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Plan of the Laboratories works 3 semestr 2019-2020

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Plan of the Laboratories works 3 semestr 2019-2020

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Plan of the Laboratories works 3 semestr 2019-2020

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Diodes Explained - The basics how diodes work working principle pn junction

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Diodes Explained - The basics how diodes work working principle pn junction

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video from Youtube

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Diodes Explained - The basics how diodes work working principle pn junction

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Questions for exam the  Basics of desighn

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Characteristic of  logical el. seria of 7400

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Characteristic of  logical el. seria of 7400

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Trigger into transistors

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In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information. A flip-flop is a bistable multivibrator. The circuit can be made to change state by signals applied to one or more control inputs and will have one or two outputs.

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Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

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Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

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Hey Fellas! Hope you are enjoying your life and making most out of it. Today I'm going to give you a brief Introduction on the Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing. You cannot excel and grow in an electrical field if you have no idea about basic components used in circuit designing. Don't you worry, I have got you covered. I have tried my best to make it easy for you in understanding the basic components and what they do? So, let's get started with Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing:

Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing

A simple electrical circuit consists of resister, capacitors, inductors, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. These basic electronic components are connected by conductive wires. Current can easily flow between these wires in order to put electrical components in working conditions. You should also have a look at these different types of electronics projects, in which these basic electronic components are used a lot.

1. Resistor

Resistor is considered as a fundamental element in circuit designing.

As the name suggests, it is used for creating resistance in the flow of current. It is widely used in many electrical and electronics components.

Some of the elements in electronics devices are too delicate and they can burn out with a sudden increase in the flow of current. Resistor works perfectly by preventing the current from getting too high.

The resistance of any resister is measured in ohms. The number of resisters used in electronic circuits depends on the measure of current you want to restrict, flowing through the circuit. More the resistance more is the capacity of resisting current from the circuit.

2. Capacitor

Working principle of a capacitor is same like a battery. It is used for the storage of electrical charge. Some circuits are designed in a way, they don't get energy directly from DC source, DC source first charge the capacitor and output we get is basically the energy given by the capacitor.

Capacitors come in a number of forms, but most common forms are Ceramic Disc and Electrolyte. The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in microfarad and is denoted by μF.

A capacitor is the second most commonly used component in the circuit designing.

An inductor is a simple coil of wire used in many electrical circuits. When a current flows through the inductor it stores energy in the magnetic field of the inductor.

Inductor allows DC to pass through it while it blocks AC source. It is mostly used in filters for separating the signals of different frequencies.

3. Inductor

A diode is a component that allows the current to flow in one direction only. It mainly consists of anode and cathode.

Current will only flow when a positive voltage is applied to the anode side and negative voltage is applied to the cathode side. Current won't flow in reverse order.

4. Diode

LED is a light emitting diode which works only when current flows through it. It is mainly used for indicating if the circuit is working properly.

When we connect LED in series with the circuit and it emits light, it shows the circuit is working in perfect order.

5. LED

Transistor is more like a switching device mainly used for switching and amplification purpose. It consists of three elements i.e. emitter, base, collector. A small voltage of 0.7 V between base and emitter, turns it on.

A small amount of current on the base side is used for controlling a large amount of current on the emitter and collector side. This is the property used for amplification purpose.

Transistor comes in two main types, NPN and PNP transistor.

6. Transistor

An Integrated Circuit is a complete circuit that consists of transistor, diodes and other elements. All these elements are placed on the small chip of silicon. Integrated circuits are widely used in modern electronic devices such as laptops and cell phones.

7. Integrated Circuit

A replay is a simple switch that prevents bigger circuits from damaging.

It works as an electromagnetic switch which gets triggered when a small amount of current flows through it.

A small amount of current in the relay creates a magnetic field around the coil which is then used to turning off and on a large amount of current.

8. Relay

DC battery is a main source of supply to operate the electrical circuits. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy that allows the current to flow.

Different batteries can be connected in series in order to get more voltage for an electrical circuit.

9. Battery

That's all for today. I have covered almost all the basic components needed for circuit designing. If you have any question you can ask in the comment section below. I'd love to help you in this regard. I hope you have enjoyed the article. Brace yourself for next article. Stay tuned!

Author: Adnan Aqeel

He is a blogger and technical writer who loves to explore new things out of curiosity. He believes in consistent hard work, honesty, and passion that are essential ingredients to unlock the ultimate success. He doesn't brag about his writing skills, but his excellence does.

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Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing - The Engineering Projects

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Hey Fellas! Hope you are enjoying your life and making most out of it. Today I'm going to give you a brief Introduction on the Basic Electronic Components used for Circuit Designing. You cannot excel and grow in an electrical field if you have no idea about basic components used in circuit designing.

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 Простые схемы на мс К155ЛА3.

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 Простые схемы на мс К155ЛА3.

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Сотворим вместе * Просмотр темы - Задание 2. Простые схемы на мс К155ЛА3.

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are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical or optical signals. A Sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically. Let's explain the example of temperature. The mercury in the glass thermometer expands and contracts the liquid to convert the measured temperature which can be read by a viewer on the calibrated glass tube.

Fig. 1: An Image Of Commonly Used Sensors
Criteria to choose a Sensor Classification of Sensors
Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable potentio-metric from the Bio-sensors group are the new optical technology based sensors. CMOS Image sensors have low resolution as compared to charge coupled devices. CMOS has the advantages of small size, cheap, less power consumption and hence are better substitutes for Charge coupled devices. Accelerometers are independently grouped because of their vital role in future applications like aircraft, automobiles, etc and in fields of videogames, toys, etc. Magnetometers are those sensors which measure magnetic flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or As/m2).

· Image Sensors - These are based on the technology. They are used in consumer electronics, biometrics, traffic and security surveillance and PC imaging.

· Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infra Red, Ultrasonic, and Microwave / radar technology . They are used in videogames and simulations, light activation and security detection.

Type1: Temperature

(i) Thermocouple - They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or metal) which form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is open to the elements being measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a measuring device where a reference junction is formed. The current flows through the circuit since the temperature of the two junctions are different. The resulted milli-voltage is measured to determine the temperature at the junction. The diagram of thermocouple is shown below.

Fig. 2: An Image Showing Thermocouple Temperature Sensor

- These are types of thermal resistors that are fabricated to alter the electrical resistance with the alteration in temperature. They are very expensive than any other temperature detection devices. The diagram of Resistance Temperature Detectors is shown below.

- They are another kind of thermal resistor where a large change in resistance is proportional to small change in temperature.

Type2: IR Sensors

This device emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense a particular phase in the environment. Generally, thermal radiation is emitted by all the objects in the infrared spectrum. The infrared sensor detects this type of radiation which is not visible to human eye.

When IR receiver is subjected to infrared light, a voltage difference is produced across the leads. Less voltage which is produced can be hardly detected and hence operational amplifiers ( Op-amps) are used to detect the low voltages accurately.

Measuring the distance of the object from the receiver sensor: The electrical property of IR sensor components can be used to measure the distance of an object. The fact when IR receiver is subjected to light, a potential difference is produced across the leads.

Type3: UV Sensors

Type4: Touch Sensor

The partially conductive material opposes the flow of current. The main principle of the linear position sensor is that the current flow is more opposed when the length of this material that must be travelled by the current is more. As a result, the resistance of the material is varied by changing the position at which it makes contact with the fully conductive material.

Type5: Proximity Sensor

A proximity sensor emits an . The object which is being sensed is known as the proximity sensor's target.

Since ultrasonic sensors rely on sound rather than light for detection, it is widely used to measure water-levels, medical scanning procedures and in the automobile industry. Ultrasonic waves can detect transparent objects such as transparent films, glass bottles, plastic bottles, and plate glass, using its Reflective Sensors.

2. Limit zone
The minimum sensing distance and maximum sensing distance can be adjusted. This is called the limit zone.

Advanced Sensor Technology

1. Bar-code Identification - The products sold in the markets has a Universal Product Code (UPC) which is a 12 digit code. Five of the numbers signify the manufacturer and other five signify the product. The first six digits are represented by code as light and dark bars. The first digit signifies the type of number system and the second digit which is parity signifies the accuracy of the reading. The remaining six digits are represented by code as dark and light bars reversing the order of the first six digits. Bar code is shown in the figure given below.

2. Transponders - In the automobile section, Radio frequency device is used in many cases. The transponders are hidden inside the plastic head of the key which is not visible to anyone. The key is inserted in the ignition lock cylinder. As you turn the key, the computer transmits a radio signal to the transponder. The computer will not let the engine to ignite until the transponder responds to the signal. These transponders are energized by the radio signals. The figure of a transponder is as shown below:

3. Electromagnetic Identification of Manufactured Components - This is similar to the bar code technology where the data can be coded on magnetic stripe. With magnetic striping, the data can be read even if the code is concealed with grease or dirt.

4. Surface Acoustic Waves - This process is similar to the RF identification. Here, the part identification gets triggered by the radar type signals and is transmitted over long distances as compared to the RF systems.

5. Optical Character Recognition - This is a type of automatic identification technique which uses alphanumeric characters as the source of information. In United States, Optical character recognition is used in mail processing centres. They are also used in vision systems and voice recognition systems.

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Sensors are sophisticated devices that are frequently used to detect and respond to electrical or optical signals. A sensor converts the physical parameter (for example: temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal which can be measured electrically.Sensor can be defined as an element that senses in one form of energy to produce a variant in same or another form of energy.

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The circuit of a basic 7400 series NAND

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The 7400 series TTL logic integrated circuits provided the basis for most of the logic circuits of the time and they are still available today.

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An opto isolator is an electronic device that prevents high voltages from components in one side of a circuit from damaging or interfering with components on the other side of the same circuit. Opto isolators regulate voltage levels by converting electricity into a beam of light. This prevents voltage spikes from impacting more than a single circuit and decreases the overall interference and noise that occurs with traditional communications connections.

They are good for quality control in the recording industry, and can be used in other industrial applications such as electroencephalography, data transfer, and optoelectronics. The cost of these devices have significantly reduced since they were first invented. They now cost less than US$1 and continue to get cheaper.
How Opto Isolators Work
Opto isolators consist of a power source, a near-infrared LED, a closed channel, and a photosensor. A voltage from a circuit is used as the isolator's power source and is used to produce a beam of near-infrared light. The light beam travels down the closed channel until it reaches the photosensor that then converts the light back into electricity. The electricity is then directed to the other components within that circuit. This allows the input of the secondary component to be equal or slightly less than the output of the primary component.
Types of Opto Isolators
There are two types of optoisolators-digital and analog. The digital type changes its output to match the signal received and is used when pulse or bit output is required between circuits. Analog optoisolators reproduce the input signal and provide an analog output that is used when the signal amount is the circuit requirements' overriding factor. Both types of optoisolators have a casing to prevent outside light from interfering with the device operation. They also have a small light source or LED to send signals and a photosensitive component to receive transmissions. Photodiodes and phototransistors are the two most common light receivers.
Applications
Opto isolators are ideal for the recording industry because they reduce all interference that would have been generated by passing a voltage directly from one circuit component to another. Opto isolators are also used in computer systems for data transfer by modulating the output voltage of a primary circuit and using light as a medium. In fact, this application of opto isolators has allowed them to be used in electroencephalography or EEG to transfer information recorded from a patient's brain.

Optical isolators are also used in a number of optical systems. For example, optical isolators are used in long distance fiber optic communication systems in order to prevent signals from being distorted before reaching the output device. Optical isolators can also be used in other photonic systems that depend on light to transfer data or connect two circuits. For example, alarm systems that use broken beams of light to trigger an alarm might use an optical isolator to prevent false alarms. Likewise, devices that use infrared light to control or share files with other devices might use an optical isolator to prevent invalid data or commands in the output device.
Advantages
Opto isolators transfer data at incredibly high speeds. They are relatively small, inexpensive to produce, and effective at limiting voltage levels across multiple circuits. Opto isolators can make electrical devices safer, less prone to damage, and more efficient by removing all interference, including electrical interference that lightning strikes create, power surges, alternating pulses, and electrostatic discharge.
Disadvantages
Opto isolators are becoming outdated due to smaller devices such as microminiature transformers and spin valves that can provide similar results on a much smaller scale. Likewise, opto isolators have limitations and cannot be used in all electrical systems.

High humidity can negatively affect optoisolators as it causes electricity to arc. This results in the electronic isolation being destroyed or interfered with significantly. A drastic change in barometric pressure and air pollution can cause similar issues. This makes it necessary for optoisolators to be kept in a climate-controlled area when possible.

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An opto isolator is an electronic device that prevents high voltages from components in one side of a circuit from damaging or interfering with components on the other side of the same circuit. Opto isolators regulate voltage levels by converting electricity into a beam of light.

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Стандартные серии 133 ТТЛ

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Стандартные серии 133 ТТЛ

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Справочник "Цифровые Интегральные Микросхемы"

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Принцип работы логического элемента серии К131 (рис. 2.3.а) следующий: при поступлении на любой из входов сигнала низкого уровня (0 - 0,4В), базо-эмиттерный переход многоэмиттерного транзистора VT1 смещается в прямом направлении (отпирается), и практически весь ток, протекающий через резистор R1, ответвляется на "землю", вследствие чего VT2 закрывается и работает в режиме отсечки.

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RS-trigger & JK trigger

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Логиские элементы 155серии 

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Логиские элементы 155серии 

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микросхемы серии 155

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виды микросхем серии 155

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область применения микросхем серии 155

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технические характеристики микросхем серии 155

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зарубежные аналоги микросхем серии 155

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купить микросхемы 155

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заказать микросхемы 155

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Микросхемы серии 155

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Микросхемы серии 155: технические характеристики, область применения, параметры и аналоги.

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Микросхемы серии 74xx и их отечественные аналоги

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Микросхемы серии 74xx и их отечественные аналоги

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http://www.asc-development.ru/spravochnik-short_show-6.html

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микросхемы серии 74xx и их отечественные аналоги

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Микросхемы серии 74xx и их отечественные аналоги

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дешифратор для управления газоразрядными индикаторами

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An SR latch constructed from cross-coupled NAND gates.

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An SR latch constructed from cross-coupled NAND gates.

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An SR latch constructed from cross-coupled NAND gates.

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The problems of translate to Qazaq language

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The problems of translate to Qazaq language

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The problems of translate to Qazaq language

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This square wave generator is like the Schmitt trigger circuit in that the reference voltage for the comparator action depends on the output voltage. This circuit is also classified as an astable multivibrator.

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Differential Amplifier

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Differential Amplifier - Online Analog Electronics Course

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Current Feedback (CFB) Op Amps  https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/tutorials/mt-034.pdf

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AND DIGITAL:DIGITAL LOGIC ELEMENTS

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ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students

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One of the major benefits of ADC converter is high data acquisition rate even at multiplexed inputs. With the invention of a wide variety of ADC integrated circuits (IC's), data acquisition from various sensors becomes more accurate and faster. Dynamic characteristics of the high performance ADCs are improved measurement repeatability, low power consumption, precise throughput, high linearity,excellent Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and so on.

A variety of applications of the ADCs are measurement and control systems, industrial instrumentation, communication systems and all other sensory based systems. Classification of ADCs based on factors like performance, bit rates, power, cost, etc.

Analog to Digital Converter

Almost every environmental measurable parameter is in analog form like temperature, sound, pressure, light, etc. Consider a temperature monitoring system wherein acquiring, analyzing and processing temperature data from sensors is not possible with digital computers and processors. Therefore, this system needs an intermediate device to convert the analog temperature data into digital data in order to communicate with the digital processors like microcontrollers and microprocessors.

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic integrated circuit used to convert the analog signals such as voltages to digital or binary form consisting of 1s and 0s.Most of the ADCs take a voltage input as 0 to 10V, -5V to +5V, etc. and correspondingly produces digital output as some sort of a binary number.

Analog to Digital Conversion Process

Analog to Digital Converter samples the analog signal on each falling or rising edge of sample clock. In each cycle, the ADC gets of the analog signal, measures and converts it into a digital value. The ADC converts the output data into a series of digital values by approximates the signal with fixed precision.

In ADCs, two factors determine the accuracy of the digital value that captures the original analog signal. These are quantization level or bit rate and sampling rate.Below figure depicts how analog to digital conversion takes place. Bit rate decides decides the resolution of of digitized output and you can observe in below figure where 3-bit ADC is used for converting analog signal.

Assume that one volt signal has to be converted from digital by using 3-bit ADC as shown below. Therefore, a total of 2^3=8 divisions are available for producing 1V output. This results 1/8=0.125V is called as minimum change or quantization level represented for each division as 000 for 0V, 001 for 0.125, and likewise upto 111 for 1V. If we increase the bit rates like 6, 8, 12, 14, 16, etc. we will get a better precision of the signal. Thus, bit rate or quantization gives the smallest output change in the analog signal value that results from a change in the digital representation.

Suppose if the signal is about 0-5V and we have used 8-bit ADC then binary output of 5V is 256. And for 3V it is 133 as shown below.

There is an absolute chance of misrepresenting the input signal at output side if it is sampled at different frequency than desired one. Therefore, another important consideration of the ADC is the sampling rate. Niquest theorem states that the acquired signal reconstruction introduces distortion unless it is sampled at (minimum) twice the rate of the largest frequency content of the signal as you can observe in the diagram. But this rate is 5-10 times the maximum frequency of the signal in practical.

Types of Analog to Digital Converters

Some of the types of analog to digital converters include:

Dual Slope A/D Converter

Flash A/D Converter

Successive Approximation A/D Converter

Dual Slope A/D Converter

In this type of ADC converter comparison voltage is generated by using an integrator circuit which is formed by a resistor, capacitor and operational amplifier combination. By the set value of Vref, this integrator generates a sawtooth waveform on its output from zero to the value Vref. When the integrator waveform is started correspondingly counter starts counting from 0 to 2^n-1 where n is the number of bits of ADC. When the input voltage Vin equal to the voltage of the waveform, then control circuit captures the counter value which is the digital value of corresponding analog input value. This Dual slope ADC is relatively medium cost and slow speed device.

Flash A/D Converter

This ADC converter IC is also called as parallel ADC, which is a most widely used efficient ADC in terms of its speed. This flash analog to digital converter circuit consists of a series of comparators where each one compares the input signal with a unique reference voltage.At each comparator, the output will be high state when the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage. This output is further given to priority encoder for generating binary code based on higher order input activity by ignoring other active inputs. This flash type is a high-cost and high-speed device.

Successive Approximation A/D Converter

The SAR ADC a most modern ADC IC and much faster than dual slope and flash ADCs since it uses a digital logic that converges the analog input voltage to the closest value. This circuit consists of a comparator, output latches, successive approximation register (SAR) and D/A converter.

At the start, SAR is reset and as the LOW to HIGH transition is introduced, the MSB of the SAR is set. Then this output is given to the D/A converter that produces an analog equivalent of the MSB, further it is compared with the analog input Vin.If comparator output is LOW, then MSB will be cleared by the SAR, otherwise the MSB will be set to the next position.This process continues till all the bits are tried and after Q0, the SAR makes the parallel output lines to contain valid data.

This is about the ADC converter and its types. For easier understanding only few ADC converters are discussed in this article. We hope this furnished content is more informative to readers. Any further queries, doubts and technical help on this topic you can comment below.
Photo Credits:

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Know all about Analog to Digital ADC Converters

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One of the major benefits of ADC converter is high data acquisition rate even at multiplexed inputs. With the invention of a wide variety of ADC integrated circuits (IC's), data acquisition from various sensors becomes more accurate and faster.

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How Electronic Components Work

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Electronic gadgets have become an integral part of our lives. They have made our lives more comfortable and convenient. From aviation to medical and healthcare industries, electronic gadgets have a wide range of applications in the modern world. In fact, the electronics revolution and the computer revolution go hand in hand.

Most gadgets have tiny electronic circuits that can control machines and process information. Simply put, electronic circuits are the lifelines of various electrical appliances. This guide explains in detail about common electronic components used in electronic circuits and how they work.

In this article I will provide an overview on electronic circuits. Then I will provide more information on 7 different types of components. For each type I'll discuss the composition, how it works, and the function & significance of the component.

1. Capacitor

2. Resistor

3. Diode

4. Transistor

5. Inductor

6. Relay

7. Quartz Crystal

An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric current to perform various functions including signal amplification, computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes. Conductive wires or traces are used to connect the components to each other. However, a circuit is complete only if it starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop.

The Elements of an Electronic Circuit

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.

Element 1: Conducting Path

The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces. Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. They are often used in small and complex circuits such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

Element 2: Voltage Source

The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a battery, generators or power systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two points in the circuit so that current can flow through it.

Element 3: Load

A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and transistors.

Electronic Circuit Facts

Fact 1: Open Circuit

As mentioned before, a circuit must always form a loop to allow the current to flow through it. However, when it comes to an open circuit, the current can't flow as one or more components are disconnected either intentionally (by using a switch) or accidentally (broken parts). In other words, any circuit that does not form a loop is an open circuit.

Fact 2: Closed Circuit

A closed circuit is one that forms a loop without any interruptions. Thus, it is the exact opposite of an open circuit. However, a complete circuit that doesn't perform any function is still a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery may not perform any work, but it is still a closed circuit.

Fact 3: Short Circuit

In the case of short-circuit, a low-resistance connection forms between two points in an electric circuit. As a result, the current tends to flow through this newly formed connection rather than along the intended path. For example, if there is a direct connection between the battery's negative and positive terminal, the current will flow through it rather than passing through the circuit.

However, short circuits usually lead to serious accidents as the current can flow at dangerously high levels. Hence, a short circuit can damage electronic equipment, cause batteries to explode, and even start a fire in commercial and residential buildings.

Fact 4: Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Most electronic appliances require complex electronic circuits. That's why designers have to arrange tiny electronic components on a circuit board. It comprises a plastic board with connecting copper tracks on one side and lots of holes to affix the components. When the layout of a circuit board is printed chemically onto a plastic board, it is called a printed circuit board or PCB.

Fact 5: Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Thanks to modern technology, electronic circuit building process has been completely automated, especially for building ICs and PCBs. The number and arrangement of components in a circuit may vary depending on its complexity. However, it is built using a small number of standard components.

The following components are used to construct electronic circuits.

Component 1: Capacitor

A. Composition

Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have the same primary components. There are two electrical conductors or plates separated by a dielectric or insulator stacked between them. Plates are composed of conducting material such as thin films of metal or aluminum foil. A dielectric, on the other hand, is a non-conducting material such as glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, or mica. You can insert the two electrical connections protruding from the plates to fix the capacitor in a circuit.

B. How Does It Work?

When you apply a voltage over the two plates or connect them to a source, an electric field develops across the insulator, causing one plate to accumulate positive charge while negative charge gets collected on the other. The capacitor continues to hold its charge even if you disconnect it from the source. The moment you connect it to a load, the stored energy will flow from the capacitor to the load.

Capacitance is the amount of energy stored in a capacitor. The higher the capacitance, the more energy it can store. You can increase the capacitance by moving the plates closer to each other or increasing their size. Alternatively, you can also enhance the insulation qualities to increase the capacitance.

C. Function and Significance

Though capacitors look like batteries, they can perform different types of functions in a circuit such as blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass or smooth the output from a power supply. They are also used in electric power transmission systems to stabilize voltage and power flow. One of the most significant functions of a capacitor in the AC systems is power factor correction, without which you can't provide sufficient amount of starting torque to single phase motors.

Filters Capacitor Applications

If you are using a microcontroller in a circuit to run a specific program, you don't want its voltage to drop as that will reset the controller. That's why designers use a capacitor. It can supply the microcontroller with the necessary power for a split second to avoid a restart. In other words, it filters out the noise on the power line and stabilizes the power supply.

Hold-Up Capacitor Applications

Unlike a battery, a capacitor releases its charge rapidly. That's why it is used to provide power to a circuit for a short while. Your camera batteries charge the capacitor attached to the flash gun. When you take a flash photograph, the capacitor releases its charge in a split second to generate a flash of light.

Timer Capacitor Applications

In a resonant or time-dependent circuit, capacitors are used along with a resistor or inductor as a timing element. The time required to charge and discharge a capacitor determines the operation of the circuit.

Component 2: Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical device that resists the flow of current. It is probably the simplest element in an electronic circuit. It is also one of the most common components as resistance is an inherent element of nearly all electronic circuits. They are usually color-coded.

A. Composition

A resistor is not a fancy device at all because resistance is a natural property possessed by almost all conductors. So, a capacitor consists of a copper wire wrapped around an insulating material such as a ceramic rod. The number of turns and the thinness of copper wire are directly proportional to the resistance. The higher the number of turns and thinner the wire, the higher the resistance.

You can also find resistors made of a spiral pattern of a carbon film. Hence, the name carbon film resistors. They are designed for lower-power circuits because carbon film resistors are not as precise as their wire-wound counterparts. However, they are cheaper than wired resistors. Wire terminals are attached to the both ends. As resistors are blind to the polarity in a circuit, the current can flow through in either direction. So, there is no need to worry about attaching them in a forward or a backward direction.

B. How Does It Work?

A resistor may not look like much. One may think it doesn't do anything except consume power. However, it performs a vital function: controlling the voltage and the current in your circuit. In other words, resistors give you control over the design of your circuit.

When electric current starts flowing through a wire, all the electrons start moving in the same direction. It's just like water flowing through a pipe. Less amount of water will flow through a thin pipe because there is less room for its movement.

Similarly, when the current passes through a thin wire in a resistor, it becomes progressively harder for the electrons to wiggle through it. In short, the number of electrons flowing through a resistor goes down as the length and thinness of the wire increases.

C. Function and Significance

Resistors have plenty of applications, but the three most common ones are managing current flow, dividing voltage, and resistor-capacitor networks.

