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Many of the strategies in element 14 involve the basic components of a well-structured argument.
When the strategies in this element produce the desired effects, teacher will observe the following behaviours in students:

Students can generate claims based on their cognitively complex tasks.
Students can provide grounds.
Students can provide backing for grounds.
Students can provide qualifiers.
Students can describe why generating and supporting claims helps them learn more deeply and rigorously.

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Most of the strategies in element 13 address various ways of helping students be successful at their cognitively complex tasks.
When the strategies in this element produce the desired effects, teachers will observe the following behaviours in students:

Students seek out the teacher for advice regarding their projects.
Students can explain how the teacher's actions help them with their projects.
Students are actively working on their complex tasks, making adaptations as they do so.

Element 14: Generating and Defending Claims.

The ultimate purpose of engaging students in cognitively complex tasks is to provide opportunities for them to generate new conclusions and provide evidence for their conclusions.
The specific strategies for this element appear in the table below:

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The strategies above involve steps that require students to think deeply about content. To illustrate, consider the cognitively complex task of experimental inquiry. It addresses the following questions:

What is my prediction?
How will I test my prediction?
What do I expect to see if my prediction is correct?
What actually happened?
Did my prediction come true?
How has my thinking changed?
What conclusions can I defend?

Cognitively complex tasks also require students to apply what they have learned in novel situations - hence the term knowledge application lessons.

When the strategies in this element produce the desired effects, teachers will observe the following behaviours in students:

Students are clearly engaged in their cognitively complex task.
Students can explain the conclusions they have generated.
Students can defend their conclusions.
Students have produced artifacts from their cognitively complex tasks.

Element 13: Providing Resources and Guidance.

This category of strategies involves actions teachers take to help students as they engage in their cognitively complex tasks. During such tasks, the teacher's role shifts from providing new content (which is his or her role during direct instruction) or orchestrating the ways students are analysing content (which is his or her role during practicing and deepening lessons) to providing support as students work with some relative independence on knowledge application tasks.

The strategies associated with this element are seen below:

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Knowledge application lessons engage students in activities that require them to apply what they have learned in unique situations. As discussed in direct instruction, knowledge application lessons are where discovery learning activities make most sense.
However, the discovery learning teachers execute during knowledge application lessons is not pure discovery, where students are pretty much left to their own devices in their exploration of specific declarative or procedural knowledge. Such unassisted discovery is highly ineffective.
In contrast, enhanced discovery is a very powerful instructional tool. Enhanced discovery involves the scaffolding of content from the direct instruction lessons and the practicing and deepening lessons. First, students learn the content as a result of well-planned direct instruction lessons and practicing and deepening lessons. Then, they engage in discovery processes.

The following elements are important to effective knowledge application lessons.

Element 12: Engaging Students in Cognitively Complex Tasks.

By definition, cognitively complex tasks require a number of mental steps for students. They also require using content in new ways. The specific strategies that relate to this element appear below: