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The EEF is an independent charity dedicated to breaking the link between family income and educational achievement.

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"Oakes and Griffin have produced a remarkable resource that offers a significant guide to enhancing teaching and learning at A level, but with implications beyond years 12 and 13. They have developed a coherent strategy to empower student understanding and help them become confident, self-managing and self-aware learners."

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"Oakes and Griffin have produced a remarkable resource that offers a significant guide to enhancing teaching and learning at A level, but with implications beyond years 12 and 13. They have developed a coherent strategy to empower student understanding and help them become confident, self-managing and self-aware learners."

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Twice-weekly Teaching & Learning blog posts to help schools develop evidence-informed best practices and help students learn, feel and perform better.

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Mary Myatt Learning - learning, leadership and the curriculum

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Mary Myatt is an education adviser, writer and speaker. She trained as an RE teacher and has worked as a local authority adviser and inspector. She engages with pupils, teachers and leaders about learning, leadership and the curriculum.

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In this instalment, host Alex Quigley is joined by co-host, Kirstin Mulholland, EEF associate for content and engagement, with particular interest in maths.Expert guests take part in discussions including: Professor Neil Mercer, Director of Oracy at the University of Cambridge Mrs Nicola Hemming, Deputy Headteacher at Clifton Primary School, Birmingham Simon Cox, Leader at Blackpool Research School They discuss high quality talk and how it can be applied and developed in classrooms.

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A brief guide to Rosenshine's 10 Principles of Instruction

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What are Rosenshine's 10 Principles of Instruction? How do they work? And how can you use them in your classroom? Find out in this brief introduction.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of needs theorises that motivation of learners increases as their needs are met. Maslow orders these needs from physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, room temperature, health etc, all the way up to self-actualisation, that is, the recognitions of one's own potential. As a teacher, we should aim to improve motivation by first addressing the needs of each student and ensuring these are met in order to improve the chances of learning taking place.

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The value of dialogue in learning and empowerment through learning

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Teachers and trainers

The Professional Standards for Teachers and Trainers have been developed with sector professionals and experts to support and inspire your professional learning and career development. The Standards were introduced in 2014 and have been updated in 2022.

Professional standards: Teachers and Trainers

The three domains of practice

They consist of 20 standards organised into three domains of practice, which are visualised below. You can view the individual standards below this section.

Professional Values and Attributes

Seven standards to help you develop your own judgment of what works and does not work in your teaching and training.

Professional Knowledge and Understanding

Five standards which highlight the importance of subject knowledge, teaching expertise, knowledge-sharing, supporting learners with educational difficulties, and professional responsibilities.

Professional Skills

Eight standards which support you to master planning, motivation, coaching and assessment strategies to enable your learners to make excellent progress.

Explore the 20 Professional Standards

Click to open the boxes below and explore each of the 20 standards.

Professional Values and Attributes

1. Critically reflect on and evaluate your practices, values, and beliefs to improve learner outcomes.

2. Promote and embed education for sustainable development (ESD) across learning and working practices.

3. Inspire, motivate, and raise aspirations of learners by communicating high expectations and a passion for learning.

4. Support and develop learners' confidence, autonomy and thinking skills, taking account of their needs and starting points.

5. Value and champion diversity, equality of opportunity, inclusion and social equity.

6. Develop collaborative and respectful relationships with learners, colleagues and external stakeholders.

7. Engage with and promote a culture of continuous learning and quality improvement.

Professional Knowledge and Understanding

1. Develop and update knowledge of your subject specialism, taking account of new practices, research and/ or industry requirements.

2. Critically review and apply your knowledge of educational research, pedagogy, and assessment to develop evidence-informed practice.

3. Share and update knowledge of effective practice with colleagues, networks and/or research communities to support improvement.

4. Develop and apply your knowledge of special educational needs and disabilities to create inclusive learning experiences.

5. Understand your teaching role and responsibilities and how these are influenced by legal, regulatory, institutional and ethical contexts.

Professional Skills

1. Promote and support positive learner behaviour, attitudes and wellbeing.

2. Apply motivational, coaching and skill development strategies to help learners progress and achieve.

3. Plan and deliver learning programmes that are safe, inclusive, stretching and relevant to learners' needs.

4. Select and use digital technologies safely and effectively to promote learning.

5. Develop learners' mathematics, English, digital and wider employability skills.

6. Provide access to up-to-date information, advice and guidance so that learners can take ownership of their learning and make informed progression choices.

7. Apply appropriate and fair methods of assessment and provide constructive and timely feedback to support learning and achievement.

8. Develop enrichment and progression opportunities for learners through collaboration with employers, higher education and/or community groups.

Key Professional Standards resources and tools

More about the updated Professional Standards

How have the Professional Standards changed since 2014?

In 2021, we reviewed the standards, prompted by the rapid changes to working practices and digital learning seen during the Covid-19 pandemic, and the emerging sustainability and wellbeing challenges societies are now addressing. We consulted with colleagues across the entire sector over a period of more than six months.
You can download a transcript for the animation. The original 2014 Professional standards can be viewed for reference.
Why use the Professional Standards?

Benefits of using the Professional Standards are wide ranging. They will:

Help you excel in your teaching practice

Enrich your professional development conversations

Recognise the value of your knowledge-sharing with peers and partners

Support your innovation and creative practices to improve learner outcomes

Encourage you to engage with education for sustainable development

Promote a fair, equitable and respectful learning culture.

How and when can you use the Professional Standards?

You will naturally want to reflect upon your teaching practice, and the standards will help you to identify areas for your own professional development and provide a national reference point for staff development in the FE and Training sector.

Are you a provider of Initial Teacher Education (ITE)?

Using the Professional Standards as an ITE provider

As a provider of Initial Teacher Education courses, what do the updated Professional Standards mean for you?

From Sept 2024 onwards, Further Education ITE courses are planned to change. These new courses will be mapped to and assessed against a new Occupational Standard published by the Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education. Until then, ITE courses will be referenced against the ETF's Professional Standards. The grid below gives details on which Standards ITE institutions should be using:

ITE Provision

Standards Referenced Against

Implications

Trainees who started an ITE course before Sept 2022

2014 Professional Standards

No change to the Standards trainees are asked to evidence. Courses continue with the Standards they started with.

Trainees starting a new ITE course from Sept 2022

Updated 2022 Professional Standards

The revisions are still closely linked to the original 2014 versions, so we do not anticipate ITE providers having to significantly rework their courses.

Trainees starting a new ITE course from Sept 2024

New Occupational Standard

ITE courses will be mapped to and assessed against the new Occupational Standard. From Sept 2023, the Professional Standards will be aimed at supporting teachers and trainers who have gained their ITE qualification to support their ongoing CPD.

Transferring to the updated 2022 Professional Standards

Fortunately, our review process was able to conclude that the original 2014 version of the Professional Standards was held in high esteem. This meant that the 2022 update has been more of a refresh than a thorough rewrite, with much of the original carrying over to the updated version. Some of the Standards have been modified but remain broadly the same, although you may find that some elements have been relocated to different places. There are importantly three brand new Standards for you to signpost, but this is not expected to be an onerous task. You can view a summary of the latest changes in the Professional Standards. Overall, what is needed will be small amendments to the course paperwork and the highlighting of these new elements.

For support with this process, please contact Howard Pilot, National Head for Teacher Education at enquiries@etfoundation.co.uk.

Additional Professional Standards resources

Best Learning/Professional Development Programme - Bronze Award

The Professional Standards were awarded Bronze at the Association Excellence Awards 2023 in the category of Best Learning/Professional Development Programme.

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Professional Standards for Teachers and Trainers

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Learn more about the Professional Standards for teachers and trainers in further education, including online assessment tools.

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The SAMR Model is a framework created by Dr. Ruben Puentedura that categorizes four different degrees of classroom technology integration. The letters "SAMR" stand for Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition. The SAMR model was created to share a common language across disciplines as teachers strive to personalize learning and help students visualize complex concepts. The SAMR Model can be especially powerful during remote and blended learning when integrated classroom technology makes teaching and learning a more seamless experience for educators and students.

Image Modified from Original by Lefflerd's on Wikimedia Commons

While we often visualize the SAMR model as a ladder or staircase as above, this can be misleading because Substitution (the bottom rung or step) is sometimes the best choice for a particular lesson. This is why it's better to think of the SAMR model more as a spectrum. On one end, technology is used as a one-to-one replacement for traditional tools, and on the other end, technology enables experiences that were previously impossible without it.

Regardless of how you visualize it, the SAMR framework can be a simple and effective way to assess how you incorporate technology into your instruction.

The SAMR Model Explained (with Examples)

The SAMR model consists of four steps: Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition. Substitution and Augmentation are considered "Enhancement" steps, while Modification and Redefinition are "Transformation" steps. Think of the difference between seasoning an old family recipe (Enhancement) and creating an entirely new, original dish (Transformation).

Substitution

At this stage, technology is directly substituted for a more traditional teaching tool or method. It is a simple, bare-bones, direct replacement. For example, if you are teaching a government lesson on the Constitution, you might use an electronic or web-based version of the document instead of a hard copy. Students might also answer questions about the Constitution by typing them in Microsoft Word instead of filling out a worksheet with a pencil.

Substitution might also include a student using Flipgrid, Keynote, PowerPoint, Prezi, Slides, or a similar program to present information about an article or amendment to the class.

In this step, ask yourself what students stand to gain by replacing traditional tools with technology. Invariably, some situations will be better served by pen and paper.

Augmentation

The technology is again directly substituted for a traditional tool or method, but with significant enhancements to the student experience. Ask yourself if the technology increases or augments a student's productivity and potential in some way.

Returning to the Constitution example, a student might use classroom technology to augment a presentation on the 14th Amendment with a video clip of how equal protection under the law was enforced during school desegregation. It could also include interactive links to relevant supreme court decisions, such as Plessy v. Ferguson or Brown v. Topeka Board of Education.

Modification

In this stage, you are beginning to move from enhancement to transformation using the SAMR Model. Instead of replacement or enhancement, this is an actual change to the lesson's design and its learning outcome. The critical question here is, "does the technology significantly alter the learning task?"

A student presenting research on the 14th Amendment-to continue our example-might create their own unique graphic organizer for the class that not only includes the usual multimedia resources but represents a new product or synthesis of existing material. As another example, a group of students might collaborate in the learning management system (LMS) to propose a modern definition of equal protection under the law and solicit feedback on their proposals from classmates in the discussion section.

Redefinition

The last stage of the SAMR model represents the pinnacle of how integrated classroom technology can transform a student's experience. In this case, you ask yourself if the technology tools allow educators to redefine a traditional learning task in a way that would not be possible without the tech, creating a novel experience.

For example, after completing their group work and soliciting feedback from classmates (both tasks that could be completed "offline" although arguably not with the same experience as in the modified format), students could use technology to network with students in another state to see how regional differences impact how others think about the Constitution. Taking it a step further, students could interact in real time with citizens in another country to examine key differences in constitutional philosophy and law.

SAMR and Webb's Depth of Knowledge

Many educators use the SAMR model and Webb's Depth of Knowledge (DOK)[1] in tandem to make their technology integration more purposeful. However, it's a common mistake to conflate the two models and think that deeper technology integration (the M and R in SAMR) leads to higher-order thinking skills or increased rigor defined in Webb's DOK. This is simply not the case.

So, while it may be helpful to use SAMR and Webb's Depth of Knowledge to better flesh out your instructional strategy, keep in mind that they were designed for very different purposes.

Putting the SAMR Model into Context

A buzzword that's been on everyone's lips several years-even more so since the onset of COVID-19-is "blended learning." Educators talk about incorporating technology into lessons on a regular basis, but are you doing it in a meaningful way?

Simply substituting an eBook for a textbook or streaming the same lessons over video chat aren't going to cut it. It's essential to be purposeful in how you integrate technology into your instruction.

Just don't fall into that ever-present trap of thinking that Redefinition is the goal or the best approach in all cases. Remember: SAMR is a spectrum. Substitution can be your best option for a particular setting. But if your entire instructional approach consists of digitizing your resources without enhancing them-that textbook to eBook transition-then it may be time to evaluate why you're using technology in the first place.

Layering technology into antiquated tasks isn't going to improve the learning experience. But purposefully altering the substance of these tasks to address the skills students need today-and those they'll need tomorrow-will enhance learning.

[1] https://inservice.ascd.org/what-exactly-is-depth-of-knowledge-hint-its-not-a-wheel/

Get Resource Kit

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SAMR Model: A Practical Guide for K-12 Classroom Technology Integration

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Discover how to enhance student learning using integrated classroom technology and the SAMR Model in your K-12 blended classroom.

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Here is the older classification of learning levels created by Bloom along with a newer version.

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Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult.

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Below we have provided a summary of Vygotsky's concept of the "Zone of Proximal Development." You may be already familiar with this, but here we'd like you to refresh and focus on how this might inform your thoughts on challenge and learning.

Vygotsky stresses the importance of looking at each child as an individual who learns distinctively. Consequently, the knowledge and skills that are worthwhile learning varies with the individual.

The overall goal of education according to Vygotsky is to "generate and lead development which is the result of social learning through internalization of culture and social relationships". He repeatedly stressed the importance of past experiences and prior knowledge in making sense of new situations or present experiences. Therefore, all new knowledge and newly introduced skills are greatly influenced by each student's culture, especially their family environment.

Vygotsky promoted the development of higher level thinking and problem solving in education. If situations are designed to have students utilize critical thinking skills, their thought processes are being challenged and new knowledge gained. The knowledge achieved through experience also serves as a foundation for the behaviours of every individual.

Vygotsky's concept of the "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD) posits that human potential is theoretically limitless; but the practical limits of human potential depend upon quality social interactions and residential environment. This ZPD is "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers". In theory, then, so long as a person has access to a more capable peer, any problem can be solved.

Lev Vygotsky and the "Zone of Proximal Development" (ZPD)

The ZPD works in conjunction with the use of scaffolding. Knowledge, skills and prior experiences, which come from an individual's general knowledge, create the foundation of scaffolding for potential development. At this stage, students interact with adults and/or peers to accomplish a task, which could possibly not be completed independently. The use of language and shared experience is essential to successfully implementing scaffolding as a learning tool.

Vygotsky defined the "More Knowledgeable Other" (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regards to a specific task, concept or process. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult. However, this is not always the case. Other possibilities for the MKO could be a peer, sibling, a younger person, or even a computer. The key to MKO is that they must have more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does. Teachers or more capable peers can raise the student's competence through the ZPD.

In summary

Vygotsky's findings suggest that the curriculum should generally challenge and stretch learner's competence. The curriculum should provide many opportunities to apply previous skills, knowledge and experiences, with "authentic activities connected to real-life environment" "... since children learn much through interaction, curricula should be designed to emphasize interaction between learners and learning tasks".

(Adapted from 'The Educational Theory of Lev Vygotsky: an analysis' M. Dahms, K. Geonnotti, D. Passalacqua. J. N. Schilk, A. Wetzel, and M. Zulkowsky, 2007.)

Analyse

How might Vygotsky's concept of the "Zone of Proximal Development" inform the way you teach and differentiate learning in your classroom?

Don't worry if you haven't fully formed your thinking, it's worth capturing your initial ideas in the comments first. Then, draw upon other learners' contributions to help you develop your thinking.

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Vygotsky's concept of the "Zone of Proximal Development"

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Below we have provided a summary of Vygotsky's concept of the "Zone of Proximal Development." You may be already familiar with this, but here we'd like you to refresh and focus on how this might inform your thoughts on challenge and learning. Vygotsky stresses the importance of looking at each child as an individual who learns distinctively.

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Love the Jasper ERA Cycle, so easy to use and easy to relate to quickly in your own practice.

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Rogers believed that all people have a natural ability to learn, the role of the teacher is to co-facilitate an individuals learning. The role is to set a positive climate to learning, clarifying the purposes of the learners, organising and making available learning materials, balancing emotional and inter learning, sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.
According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers< also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.
This theory became part of the humanistic education movement and is used mainly with adult learners.

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Since beginning his educational career in 1970, Stephen has worked in England, Canada, and the United States, teaching and consulting in a variety of adult, community, organizational and higher education settings. His overall project is to help people learn to think critically about the dominant ide…

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Donald Schon (Schön): learning, reflection and change. Donald Schon made a remarkable contribution to our understanding of the theory and practice of learning. His innovative thinking around notions such as 'the learning society', 'double-loop learning' and 'reflection-in-action' has become part of the language of education. We explore his work and some of the key themes that emerge. What assessment can we make now?

Contents: introduction · donald schon · public and private learning and the learning society · double-loop learning · the reflective practitioner - reflection-in- and -on-action · conclusion · further reading and references · links · how to cite this article

Note: I have used Donald Schon rather than Donald Schön (which is the correct spelling) as English language web search engines (and those using them!) often have difficulties with umlauts).

Donald Alan Schon (1930-1997) trained as a philosopher, but it was his concern with the development of reflective practice and learning systems within organizations and communities for which he is remembered. Significantly, he was also an accomplished pianist and clarinettist - playing in both jazz and chamber groups. This interest in improvisation and structure was mirrored in his academic writing, most notably in his exploration of professional's ability to 'think on their feet'. On this page we review his achievements and focus on three elements of his thinking: learning systems (and learning societies and institutions); double-loop and organizational learning (arising out of his collaboration with Chris Argyris); and the relationship of reflection-in-action to professional activity.

Donald Schon

Donald Schon was born in Boston in 1930 and raised in Brookline and Worcester. He graduated from Yale in 1951 (Phi Beta Kappa), where he studied philosophy. He was also a student at the Sorbonne, Paris and Conservatoire Nationale de Music, where he studied clarinet and was awarded the Premier Prix. After graduating, he received the Woodrow Wilson Fellowship and continued at Harvard, where he earned master's and doctoral degrees in philosophy. The focus for his doctoral dissertation (1955) was John Dewey's theory of inquiry - and this provided him with the pragmatist framework that runs through his later work. In 1953 he began to teach Philosophy at the University of California, Los Angeles. This was followed by two years of service in the U.S. Army. Concurrently, he lectured at University of Kansas City as an Assistant Professor of Philosophy.

Working from 1957-63 as senior staff member in the industrial research firm Arthur D. Little, Inc., Donald Schon formed the New Product Group in the Research and Development Division. Under the Kennedy administration, he was appointed director of the Institute for Applied Technology in the National Bureau of Standards at the US Department of Commerce (he continued there until 1966). He then co-founded and directed OSTI (Organization for Social and Technological Innovation), a non-profit social research and development firm in the Boston area (he left the directorship in 1973).

His first book, Displacement of Concepts (1963) (republished in 1967 as Invention and the Evolution of Ideas) dealt with 'the ways in which categories are used to examine "things" but are not themselves examined as ways of thinking' (Parlett 1991, quoted in Pakman 2000). Pakman (2000:3) goes on to comment:

The interest in metaphor expressed in that book, would grow years later toward his elaborations on "generative metaphor," and its role in allowing us to see things anew. Thus, he was already showing some of what would be epistemological enduring interests for his inquiry, namely: learning and its cognitive tools, and the role of reflection (or lack of it) in learning processes in general, and conceptual and perceptual change in particular.

Donald Schon's next book Technology and Change, The new Heraclitus (1967) developed out of his experience as an organizational consultant and received considerable critical acclaim. He was invited to give the 1970 Reith Lectures in London. His focus, 'Change and industrial society', became the basis for his path-breaking book: Beyond the Stable State. Schon's central argument was that 'change' was a fundamental feature of modern life and that it is necessary to develop social systems that could learn and adapt. Both books show the influence of the work of his great friend and colleague, Raymond Hainer. (Donald Schon had been able to work through his ideas with Hainer, and to draw upon, for example, his exploration of pragmatism, rationalism and existentialism [Hainer 1968]).

Donald Schon became a visiting professor at MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) in 1968. In 1972, he was appointed Ford Professor of Urban Studies and Education there. From 1990-92, he served as chair of the Department of Urban Studies and Planning. He later became Ford Professor Emeritus and senior lecturer in the School of Architecture and Planning. The time at MIT was very productive - and he was later to describe the climate of MIT's Division for Study and Research in Education as especially conducive to thinking and research. While he was there he began a very fruitful collaboration with Chris Argyris. This collaboration involved teaching, researching and consulting and resulted in three key publications: Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness (1974), Organizational Learning: A Theory of Action Perspective (1978), and Organizational Learning II: Theory, Method, and Practice (1996). Here we can see Donald Schon's attention moving toward some of the themes that emerged in The Stable State. There is a concern with professional learning, learning processes in organizations, and with developing critical, self-reflecting practice.

It was the last of these areas that then provided the focus for the deeply influential series of books around the processes and development of reflective practitioners (1983; 1987; 1991). He sought to offer an approach to an epistemology of practice based on a close examination of what a (small) number of different practitioners actually do. The heart of this study was, he wrote, 'an analysis of the distinctive structure of reflection-in-action' (1983: ix). He argued that it was 'susceptible to a kind of rigor that is both like and unlike the rigor of scholarly work and controlled experimentation' ( op. cit.). His work was quickly, and enthusiastically, taken up by a large number of people involved in the professional development of educators, and a number of other professional groupings.

His last major new literary project arose out of a long-term collaboration, dating back to the early 1970s, with Martin Rein (a colleague at MIT). Frame Reflection (Schon and Rein 1994) is concerned with the ways in which intractable policy controversies can be reconciled. During his later years Donald Schon also developed an interest in software design and, in particular, the role of computers in designing, and the uses of design games to expand designing capabilities.

Donald Schon died September 13, 1997 at Brigham and Women's Hospital after a seven-month illness.

Public and private learning, and the learning society

While it is Donald Schon's work on organizational learning and reflective practice that tends to receive the most attention in the literature, his exploration of the nature of learning systems and the significance of learning in changing societies has helped to define debates around the so called ' learning society '. Indeed, Stewart Ranson (1998: 2) describes Donald Schon as 'the great theorist of the learning society'. He was part of the first wave of thinkers around the notion (other key contributors include Robert M. Hutchins 1970; Amitai Etzioni 1968; and Torsten Husen 1974). Hutchins, in a book first published in 1968, had argued that a 'learning society' had become necessary. 'The two essential facts are... the increasing proportion of free time and the rapidity of change. The latter requires continuous education; the former makes it possible (1970: 130). He looked to ancient Athens for a model. There:

education was not a segregated activity, conducted for certain hours, in certain places, at a certain time of life. It was the aim of the society. The city educated the man. The Athenian was educated by culture, by paideia. (Hutchins 1970: 133)

Slavery made this possible - releasing citizens to participate in the life of the city. Hutchins' argument is that 'machines can do for modern man what slavery did for the fortunate few in Athens' ( op. cit.)

Donald Schon (1973, first published 1971) takes as his starting point the loss of the stable state. Belief in the stable state, he suggests, is belief in 'the unchangeability, the constancy of central aspects of our lives, or belief that we can attain such a constancy' (Schon 1973: 9). Such a belief is strong and deep, and provides a bulwark against uncertainty. Institutions are characterized by 'dynamic conservatism' - 'a tendency to fight to remain the same' ( ibid.: 30). However, with technical change continuing exponentially its pervasiveness and frequency was 'uniquely threatening to the stable state' ( ibid.: 26). He then proceeds to build the case for a concern with learning (see inset).

Exhibit 1: Donald Schon on learning and the loss of the stable state

The loss of the stable state means that our society and all of its institutions are in continuous processes of transformation. We cannot expect new stable states that will endure for our own lifetimes.

We must learn to understand, guide, influence and manage these transformations. We must make the capacity for undertaking them integral to ourselves and to our institutions.

We must, in other words, become adept at learning. We must become able not only to transform our institutions, in response to changing situations and requirements; we must invent and develop institutions which are 'learning systems', that is to say, systems capable of bringing about their own continuing transformation.

The task which the loss of the stable state makes imperative, for the person, for our institutions, for our society as a whole, is to learn about learning.

What is the nature of the process by which organizations, institutions and societies transform themselves?

What are the characteristics of effective learning systems?

What are the forms and limits of knowledge that can operate within processes of social learning?

What demands are made on a person who engages in this kind of learning? (Schon 1973: 28-9)

Donald Schon argues that social systems must learn to become capable of transforming themselves without intolerable disruption. In this 'dynamic conservatism' has an important place.

A learning system... must be one in which dynamic conservatism operates at such a level and in such a way as to permit change of state without intolerable threat to the essential functions the system fulfils for the self. Our systems need to maintain their identity, and their ability to support the self-identity of those who belong to them, but they must at the same time be capable of transforming themselves. (Schon 1973: 57)

Schon's great innovation at this point was to explore the extent to which companies, social movements and governments were learning systems - and how those systems could be enhanced. He suggests that the movement toward learning systems is, of necessity, 'a groping and inductive process for which there is no adequate theoretical basis' ( op. cit). The business firm, Donald Schon argues, is a striking example of a learning system. He charts how firms moved from being organized around products toward integration around 'business systems' ( ibid.: 64). In an argument that has found many echoes in the literature of the ' learning organization ' some twenty years later, Donald Schon makes the case that many companies no longer have a stable base in the technologies of particular products or the systems build around them. A firm is:

... an internal learning system in which the system's interactions... must now become a matter of directed transformation of the whole system. These directed transformations are in part the justification for the business systems firm. But they oblige it to internalise processes of information flow and sequential innovation which have traditionally been left to the 'market' and to the chain reactions within and across industry lines - reactions in which each firm had only to worry about its own response as one component. The business firm, representing the whole functional system, must now learn to effect the transformation and diffusion of the system as a whole. (Schon 1973: 75)

In many respects, we could not ask for a better rationale for Peter Senge's later championship of the Fifth Discipline (systemic thinking) in the generation of learning organizations.