Limiting the Flow of Current

But, if you introduce a resistor in the circuit, it will reduce the flow of current to an optimal level. Thus, you can keep the LED on longer without overheating it.

Dividing Voltage

Resistors are also used to reduce the voltage to the desired level. Sometimes, a particular part of a circuit such as a microcontroller may need a lower voltage than the circuit itself. This is where a resistor comes in.

Let's say your circuit runs off of a 12V battery. However, the microcontroller needs only a 6V supply. So, to divide the voltage in half, all you have to do is place two resistors of equal resistance value in series. The wire in between the two resistors will have halved the voltage of your circuit where the microcontroller can be attached. Using appropriate resistors, you can lower the voltage within the circuit to any level.

Resistor-Capacitor Networks

Component 3: Diode

A. Composition

As mentioned earlier, there are two types of diodes: vacuum diodes and semiconductor diodes. A vacuum diode consists of two electrodes (cathode and anode) placed inside a sealed vacuum glass tube. A semiconductor diode comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors. It is, therefore, known as a p-n junction diode. It is usually made of silicon, but you can also use germanium or selenium.

B. How Does It Work?

Vacuum Diode

When the cathode is heated by a filament, an invisible cloud of electrons, called space charge, forms in the vacuum. Though electrons are emitted from the cathode, the negative space charge repels them. As electrons can't reach the anode, no current flows through the circuit. However, when the anode is made positive, the space charge vanishes. As a result, current starts flowing from the cathode to the anode. Thus, electric current within the diode flows only from the cathode to the anode and never from the anode to the cathode.

P-N Junction Diode

A p-n junction diode comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors of silicon. The p-type semiconductor is usually doped with boron, leaving holes (positive charge) in it. The n-type semiconductor, on the other hand, is doped with antimony, adding a few extra electrons (negative charge) in it. So, electric current can flow through both semiconductors.

When you put p-type and n-type blocks together, the extra electrons from the n-type combine with the holes in the p-type, creating a depletion zone without any free electrons or holes. In short, current can no longer pass through the diode.

When you connect the battery's negative terminal to the n-type silicon and the positive terminal to p-type (forward-bias), current starts to flow as electrons and holes can now move across the junction. However, if you reverse the terminals (reverse-bias), no current flows through the diode because holes and electrons are pushed away from each other, widening the depletion zone. So, just like a vacuum diode, a junction diode can also allow current to pass in one direction only.

C. Function and Significance

Though diodes are one of the simplest components in an electronic circuit, they have unique applications across industries.

AC to DC Conversion

The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC power to DC power. Usually, a half-wave (single diode) or a full-wave (four diodes) rectifier is used to convert AC power into DC power, particularly in household power supply. When you pass AC power supply through a diode, only half the AC waveform passes through it. As this voltage pulse is used to charge the capacitor, it produces steady and continuous DC currents without any ripples. Different combinations of diodes and capacitors are also used to build various types of voltage multipliers to multiply a small AC voltage into high DC outputs.

Bypass Diodes

Bypass diodes are often used to protect solar panels. When the current from the rest of the cells passes through a damaged or dusty solar cell, it causes overheating. As a result, the overall output power decreases, creating hot spots. The diodes are connected parallel to the solar cells to protect them against this overheating problem. This simple arrangement limits the voltage across the bad solar cell while allowing the current to pass through undamaged cells to the external circuit.

Voltage Spike Protection

When the power supply is suddenly interrupted, it produces a high voltage in most inductive loads. This unexpected voltage spike can damage the loads. However, you can protect expensive equipment by connecting a diode across the inductive loads. Depending on the type of security, these diodes are known by many names including snubber diode, flyback diode, suppression diode, and freewheeling diode, among others.

Signal Demodulation

They are also used in the process of signal modulation because diodes can remove the negative element of an AC signal efficiently. The diode rectifies the carrier wave, turning it into DC. The audio signal is retrieved from the carrier wave, a process called audio-frequency modulation. You can hear the audio after some filtering and amplification. Hence, diodes are commonly found in radios to extract the signal from the carrier wave.

Reverse Current Protection

Reversing polarities of a DC supply or incorrectly connecting the battery can cause a substantial current to flow through a circuit. Such a reverse connection can damage the connected load. That's why a protective diode is connected in series with the positive side of the battery terminal. The diode becomes forward-biased in the case of correct polarity and the current flows through the circuit. However, in the event of a wrong connection, it becomes reverse-biased, blocking the current. Thus, it can protect your equipment from potential damage.

Component 4: Transistor

A. Composition

In the beginning, Germanium was used to build transistors which were extremely temperature-sensitive. Today, however, they are made from Silicon, a semiconductor material found in the sand because Silicon transistors are much more temperature-tolerant and cheaper to manufacture. There are two different types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), NPN and PNP. Each transistor has three pins called Base (b), collector (c), and emitter (e). NPN and PNP refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.

B. How Does It Work?

When you sandwich a p-type silicon slab between two n-type bars, you get an NPN transistor. The emitter is attached to one n-type, while the collector is attached to the other. The base is attached to the p-type. The surplus holes in the p-type silicon act as barriers, blocking the flow of the current. However, if you apply a positive voltage to the base and the collector and negatively charge the emitter, electrons start flowing from the emitter to the collector.

The arrangement and number of p-type and n-type blocks remain inverted in a PNP transistor. In this type of transistor, one n-type is sandwiched between two p-type blocks. As voltage allocation is different, a PNP transistor works differently. An NPN transistor requires a positive voltage to the base, while a PNP requires a negative voltage. In short, the current must flow away from the base to turn a PNP transistor on.

C. Function and Significance

Transistors function as both, switches and amplifiers in most electronic circuits. Designers often use a transistor as a switch because unlike a simple switch, it can turn a small current into a much larger one. Though you can use a simple switch in an ordinary circuit, an advanced circuit may need varying amounts of currents at different stages.

Transistors in Hearing Aids

One of the most well-known applications of transistors is the hearing aid. Usually, a small microphone in the hearing aid picks up the sound waves, converting them into fluctuating electrical pulses or currents. When these currents pass through a transistor, they are amplified. The amplified pulses then pass through a speaker, converting them into sound waves once again. Thus, you can hear a substantially louder version of the surrounding noise.

Transistors in Computers and Calculators

We all know that computers store and process information using the binary language of "zero" and "one." However, most people don't know that transistors play a critical role in making something called logic gates, which are the backbones of computer programs. Transistors are often hooked up with logic gates to build a unique piece of an arrangement called a flip-flop. In this system, the transistor remains 'on' even if you remove the base current. It now flips on or off whenever new current passes through it. Thus, a transistor can store a zero when it's off or a one when it's on, which is the working principle of computers.

Darlington Transistors

A Darlington transistor is made of two PNP or NPN polar junction transistors placed together. It is named after its inventor Sidney Darlington. The sole purpose of a Darlington transistor is to deliver a high current gain from a low base current. You can find these transistors in instruments that require a high current gain at a low frequency such as power regulators, display drivers, motor controllers, light and touch sensors, alarm systems, and audio amplifiers.

IGBT and MOSFET Transistors

The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) transistors are often used as amplifiers and switches in various instruments including electric cars, trains, refrigerators, air-conditioners, and even stereo systems. On the other hand, Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET) are commonly used in integrated circuits to control a device's power levels or for storing data.

Component 5: Inductor

A. Composition

It is probably the simplest component, comprising just a coil of copper wire. The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Sometimes, however, the coil is wound around a ferromagnetic material such as iron, laminated iron, and powdered iron to increase the inductance. The shape of this core can also increase the inductance. Toroidal (donut-shaped) cores provide better inductance compared to solenoidal (rod-shaped) cores for the same number of turns. Unfortunately, it is difficult to join inductors in an integrated circuit, so they are usually replaced by resistors.

B. How Does It Work?

Whenever the current passes through a wire, it creates a magnetic field. However, the unique shape of the inductor leads to the creation of a much stronger magnetic field. This powerful magnetic field, in turn, resists alternating current, but it lets direct current flow through it. This magnetic field also stores energy.

Take a simple circuit comprising a battery, a switch, and a bulb. The bulb will glow brightly the moment you turn the switch on. Add an inductor to this circuit. As soon you turn the switch on, the bulb changes from bright to dim. On the other hand, when the switch is turned off, it becomes very bright, just for a fraction of a second before turning off completely.

As you turn the switch on, the inductor starts using the electricity to create a magnetic field, temporarily blocking the current flow. But, only DC current passes through the inductor as soon as the magnetic field is complete. That's why the bulb changes from bright to dim. All this time, the inductor stores some electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. So, when you turn the switch off, the magnetic field keeps the current in the coil steady. Thus, the bulb burns brightly for a while before turning off.

