles are picky. They like spots where the flow of water is consistent, Zardus explained, like the head or the fins. So instead of settling wherever they land, the larvae use their front antennae to "walk" around the whale in search of prime real estate. And that's no easy stroll: if a barnacle larva were the size of a person, a whale would be over 20 miles long. Luckily, the larvae produce a sticky cement that keeps them from falling off into the ocean during their trek.

"They may walk over the whale for a long time until they find the place they're looking for," Zardus said. "It's not random."

Once they're satisfied with their location, the barnacles dig in - literally. As they mature into adults, they form tube-shaped cavities in their shells that actually draw in prongs of growing whale skin. The result is an attachment as firmly rooted as the most pernicious weed.

Coronula diadema barnacles embedded in a piece of humpback whale skin. [Credit: Adolf Seilacher, Yale University Department of Geology and Geophysics.]

The barnacle-whale relationship is generally considered to be obligate commensalism - a type of symbiosis where one species benefits, and the other isn't affected either way. Still, it's possible that too many barnacles could cause drag, Zardus said, or invite infection if they penetrate too deeply into the whale's flesh. On the other hand, it's been suggested that for male humpbacks, who fight over females by ramming and slapping at each other, a sharp barnacle coating may be helpful as a set of brass knuckles.

¹ The uniqueness of whale barnacle species means that whaling and whale habitat loss put not only the whales at risk, but also their hitchhiking companions, said Dan Rittschof, a Duke University marine biologist who has studied barnacles for over 30 years.

"If you're an endangered whale," Rittschof said, "then everything that lives on you, like a barnacle, is also endangered."

² In 2005, in one of the rare laboratory experiments on whale barnacles, Japanese environmental scientists Yasuyuki Nogata and Kiyotaka Matsumura placed Coronula diadema larvae in Petri dishes of seawater - some alone, and some with a slice of whale skin. The larvae by themselves floated around until they died, but the ones near the whale skin started settling on the surface of the dish.

"The settlement cue appears to be released [into the water] from the tissue of the host whale," the researchers wrote in a March 2006 paper in Biology Letters. The exact nature of the chemical cue, however, remains unknown.

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How Do Barnacles Attach to Whales? - Scienceline

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It's hard out there for a symbiotic barnacle, but somehow they find a way

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Mosquito, (family Culicidae), any of approximately 3,500 species of familiar insects in the fly order, Diptera, that are important in public health because of the bloodsucking habits of the females. Mosquitoes are known to transmit serious diseases, including yellow fever, Zika fever, malaria, filariasis, and dengue.

Aedes mosquito© Digital Vision/Getty Images

Physical features and behaviour

The slender, elongated body of the adult is covered with scales as are the veins of the wings. Mosquitoes are also characterized by long, fragile-looking legs and elongated, piercing mouthparts. The feathery antennae of the male are generally bushier than those of the female. The males, and sometimes the females, feed on nectar and other plant juices. In most species, however, the females require the proteins obtained from a blood meal in order to mature their eggs. Different species of mosquitoes show preferences and, in many cases, narrow restrictions as to host animals.

diagram showing diversity among dipterans From Inverebrate Identification Manual by Richard A. Pimentel, © 1967 by Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Van Nostrand Reinhold Company

The eggs are laid on a surface of water and hatch into aquatic larvae, or wrigglers, which swim with a jerking, wriggling movement. In most species, larvae feed on algae and organic debris, although a few are predatory and may even feed on other mosquitoes. Unlike most insects, mosquitoes in the pupal stage, called tumblers, are active and free-swimming. The pupae breathe by means of tubes on the thorax. The adults mate soon after emerging from their pupal cases. The duration of the life cycle varies greatly depending on the species.

Mosquitoes are apparently attracted to host animals by moisture, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, body heat, and movement. The mosquito's hum results from the high frequency of its wingbeats, and the female's wingbeat frequency may serve as a means of sex recognition.

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Anopheles mosquitoes

There are three important mosquito genera. Anopheles, the only known carrier of malaria, also transmits filariasis and encephalitis. Anopheles mosquitoes are easily recognized in their resting position, in which the proboscis, head, and body are held on a straight line to each other but at an angle to the surface. The spotted colouring on the wings results from coloured scales. Egg laying usually occurs in water containing heavy vegetation. The female deposits her eggs singly on the water surface. Anopheles larvae lie parallel to the water surface and breathe through posterior spiracular plates on the abdomen instead of through a tube, as do most other mosquito larvae. The life cycle is from 18 days to several weeks.