C. Function and Significance

Though inductors are useful, it is difficult to incorporate them into electronic circuits due to their size. As they are bulkier compared to other components, they add a lot of weight and occupy plenty of space. Hence they are usually replaced by resistors in integrated circuits (ICs). Still, inductors have a wide range of industrial applications.

Filters in Tuned Circuits

One of the most common applications of inductors is to select the desired frequency in tuned circuits. They are used extensively with capacitors and resistors, either in parallel or series, to create filters. The impedance of an inductor increases as the frequency of signal increases. Thus, a stand-alone inductor can only act as a low-pass filter. However, when you combine it with a capacitor, you can create a notched filter because the impedance of a capacitor decreases as the frequency of signal increase. So, you can use different combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors to create various types of filters. They are found in most electronics including televisions, desktop computers, and radios.

Inductors as Chokes

If an alternate current flows through an inductor, it creates an opposite current flow. Thus, it can convert an AC supply into a DC. In other words, it chokes the AC supply but allows the DC to pass through it, hence the name 'choke.' Usually, they are found in power supply circuits that need to convert AC supply to DC supply.

Ferrite Beads

A ferrite bead or ferrite choke is used to suppress high-frequency noise in electronic circuits. Some of the common uses of ferrite beads include computer cables, television cables, and mobile charge cables. These cables can, sometimes, act as antennas, interloping with audio and video output of your television and computer. So, inductors are used in ferrite beads to reduce such radio frequency interference.

Inductors in Proximity Sensors

Most proximity sensors work on the principle of inductance. An inductive proximity sensor comprises four parts including an inductor or coil, an oscillator, a detection circuit and an output circuit. The oscillator generates a fluctuating magnetic field. Whenever an object comes into the proximity of this magnetic field, eddy currents start to build up, reducing the sensor's magnetic field.

The detection circuit determines the strength of the sensor, while output circuit triggers the appropriate response. Inductive proximity sensors, also called contactless sensors, are cherished for their reliability. They are used at traffic lights to detect the traffic density and also as parking sensors in cars and trucks.

Induction Motors

An induction motor is probably the most common example of the application of inductors. Usually, in an induction motor, inductors are placed in a fixed position. In other words, they are not allowed to align with the nearby magnetic field. An AC power supply is used to create a rotating magnetic field which then rotates the shaft. The power input controls the speed of rotation. Hence, inductions motors are often used in fixed speed applications. The induction motors are very reliable and robust because there is no direct contact between the motor and the rotor.

Transformers

Energy Storage

Just like a capacitor, an inductor can also store energy. However, unlike a capacitor, it can store energy for a limited time. As the energy is stored in a magnetic field, it collapses as soon as the power supply is removed. Still, inductors function as reliable energy storage device in switch mode power supply such as desktop computers.

Component 6: Relay

A relay is an electromagnetic switch that can open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. You need a relatively small current to operate a relay. Usually, they are used to regulate low currents in a control circuit. However, you can also use relays to control high electric currents. A relay is the electrical equivalent of a lever. You can switch it on with a small current to turn on (or leverage) another circuit using large current. Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays.

A. Composition

A Solid-State Relay (SSR) consists of an input circuit, a control circuit, and an output circuit. The input circuit is the equivalent of a coil in an electromechanical relay. The control circuit acts as a coupling device between input and output circuits, while the output circuit performs the same function as the contacts in an EMR. Solid-state relays are becoming increasingly popular as they are cheaper, faster, and reliable compared to electromechanical relays.

B. How Does It Work?

Whether you are using an electromechanical relay or a solid-state relay, it is either a Normally Closed (NC) or a Normally Opened (NO) relay. In case of an NC relay, the contacts remain closed when there is no power supply. However, in a NO relay, the contacts remain open when there is no power supply. In short, whenever current flows through a relay, the contacts will either open or close shut.

In an EMR, power supply energizes the relay coil, creating a magnetic field. The magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate mounted on the armature. When the current stops, the armature is released into its resting position by spring action. An EMR can also have single or multiple contacts within a single package. If a circuit uses only one contact, it is called a Single Break (SB) circuit. A Double Break Circuit (DB), on the other hand, comes with tow contacts. Usually, single break relays are used to control low power devices such as indicator lamps, while double break contacts are used to regulate high-power devices such as solenoids.

When it comes to operating an SSR, you need to apply a voltage higher than the specified pickup voltage of the relay to activate the input circuit. You have to apply a voltage less than the stipulated minimum dropout voltage of the relay to deactivate the input circuit. Control circuit transfers the signal from the input circuit to the output circuit. The output circuit switches on the load or performs the desired action.

C. Function and Significance

As they can control a high current circuit by a low current signal, most control processes use relays as the primary protection and switching devices. They can also detect fault and irregularities occurring in the power distribution systems. Typical applications include telecommunication, automobiles, traffic control systems, home appliances, and computers among others.

Protective Relays

Protective relays are used to trip or isolate a circuit if any irregularities are detected. Sometimes, they can also set off alarms when a fault is detected. Types of protection relays depend on their function. For example, an overcurrent relay is designed to identify the current exceeding a predetermined value. When such current is detected, the relay operates tripping a circuit breaker to protect the equipment from potential damage.

A distance relay or impedance relay, on the other hand, can detect abnormalities in the ratio of current and voltage rather than monitoring their magnitude independently. It swarms into action when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermined value. Usually, protective relays are used to protect equipment such as motors, generators, and transformers, and so on.

Automatic Reclosing Relay

An automatic reclosing relay is designed to cause multiple reclosures of a circuit breaker that is already tripped by a protective relaying. For example, when there is a sudden voltage drop, the electrical circuit in your home may experience several brief power outages. These outages occur because a reclosing relay is trying to switch on the protective relay automatically. If it succeeds the power supply will be restored. If not, there will be a complete blackout.

Thermal Relays

The thermal effect of electrical energy is the working principle of a thermal relay. In short, it can detect the rise the ambient temperature and switch on or off a circuit accordingly. It consists of a bimetallic strip which heats up if an overcurrent passes through it. The heated strip bends and closes the No contact, tripping the circuit breaker. The most common application of thermal relay is overload protection of electric motor.

Component 7. Quartz Crystal

Quartz crystals have several applications in the electronics industry. However, they are mostly used as resonators in electronic circuits. Quartz is a naturally occurring form of silicon. However, it is now produced synthetically to meet the growing demand. It exhibits the piezoelectric effect. If you apply physical pressure on one side, the resulting vibrations generate an AC voltage across the crystal. Quartz crystal resonators are available in many sizes according to the required applications.

A. Composition

B. How Does It Work?

If you apply an alternating voltage to a crystal, it causes mechanical vibrations. The cut and the size of the quartz crystal determine the resonant frequency of these vibrations or oscillations. Thus, it generates a constant signal. Quartz oscillators are cheap and easy to manufacture synthetically. They are available in the range from a few KHz to a few MHz. As they have a higher quality factor or Q factor, crystal oscillators are remarkably stable with respect to time and temperature.

C. Function and Significance

The exceptionally high Q factor enables you to use quartz crystals and the resonant element in oscillators as well as filters in electronic circuits. You can find this highly reliable component in radio frequency applications, as oscillator clock circuits in microprocessor boards, and as a timing element in digital watches as well.

Quartz Watches

The problem with traditional coil spring watches is that you have to keep winding the coil periodically. Pendulum watches, on the other hand, depend on the force of gravity. Thus, they tell time differently at different sea levels and altitudes due to changes in the gravitational force. The performance of quartz watches, however, is not affected by any of these factors. Quartz watches are battery-powered. Usually, a tiny crystal of quartz regulates the gears that control the second, the minute, and the hour hands. As quartz watches use very little energy, the battery can often last longer.

Filters

You can also use quartz crystals in an electronic circuit as filters. They are often used to filter out unwanted signals in radios and microcontrollers. Most basic filters consist of a single quartz crystal. However, advanced filters may comprise more than one crystal to match the performance requirements. These quartz crystal filters are far superior to the ones manufactured using LC components.

From communicating with your loved ones living across continents to making a hot cup of coffee, electronic gadgets touch almost every aspect of our lives. However, what makes these electronic gadgets finish seemingly time-consuming tasks in just a few minutes? Tiny electronic circuits are the foundation of all electronic equipment. Reading about the various components of an electronic circuit will help you understand their function and significance. Do share your suggestions and views about this in the comments section below.
// This article was published originally on ICRFQ.

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Electronic gadgets have become an integral part of our lives. They have made our lives more comfortable and convenient. From aviation to medical and healthcare industries, electronic gadgets have a wide range of applications in the modern world. In fact, the electronics revolution and the computer revolution go hand in hand.

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How is work OP-amplifier

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Simple Electronic Circuits for Beginners

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ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students

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Generally, success in early projects plays a vital role in the field of electronics for engineering students' career. Many students quit electronics due to fail in their first attempt. After a few failures, student keeps a misconception that these projects working today might not work tomorrow. Thus, we suggest beginners start with following projects which will give the output in your first attempt and gives motivation for your own work.Before you continue, you should know the working and usage of a breadboard. This article gives top 10 simple electronic circuits for beginners and mini projects for engineering students, but not for final year projects. The following circuits come under basic and small categories.

Top 10 Simple Electronic Circuits for Beginners

The list of top10 simple electronic circuits discussed below are very helpful for the beginners while doing practice, designing of these circuits helps to deal with complex circuits.

DC Lighting Circuit

A DC supply is used for a small LED that has two terminals namely anode and cathode. The anode is +ve and cathode is -ve. Here, a lamp is used as a load, that has two terminals such as positive and negative. The +ve terminals of the lamp are connected to the anode terminal of the battery and the -ve terminal of the battery is connected to the -ve terminal of the battery. A switch is connected in between wire to give a supply DC voltage to the LED bulb.

Rain Alarm

The following rain circuit is used to give an alert when it's going to rain. This circuit is used in homes to guard their washed clothes and other things that are vulnerable to rain when they stay in the home most of the time for their work. The required components to build this circuit are probes. 10K and 330K resistors, BC548 and BC 558 transistors, 3V battery, 01mf capacitor and speaker.

Whenever the rainwater comes in contact with the probe in the above circuit, then the current flows through the circuit to enable the Q1 (NPN) transistor and also Q1 transistor makes Q2 transistor (PNP) to become active. Thus the Q2 transistor conducts and then the flow of current through the speaker generates a buzzer sound. Until the probe is in touch with the water, this procedure replicates again and again. The oscillation circuit built in the above circuit that changes the frequency of the tone, and thus tone can be changed.

Simple Temperature Monitor

This circuit gives an indication using an LED when the battery voltage falls below 9 volts. This circuit is an ideal to monitor the level of charge in 12V small batteries. These batteries are used in burglar alarm systems and portable devices.The working of this circuit depends on the biasing of the base terminal of T1 transistor.

When the voltage of battery is more than 9 volts, then the voltage on base-emitter terminals will be same. This keeps both transistor and LED off. When the voltage of the battery reduces below 9V due to utilization, the base voltage of T1 transistor falls while its emitter voltage remains same since the C1 capacitor is fully charged.At this stage, base terminal of the T1 transistor becomes +ve and turns ON. C1 capacitor discharges through the LED

Touch Sensor Circuit

The touch sensor circuit is built with three components such as a resistor, a transistor and a light emitting diode.Here, both the resistor and LED connected in series with the positive supply to the collector terminal of the transistor. Select a resistor to set the current of the LED to around 20mA. Now give the connections at the two exposed ends, one connection goes to the +ve supply and another goes to the base terminal of the transistor. Now touch these two wires with your finger. Touch these wires with a finger, then the LED lights up!

Multimeter Circuit

A multimeter is a an essential, simple and basic electrical circuit,that is used to measure voltage, resistance and current. It is also used to measure DC as well as AC parameters. Multimeter includes a galvanometer that is connected in series with a resistance. The Voltage across the circuit can be measured by placing the probes of the multimeter across the circuit. The multimeter is mainly used for the continuity of the windings in a motor.

LED Flasher Circuit

The circuit configuration of LED flasher is shown below. The following circuit is built with one of the most popular components like the 555 timer and integrated circuits. This circuit will blink the led ON & OFF at regular intervals.

From left to right in the circuit, the capacitor and the two transistors set the time and it takes to switch the LED ON or OFF. By changing the time it takes to charge the capacitor to activate the timer.The IC 555 timer is used to determine the time of the LED stays ON & OFF. It includes a difficult circuit inside, but since it is enclosed in the integrated circuit.The two capacitors are located at the right side of the timer and these are required for the timer to work properly. The last part is the LED and the resistor. The resistor is used to restrict the current on the LED. So, it won't damage

Invisible Burglar Alarm

The circuit of the invisible burglar alarm is built with a photo transistor and an IR LED. When there is no obstacle in the path of infrared rays, an alarm will not generate buzzer sound. When somebody crosses the Infrared beam, then an alarm generated buzzer sound. If the photo transistor and the infrared LED are enclosed in black tubes and connected perfectly, the circuit range is 1 meter.

When the infrared beam falls on the L14F1 photo transistor, it performs to keep the BC557 (PNP) out of conduction and the buzzer will not generate the sound in this condition. When the infrared beam breaks, then the photo transistor turns OFF, permitting the PNP transistor to perform and the buzzer sounds. Fix the photo transistor and infrared LED on the reverse sides with correct position to make the buzzer silent. Adjust the variable resistor to set the biasing of the PNP transistor.Here other kinds of photo transistors can also be used instead of LI4F1, but L14F1 is more sensitive.

LED Circuit

Light Emitting Diode is a small component that gives light. There is a lot of advantages by using LED because it is very cheap, easy to use and we can easily understand whether the circuit is working or not by its indication.

Under the forward bias condition, the holes and electrons across the junction move back and forth. In that process, they will get combine or otherwise eliminate one another out. After some time if an electron moves from n-type silicon to p-type silicon, then that electron will get combined with a hole and it will disappear. It makes one complete atom and that is more stable, so it will generate little amount of energy in the form of photons of light.

Under reverse bias condition, the positive power supply will draw away all the electrons present in the junction. And all the holes will draw towards the negative terminal. So the junction is depleted with charge carriers and current will not flow through it.

The anode is the long pin. This is the pin you connect to the most positive voltage. The cathode pin should connect to the most negative voltage. They must be connected correctly for the LED to work.

Simple Light Sensitivity Metronome Using Transistors

Any device that produces regular, metrical ticks (beats, clicks) we can call it as Metronome (settable beats per a minute). Here ticks means a fixed, regular aural pulse. Synchronized visual motion like pendulum-swing is also included in some Metronomes.

This is Simple light sensitivity Metronome circuit using Transistors. Two kinds of transistors are used in this circuit, namely transistor number 2N3904 and 2N3906 make an origin frequency circuit. Sound from a loudspeaker will increase and is down by the frequency in the sound.LDR is used in this circuit LDR means Light Dependent Resistor also we can call it as a photo resistor or photocell. LDR is a light controlled variable resistor.

If the incident light intensity increases, then the resistance of LDR will decrease. This phenomenon is called photo conductivity. When lead light flasher comes to near LDR within a darkroom it receives the light, then the resistance of LDR will go down. That will enhance or affect the frequency of the origin, frequency sound circuit. Continuously wood keeps stroking the music by the frequency change in the circuit. Just look at the above circuit for other details.

FM Transmitter using UPC1651

The FM transmitter circuit using UPC1651 is shown below. This circuit is built with UPC1651 IC. This chip is a wide band silicon amplifier, that has a frequency response (1200MHz) and power gain (19dB).

This chip can be worked with 5 volts DC. The received audio signals from the microphone are fed to the i/p pin2 of the chip through the capacitor 'C1'.Here, in the below circuit capacitor acts as a noise filter.

The modulated FM signal will be available at the pin4 (output pin) of the IC. Here, 'C3' capacitor & 'L1' Inductor shapes the required LC circuit for building the oscillations. The transmitter frequency can be altered by regulating the capacitor 'C3'.

This is all about top 10 simple electronic circuits for beginners who are interested in designing their simple electronic circuits . We hope these types of circuits will be helpful for beginners and also engineering students, Furthermore, any queries regarding electrical and electronics projects for engineering students, please give your feedback by commenting in the comment section below. Here is a question for you, what are active and passive components?
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Generally, success in early projects plays a vital role in the field of electronics for engineering students' career. Many students quit electronics due to fail in their first attempt. After a few failures, student keeps a misconception that these projects working today might not work tomorrow.

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Resistor Color Code Calculator and Chart (4-band, 5-band or 6-band)

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Resistor Color Code Calculator and Chart (4-band, 5-band or 6-band)

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Resistor Color Code Calculator and Chart—4 Band, 5 Band, or 6 Band Resistors - Engineering Calculators & Tools

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A handy all-in-one tool for reading resistor color code values for a 4 band resistor, 5 band resistor, or 6 band resistor.

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electronic-components

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ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students

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There are numerous basic electronic components that are used for building electronic circuits. Without these components, circuit designs are never complete or didn't function well. These components include resistors, diodes, capacitors, integrated circuits, and so on. Some of these components consists of two or more terminals which are soldered to circuit boards. Some may be packaged type like integrated circuits in which different semiconductor devices are integrated. Here is a brief overview on each of these basic electronic components and you can get in depth information by clicking links attached to each component.