Culex mosquitoes

The genus Culex is a carrier of viral encephalitis and, in tropical and subtropical climates, of filariasis. It holds its body parallel to the resting surface and its proboscis is bent downward relative to the surface. The wings, with scales on the veins and the margin, are uniform in colour. The tip of the female's abdomen is blunt and has retracted cerci (sensory appendages). Egg laying may occur on almost any body of fresh water, including standing polluted water. The eggs, which float on the water, are joined in masses of 100 or more. The long and slender Culex larvae have breathing tubes that contain hair tufts. They hang head downward at an angle of 45° from the water surface. The life cycle, usually 10 to 14 days, may be longer in cold weather. The northern house mosquito ( C. pipiens) is the most abundant species in northern regions, while the southern house mosquito ( C. quinquefasciatus) is abundant in southern regions, namely the tropics and subtropics.

Aedes mosquitoes

The genus Aedes carries the pathogens that cause yellow fever, dengue, Zika fever, and encephalitis. Like Culex, it holds its body parallel to the surface with the proboscis bent down. The wings are uniformly coloured. Aedes may be distinguished from Culex by its silver thorax with white markings and posterior spiracular bristles. The tip of the female's abdomen is pointed and has protruding cerci. Aedes usually lays eggs in floodwater, rain pools, or salt marshes. The eggs are capable of withstanding long periods of dryness. The short, stout larvae have a breathing tube containing a pair of tufts, and the larvae hang head down at a 45° angle from the water surface. The life cycle may be as short as 10 days or, in cool weather, as long as several months. A. aegypti, the important carrier of the virus responsible for yellow fever, has white bands on its legs and spots on its abdomen and thorax. This domestic species breeds in almost any kind of container, from flower pots to discarded car-tire casings. The eastern salt marsh mosquito ( A. sollicitans), the black salt marsh mosquito ( A. taeniorhynchus), and the summer salt marsh mosquito ( A. dorsalis) are important mosquitoes in coastal marsh areas that experience daily or occasional flooding with brackish or salt water. They are prolific breeders, strong fliers, and irritants to animals, including humans.

mosquito Copyright E.R. Degginger/Bruce Coleman Inc.

Mosquito control

Because mosquitoes are such prolific carriers of infectious diseases, preventing them from feeding on humans is considered a key global health strategy. The likelihood of disease transmission can be reduced through the use of mosquito repellent, long clothing that covers the arms and legs, screens in open doors and windows, and insecticide-treated mosquito bed nets. Mosquito populations can be controlled in part through the elimination of sources of standing water, which provide ideal breeding sites for mosquitoes. A surface film of oil can be applied to standing water to clog the breathing tubes of wrigglers, which may also be killed by larvicides. Insecticides at times are used to destroy adult mosquitoes indoors.

Researchers have investigated the possibility of manipulating mosquito populations to prevent the production of viable mosquito offspring, thereby reducing the number of mosquitoes. Researchers have also identified ways in which male mosquitoes may be genetically engineered to transmit a gene to their offspring that causes the offspring to die before becoming sexually mature. Scientists have found that female mosquitoes are less attracted to humans when exposed to small compounds related to the neurotransmitter molecule neuropeptide Y. These compounds potentially can be emitted via dispensers in areas where mosquitoes are abundant, helping to deter them from biting humans.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Barbara A. Schreiber.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

history of medicine: Tropical medicine

...was to eradicate the anopheline mosquitoes that transmit the disease. Older methods of mosquito control, however, were cumbersome and expensive. The lethal effect of DDT on the mosquito, its relative cheapness, and its ease of use on a widespread scale provided the answer. An intensive worldwide campaign, sponsored by the...

chemoreception: Altering pest behaviour

...that several species, including the mosquito Aedes aegypti, a carrier of yellow fever and other infectious viruses, and Rhodnius prolixus, a member of the assassin bug family that is known to transmit Chagas' disease, can become insensitive to the chemical. A. aegypti was found to...

chemoreception: Arthropods

...and some insects, such as mosquitoes and blowflies, have cells that respond to very low salt concentrations. Apart from bitter-sensitive cells, these cells usually respond to only limited ranges of compounds, even within the class of chemicals to which they are sensitive. For example, a cell may respond to glucose...

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mosquito | Description, Life Cycle, & Facts

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Mosquito, any of approximately 3,500 species of familiar insects in the family Culicidae of the order Diptera that are important in public health because of the bloodsucking habits of the females. Mosquitoes are known to transmit serious diseases, including yellow fever, Zika fever, malaria, filariasis, and dengue.