Basic Electronics Components

An electronic circuit comprises of various types of components, which are classified into two types: active components like transistors, diodes, IC's; and passive components like capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc.

In designing of an electronic circuit following are taken into consideration:

Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.

Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.

Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), multimeters, etc.

Passive Electronic Components

These components can store or maintains energy either in the form of current or voltage. Some of these components are discussed below.

Resistors

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronics component, used to oppose or limit the current. Resistor works based on the principle of Ohm's law which states that "voltage applied across the terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it"
V=IR

The units of the resistance is ohms
Where R is the constant called resistance

Resistors are further classified based on the following specifications such as the power rating, type of material used and resistance value. This resistor types are used for different applications.

Fixed resistors:

This type of resistor is used to set the right conditions in an electronic circuit. The values of resistance in fixed resistors are determined during the design phase of the circuit, based on this there is no need to adjust the circuit.

Variable resistors:

A device that is used to change the resistance according to our requirements in an electronic circuit is known as a variable resistor. These resistors comprise of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps on to the resistor element. Variable resistors are commonly used as a three terminal device for calibration of the device.
Know more about resistors
Capacitors:

A capacitor made from two conductive plates with an insulator between them and it stores electrical energy in the form of an electric field. A capacitor blocks the DC signals and allows the AC signals and also used with a resistor in a timing circuit.
The stored charge is Q=CV

Where
C is the capacitance of a capacitor and
V is the applied voltage.

These capacitors are different types like film, ceramic, electrolytic and variable capacitors. For finding its value number and color coding methods are used and it also possible to find the capacitance value with LCR meters.
Know more about capacitors
Inductors

An inductor is also referred as AC resistor which stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy. It resists the changes in the current and the standard unit of inductance is Henry. Capability of producing magnetic lines is referred as inductance.

The inductance of the inductor is given as L= (µ.K.N2.S)/I.

Where,

L is inductance,
µ is Magnetic permeability,
K is magnetic coefficient,
S is theCross section area of the coil,
N is the Number of turns of the coils,
And I is the Length of the coil in axial direction.

Other passive electronic components include different types of sensors, motors, antennas, memristors, etc. To reducing the complexity of this article few of the passive components are discussed above.
Know more about inductors
Active Electronic Components

These components rely on a source of energy and are able to control the electron flow through them. Some of these components are semiconductors like diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, various displays like LCD, LED, CRTs and power sources like batteries, PV cells and other AC and DC supply sources.

Diodes

A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction and usually made with semiconductor material. It has two terminals, anode and cathode terminals. These are mostly used in converting circuits like AC to DC circuits. These are are of different types like PN diodes, Zener diodes, LEDs, photo diodes, etc.
Know more about diodes
Transistors

A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device. Mostly it is used as switching device and also as an amplifier. This switching device can be a voltage or current controlled.By controlling the voltage applied to the one terminal controls the current flow through the other two terminals. Transistors are of two types, namely bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field effect transistors (FET). And further these can be PNP and NPN transistors.
Know more about transistors
Integrated Circuits

An Integrated circuit is a special component which is fabricated with thousands of transistors, resistors, diodes and other electronic components on a tiny silicon chip. These are the building blocks of current electronic devices like cell phones, computers, etc. These can be analog or digital integrated circuits. Mostly used ICs in electronic circuits are Op-amps, timers, comparators, switches ICs and so on. These can be classified as linear and nonlinear ICs depending on its application.
Know more about ICs
Display Devices

LCD: A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat display technology, which is mostly used in applications like computer monitors, cell phone display, calculators, etc. This technology uses two polarized filters and electrodes for selectively disable or enable the light to pass from reflective backing to the eyes of the viewer.
Know more about LCD CRT:
Cathode ray tube display technology is mostly used in televisions and computer screens that works on the movement of an electron beam back and forth on the back of the screen. This tube is an elongated vacuum tube in which flattened surface has external components as electron gun, electron beam and a phosphorescent screen.
Know more about CRT
Batteries

Batteries are most common power source for standalone industrial, domestic and handheld device applications. It converts chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical discharge reactions. These consist of one or more cells and each cell contains an anode, cathode and the electrolyte. The battery cells are classified into two types namely primary cells and secondary cells. The primary cells are not of rechargeable type but the secondary cells cab be rechargeable.
Know more about Batteries
These are the few basic electronic components with a brief explanation on attached links. Along with electronic components symbols, reader might have got a basic idea about these components. We are pioneers in developing electronics projects using these basic components with advanced controllers.Therefore, readers can comment below regarding any help for testing these components and practical assembling into electronic circuits.

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Overview of Various Basic Electronic Components

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There are numerous basic electronic components that are used for building electronic circuits. Without these components, circuit designs are never complete or didn't function well. These components include resistors, diodes, capacitors, integrated circuits, and so on. Some of these components consists of two or more terminals which are soldered to circuit boards.

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by Chris Woodford. Last updated: May 29, 2021.

Transistors are the tiny electronic components that changed the world: you'll find them in everything from calculators and computers to telephones, radios, and hearing aids. They're amazingly versatile, but that doesn't mean they can do everything. Although we can use them to switch tiny electrical currents on and off (that's the basic principle behind computer memory), and transform small currents into somewhat larger ones (that's how an amplifier works), they're not very useful when it comes to handling much bigger currents. Another drawback is that they turn off altogether as soon as the switching current is removed, which means they're not so useful in devices such as alarms where you want a circuit to trigger and stay on indefinitely. For those sorts of jobs, we can turn to a somewhat similar electronic component called a thyristor, which has things in common with diodes, resistors, and transistors. Thryristors are reasonably easy to understand, though most of the explanations you'll find online are unnecessarily complex and often confusing beyond belief. So that's our starting point: let's see if we can take a clear and simple look at what thyristors are, how they work, and what kinds of things we can use them for!

Artwork: A typical thyristor looks a bit like a transistor-and works in a closely related way.

What are thyristors?

First, let's nail some terminology. Some people use the term silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) interchangeably with "thyristor." In fact, silicon-controlled rectifier is a brand name that General Electric introduced to describe one particular kind of thyristor that it made. There are various other kinds of thyristors too (including ones called diacs and triacs, which are designed to work with alternating current), so the terms aren't completely synonymous. Nevertheless, this article is about keeping things simple, so we'll just talk about thyristors in the most general terms and assume SCRs are exactly the same thing. We'll refer to them as thyristors throughout.

Photo: Thyristors are widely used in electronic power control circuits like this one.

Three connections

So what is a thyristor? It's an electronic component with three leads called the anode (positive terminal), cathode (negative terminal), and gate. These are somewhat analogous to the three leads on a transistor, which you'll remember are called the emitter, collector, and base (for a conventional transistor) or the source, drain, and gate (in a field-effect transistor, or FET). In a conventional transistor, one of the three leads (the base) acts as a control that regulates how much current flows between the other two leads. The same is true of a thyristor: the gate controls the current that flows between the anode and the cathode. (It's worth noting that you can get thryistors with two or four leads, as well as three-lead ones. But we're keeping things simple here, so we'll just talk about the most common variety.)

Transistors versus thyristors

If a transistor and a thyristor do the same job, what's the difference between them? With a transistor, when a small current flows into the base, it makes a larger current flow between the emitter and the collector. In other words, it acts as both a switch and an amplifier at the same time:

How a transistor works: A small current flowing into the base makes a larger current flow between the emitter and the collector. This is an n-p-n transistor with red indicating n-type silicon, blue indicating p-type, black dots representing electrons and white dots representing holes.

A similar thing happens inside a FET, except that we apply a small voltage to the gate to produce an electric field that helps a current flow from the source to the drain. If we remove the small current at the base (or gate), the large current immediately stops flowing from the emitter to the collector (or from the source to the drain in a FET).

Now often that's not what we want to happen. In something like an intruder alarm circuit (where maybe an intruder steps on a pressure pad and the bells start ringing), we want the small current (activated by the pressure pad) to trip the larger current (the ringing bells) and for the larger current to keep on flowing even when the smaller current stops (so the bells still ring even if our hapless intruder realizes his mistake and steps back off the pad). In a thyristor, that's exactly what happens. A small current at the gate triggers a much larger current between the anode and the cathode. But even if we then remove the gate current, the larger current keeps on flowing from the anode to the cathode. In other words, the thyristor stays ("latches") on and remains in that state until the circuit is reset.

Where a transistor generally deals with tiny electronic currents (milliamps), a thyristor can handle real (electric) power currents (several hundred volts and 5-10 amps is typical). That's why we can use them in such things as factory power switches, speed controls for electric motors, household dimmer switches, car ignition switches, surge protectors, and thermostats. Switching time is practically instantaneous (measured in microseconds), and that useful feature, coupled with a lack of moving parts and high reliability, is why thyristors are often used as electronic (solid-state) versions of relays (electromagnetic switches).