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Parasitism- a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism/species benefits (the parasite) and one organism/species is affected negatively(the host)

This picture shows you one example of parasitism that is displayed between humans and mosquitoes. When a mosquito lands on a human they are ready to eat. The mosquitoes rely on humans for food. They drink human blood to help care for their eggs. When the mosquito is sucking the human's blood through their long sucking mouth parts, saliva from the mosquito is entered directly into the human's blood stream. That saliva in the human's body can cause many different diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, filariasis, elephantiasis, and heart worm. This relationship between the human and the mosquito would be considered parasitism because the human (host) is affected negatively and the mosquito (parasite) benefits from the relationship. The mosquito gets food but on the other hand the human is exposed to many diseases.

Parasite- an organism that depends on another organism of a different species for food or shelter

Host- an organism that is supplying for a parasite, an organism which holds a parasite

The picture above shows y ou a t etragnatha montana spider and a wasp larvae also known as the acrodactyla quadrisculpta larvae. The wasps which develops as larvae attaches to the abdomen of the spider. As the spider continues to grow the larvae grows along with it. In the end the host (spider) is killed and eaten by the larvae just before the larvae pupates. This would be a parasitism relationship because the wasp larvae benefits and the spider is affected negatively.

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Parasitism - Symbiosis Website- Miranda S

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Parasitism- a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism/species benefits (the parasite) and one organism/species is affected negatively(the host) This picture shows you one example of parasitism that is displayed between humans and mosquitoes. When a mosquito lands on a human they are ready to eat.

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Great Lakes Fishery Commission - Sea Lamprey

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Sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus) are parasitic fish native to the Atlantic Ocean. Sea lampreys, which parasitize other fish by sucking their blood and other body fluids, have remained largely unchanged for more than 340 million years and have survived through at least four major extinction events.

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Sea otters are keystone predators that maintain the dense, productive forests of kelp in coastal Alaska. Kelp forests are habitat for many invertebrates that are food for over 20 species of fish; these forests also provide spawning habitat for herring and Atka mackerel as well as nursery areas for salmon fry. Many birds, such as sea ducks, use them for resting and feeding. The forests of giant algal fronds protect the coastline from severe wave action and, like our land-based forests, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to reduce global warming.

Kelp forests provide a variety of recreational opportunities: Tourists appreciate the chance to observe high-diversity marine habitats from glassbottomed boats and to watch the sea otters; where kelp fronds smooth the water surface, kayakers can take refuge from rough water; SCUBA divers explore the rich habitats.

The major threat to these rich kelp forests is grazing by sea urchins, which can decimate the forest and prevent regrowth of the fronds. Sea otters are the main predator of sea urchins and keep the urchin population in check. Sea urchins greedily graze on kelp when otters are not around, but in the presence of the predators, urchins hide in crevices and eat just the plant scraps. Loss of sea otters therefore can have a huge impact on our coastal ecosystems.
Read our brochure to learn more...

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Sea Otters and Kelp Forests - Alaska Wildlife Alliance

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Sea otters are keystone predators that maintain the dense, productive forests of kelp in coastal Alaska. Kelp forests are habitat for many invertebrates that are food for over 20 species of fish; these forests also provide spawning habitat for herring and Atka mackerel as well as nursery areas for s

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examples of symbiosis including desert species

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examples of symbiosis including desert species

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What is Symbiosis? Meaning, 3 Types & Examples | PBS

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Many plants form mutually beneficial relationships in the wild. Learn about 6 examples of symbiosis featured in The Green Planet with David Attenborough!

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Why would bees be attracted to spine bases or the tubercles they emerge from? I watched them crawling from old tubercle to old tubercle, stopping at each one briefly as though it was a flower. Why are they interested in these structures when they are not bearing flowers, just spines? Nothing is there to draw a bee at all ... or so I thought.

There is a unique characteristic to Sonoran Desert cactus and many others as well. Their tubercles bear a secondary structure few people ever see. What you might observe upon magnification is a tiny clear droplet of liquid squeezed out of a gland in the tubercle. This is not nectar but a sugar and water blend more easily produced by the cactus stem. -

Botanists call these "extra-floral nectaries" because they are not associated with the flowers. In fact, it's unclear why they exist at all, though recent studies have revealed interesting desert activities of ants. They love this stuff like any sugar source. It's essential sustenance for tiny forms of life in the lean times after cactus blooms fade and fruit matures.

Crematogaster opuntiae is a desert native ant named for its associations with Opuntia species in the wild. Large colonies will take possession of a cactus and defend the food source aggressively, particularly during drought. The frequent juxtaposition of a wild cactus to an ant hill demonstrates the plant is well attended against competing bugs. This in turn protects the cactus from browsers and larger insects that might damage its skin, which causes internal moisture loss - a worst case scenario for the plant. When guarded by the ants, they sense instantly if the cactus is hurt or threatened, and will boil out to defend its food source.

Studies show that the regular source of carbohydrate makes the ants more aggressive and better able to fend off challenges by other mutualistic colonies. Other Sonoran Desert ants with similar habit are Forelius pruinosus, Solenopsis aurea, and Solenopsis xyloni.

More: How to use Papyrus of Egypt plant in your desert garden

Many ants native to the Sonoran Desert evolved with cactus species throughout the Coachella Valley. (Photo: Maureen Gilmer/Special to The Desert Sun)

It is also believed that the cactus benefit from the ant nest as well. Lean desert soils become more fertile from underground ant activity generating nitrogen and other nutrients in the root zone. Therefore, consider it a benefit when your cactus hooks up with an ant colony, but beware if it's in the yard or close to outdoor living spaces.

You'll need a magnifying class to study the arrangement of each tubercle. The base usually features a round or oval bed of furry trichomes. These hair-like structures are not spines, but soft fibers designed to instantly absorb water a like a sponge, then and hold it against the tissues underneath until taken in.

This links to how spines are often angled to catch dew. Droplets accumulate until it all slides down the shaft to saturate the trichomes. This is how cacti survive in areas of little to no rainfall and heavy fog like the Atacama Desert of Peru.

More: Mother of millions, originally from Madagascar, made their home in the desert

Do not confuse trichomes with hair like fuzzy glochid spines of the prickly pear genus Opuntia. While they are for protection, glochids may also catch dew and hold it for trichomes to mop up. This illustrates why washing cactus is so important at night to saturate trichomes, which augments drip irrigation. It also simulates the maritime influence of Baja cactus. With so much going on in each tubercle, particularly on vigorously growing plants, these points become the center of the universe for many species after the fruit falls.

In the seasons when desert cactus are actively growing, new spines are forming in the tubercles. They emerge in a specific pattern that is unique to each species. Botany books always describe the spines and their arrangement to help with identification. You can observe, then look for those little clear drops that offer a secondary draw to insects of all kinds where plants aren't guarded by large ant colonies. Know the bees will come in the leaner months to find those drops too, because most garden plants lack an ant colony to discourage them.

Mutualism is all about the connectivity of things in the wild and how they get along by working together. The cactus feeds the ant, the ant feeds the cactus and protects it from harm. Anything that reduces future food production is bad for both cactus and ant. It's hot, it's dry and there's a drought going on, so naturally the solution is to face challenges together. Take wisdom from the priorities of ants protecting their cactus food source: 1. Keep the bad guys away. 2. Help everyone remain safe. 3. Adapt to change.

More: The architecture of mounding in your garden

Each tubercle is hidden beneath a large tuft of trichomes which grow very dense at the center to absorb rainfall. (Photo: Maureen Gilmer/Special to The Desert Sun)

Read or Share this story: https://desert.sn/2siUVa2

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The mutualistic relationship between cactuses and ants

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Why would bees be attracted to spine bases or the tubercles they emerge from? I watched them crawling from old tubercle to old tubercle, stopping at each one briefly as though it was a flower. Why are they interested in these structures when they are not bearing flowers, just spines?

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Arctic foxes (brief hint at commensalism with polar bears)

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Arctic foxes (brief hint at commensalism with polar bears)

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Discover more about the Arctic fox, the issues and threats they are facing, and what you can do to help.

1. There are 8 recognised subspecies of the Arctic fox

The Arctic fox numbers are believed to be at least several hundred thousand in the wild, which are stable and of least concern at present. Based on genetic studies, 8 subspecies of Arctic fox have been described:

1. Mainland Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus lagopus

2. Iceland Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus fuliginosus

3. Greenland Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus groenlandicus

4. Spitsbergen Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus spitzbergenensis

5. Hall Island Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus hallensis

6. Bering Island/Sea Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus beringensis

7. Pribilof Islands Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus pribilofensis

8. Ungava Bay (Fort Chimo) Arctic fox Vulpes lagopus ungava

5. They have dark-coloured skin underneath their fur coats

Arctic foxes have a darker skin pigmentation-similar to Polar bears-underneath their fur coating. The darker skin colour is better at absorbing and retaining heat, which can be an advantage, especially in colder environments such as the frozen Arctic.

7. The Arctic fox has a short lifespan in the wild

The survival rate of adult arctic foxes can vary depending on the region, food availability and the number of predators in the area. But usually, they live up to 3-4 years in the wild.

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Learn about our frozen environments Learn about the effects of climate change Polar bear: a powerful predator on ice Fascinating facts about animals

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Discover more about the Arctic fox, the issues and threats they are facing, and what you can do to help.