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How does a thyristor work?

Thyristors are a logical extension of diodes and transistors, so let's briefly recap on those components. If you're unfamiliar with solid-state electronics, we have longer and clearer explanations of how diodes work and and how transistors work, which you might like to read first.

A thyristor is like two diodes

Recall that a diode is two layers of semiconductor (p-type and n-type) sandwiched together to produce a junction where interesting things happen. According to how you wire up a diode, current will either flow through it or not, making it the electronic equivalent of a one-way street. With a positive connection to the p-type (blue) and a negative connection to the n-type (red), a diode is forward biased, so electrons (black dots) and holes (white dots) move happily across the junction and a normal current flows:

A forward-biased diode: current flows across the junction between the p-type (blue) and n-type (red), carried by electrons (black dots) and holes (white dots).

In the opposite configuration, with a positive connection to the n-type and a negative to the p-type, a diode is reverse biased: the junction becomes a huge chasm that electrons and holes can't cross and no current flows:

A reverse-biased diode: with the battery connected the other way, the "depletion zone" at the junction gets wider, so no current flows.

In a transistor, we have three layers of semiconductor arranged alternately (either p-n-p or n-p-n), giving two junctions where interesting things can happen. (A FET is slightly different, with extra layers of metal and oxide, but still essentially an n-p-n or p-n-p sandwich.). A thyristor is simply the next step in the sequence: four layers of semiconductor, again arranged alternately to give us p-n-p-n (or n-p-n-p if you swap it around) with three junctions in between them. The anode connects to the outer p layer, the cathode to the outer n layer, and the gate to the internal p layer, like this:

A thyristor is like two junction diodes connected together, but with an extra connection to one of the inner layers-the "gate."

You can see that this resembles two junction diodes connected in series, but with the extra gate connection at the bottom. Just like a diode, a thyristor is a rectifier: it conducts in only one direction. You can't make a thyristor simply by wiring two diodes in series: the extra gate connection means there's more to it than that. If you're quite familiar with electronics, you'll note the resemblance between a thyristor and a Shockley diode (a kind of double diode with four alternating semiconductor layers, invented by Transistor pioneer William Shockley in 1956). Thyristors evolved from Shockley's transistor and diode work, which was further developed by Jewell James Ebers, who developed the two-transistor model we're going to cover next.

Artwork: General Electric introduced the first commercially successful thyristor (then called a silicon-controlled rectifier) in July 1957, thanks to the efforts of Robert Hall, Nick Holonyak, F. W. "Bill" Gutzwiller, and others. This is a basic illustration of a thyristor from one of Bill Gutzwiller's patents. Artwork from US Patent 3,040,270: Silicon controlled rectifier circuit including a variable frequency oscillator courtesy of US Patent and Trademark Office.

A thyristor is like two transistors

What's less obvious is that the four layers work like two transistors (an n-p-n and a p-n-p) that are connected together so the output from one forms the input to the other. The gate serves as a kind of "starter motor" to activate them.

A thyristor is also like two transistors connected together, so the output from each one serves as the input to the other one.

The three states of a thyristor

So how does this thing work? We can put it into three possible states, in all three of which it's either completely off or completely on, which means it's essentially a binary, digital device. To understand how these states work, it helps to keep diodes and transistors in mind:

Forward blocking

Normally, with no current flowing into the gate, a thyristor is switched off: no current can flow from the anode to the cathode. Why? Think of the thyristor as two diodes joined together. The upper diode and the lower diode are both forward biased. However, that means the junction in the center is reverse biased, so there's no way for current to get all the way from the top to the bottom. This state is called forward blocking. Although it's similar to forward-bias in a conventional diode, no current flows.

Reverse blocking

Suppose we reverse the anode/cathode connections. Now you can probably see that both the upper and lower diodes are reverse biased, so still no current flows through the thyristor. This is called reverse blocking (and it's analogous to reverse bias in a simple diode).

Forward conducting

The third state is the really interesting one. We need the anode to be positive and the cathode negative. Then, when a current flows into the gate, it switches on the lower transistor, which switches on the upper one, which switches on the lower one, and so on. Each transistor activates the other. We can think of this as a kind of internal, positive feedback in which the two transistors keep feeding current to each other until both of them are fully activated, at which point current can flow through them both from the anode to the cathode. This state is called forward conducting and it's how a thyristor "latches" (stays permanently) on. Once a thyristor is latched on like this, you can't turn it off simply by removing the current to the gate: at this point, the gate current is irrelevant-and you have to interrupt the main current flowing through from the anode to the cathode, often by switching off power to the entire circuit. Don't follow that? Check out the animation in the box below, which I hope will make it clear.

How a thyristor latches on

This little animation is a simple summary of how a thyristor latches on. You'll notice I've redrawn the thyristor so it looks like two transistors (a p-n-p at the top and an n-p-n beneath it) connected together, with the anode, cathode, and gate making the three external connections. Each transistor acts as the input to the other. So how does it work?

1. With no current flowing into the gate, the thyristor is switched off and no current flows between the anode and the cathode.

2. When a current flows into the gate, it effectively flows into the base (input) of the lower (n-p-n) transistor, turning it on.

3. Once the lower transistor is switched on, current can flow through it, activating the base (input) of the upper (p-n-p) transistor, turning that on as well.

4. Once both transistors are turned on completely ("saturated"), current can flow all the way through both of them-through the entire thyristor from the anode to the cathode.

5. Since the two transistors keep one another switched on, the thyristor stays on-"latches"-even if the gate current is removed.

Types of thyristors

Somewhat simplified, that's the crux of how a thyristor works. There are numerous variations, including gate-turn off (GTO) devices (that can be turned on or off by the action of the gate), AGT (anode gate thyristor) devices that have a gate going to the internal n-type layer near the anode (instead of the p-type layer near the cathode), photoelectric thyristors in which the base is activated by light, and all kinds of others. But they all work in broadly similar ways, with a gate tripping one transistor, which then trips the other.

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On this website

You might like these other articles on our site covering similar topics:

Books

Thyristor books

Don't worry that these books are "old": broadly speaking, the physics of semiconductors never dates.

Thyristor Device Data: Motorola, 1988. A detailed compendium of data sheets and more.

Thyristor Physics by Adolph Blicher, Springer, 1976. A detailed look at the solid-state physics of thyristors. You can read the whole text online if you "borrow" the book virtually from the Internet Archive.

110 Thyristor Projects by R.M. Marston, Newnes, 1972. A huge collection of practical thyristor circuits, including power-switching projects, alarms, time-delay circuits, lamp controllers, heater controllers, and motor controllers.

Power Electronics Handbook: Devices, Circuits, and Applications by Muhammad Rashid (ed). Elsevier 2018. Chapters 7-9 cover thyristors.

Semiconductor Controlled Rectifiers: Principles and Applications by F.E. Gentry, F.W. Gutzwiller, and Nick Holonyak, Prentice Hall, 1964. An old but definitive account by the inventors of the technology.

General textbooks

Articles

General

Cosmic Ray Failures of Power Semiconductor Devices: IEEE Spectrum, June 21, 2019. How particles from space can cause failures in power semiconductor devices, such as thyristors.

Try a Triac by Charles Platt. Make, January 10, 2014. Learn about triacs with this hands-on LED project.

High-Power Electronics by Narain G. Hingorani and Karl E. Stahlkopf, Scientific American, Vol 269 No 5, November 1993. An easy-to-understand overview of how high-voltage components such as thyristors are used in power control and transmission.

History

How B. Jayant Baliga Transformed Power Semiconductors by David Schneider. IEEE Spectrum, April 27, 2014. Celebrating the work of B. Jayant Baliga, winner of the 2014 IEEE Medal of Honor, developing thyristors and other power semiconductors.

The silicon p-n-p-n switch and controlled rectifier (thyristor) by Nick Holonyak, Jr. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Jan 2001, Volume 16 Issue 1, pp8-16. This interesting paper (by the inventor of the LED) describes the historical development of thyristors by William Shockley, Jim Ebers, and others.

Early power semiconductor history at GE: The Semiconductor Museum presents an early history of the silicon controlled rectifier, as told in an oral history by one of its pioneers, F.W. "Bill" Gutzwiller.

Patents

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How do thyristors work? | Thyristors and transistors compared

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Advertisement by Chris Woodford. Last updated: May 29, 2021. Transistors are the tiny electronic components that changed the world: you'll find them in everything from calculators and computers to telephones, radios, and hearing aids. They're amazingly versatile, but that doesn't mean they can do everything.