Two key themes arise out of Donald Schon's discussion of learning systems: the emergence of functional systems as the units around which institutions define themselves; and the decline of centre-periphery models of institutional activity ( ibid.: 168). He contrasts classical models of diffusing innovation with a learning system model.

Classical models for the diffusion of innovations Learning systems' models around the diffusion of innovation

The unit of innovation is a product or technique.

The unit of innovation is a functional system.

The pattern of diffusion is centre-periphery.

The pattern of diffusion is systems transformation.

Relatively fixed centre and leadership.

Shifting centre, ad hoc leadership.

Relatively stable message; pattern of replication of a central message.

Evolving message; family resemblance of messages.

Scope limited by resource and energy at the centre and by capacity of 'spokes'.

Scope limited by infrastructure technology.

'Feedback' loop moves from secondary to primary centre and back to all secondary centres.

'Feedback' loops operate local and universally throughout the systems network.

In this we can see the significance of networks, flexibility, feedback and organizational transformation. At the same time we have to recognize that the 'ways of knowing' offered by the dominant rational/experimental model are severely limited in situations of social change. Donald Schon looks to a more 'existentially'-oriented approach. He argues for formulating projective models that can be carried forward into further instances (a key aspect of his later work on reflective practice).

Moreover, learning isn't simply something that is individual. Learning can also be social:

A social system learns whenever it acquires new capacity for behaviour, and learning may take the form of undirected interaction between systems... [G]overnment as a learning system carries with it the idea of public learning, a special way of acquiring new capacity for behaviour in which government learns for the society as a whole. In public learning, government undertakes a continuing, directed inquiry into the nature, causes and resolution of our problems.

The need for public learning carries with it the need for a second kind of learning. If government is to learn to solve new public problems, it must also learn to create the systems for doing so and discard the structure and mechanisms grown up around old problems. (Schon 1973: 109)

The opportunity for learning, Donald Schon suggests, is primarily in discovered systems at the periphery, 'not in the nexus of official policies at the centre' ( ibid.: 165). He continues, 'the movement of learning is as much from periphery to periphery, or from periphery to centre, as from centre to periphery'. Very much after Carl Rogers, Donald Schon asserts that, 'Central comes to function as facilitator of society's learning, rather than as society's trainer' ( ibid.: 166).

Taken together, the themes that emerged in Beyond the Stable State provided a rich and highly suggestive basis for theorizing about both ' the learning society' and ' the learning organization '. Yet for all his talk of networks and the significance of the 'periphery, Donald Schon's analysis falters when it comes to the wider picture.

While his critical analysis of systems theory substitutes responsive networks for traditional hierarchies, his theory of governance remains locked in top-down paternalism. Only an understanding of the role of democratic politics can provide answers to the purposes and conditions for the learning society he desires. The way societies learn about themselves, and the processes by which they transform themselves, is through politics, and the essence of politics is learning through public deliberation, which is the characteristic of effective learning systems. (Ranson (1998: 9)

Donald Schon's later work with Martin Rein around frame reflection does attend to some matters of public deliberation - but the broad line of argument made by Stuart Ranson here would seem to stand. It was the contribution of two of Schon's contemporaries - Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire - that takes us forward. The formers focus on learning webs, the debilitating impact of professionalization, and the need for an ecological appreciation; and the latter's championship of dialogue and concern to combat oppression allow for a more committed and informed engagement with the 'learning society' and 'learning organization'.

Double-loop learning and theories in use

Donald Schon's work on learning systems fed nicely into a very significant collaboration with Chris Argyris around professional effectiveness and organizational learning. Their (1974) starting point was that people have mental maps with regard to how to act in situations. This involves the way they plan, implement and review their actions. Furthermore, they asserted that it is these maps that guide people's actions rather than the theories they explicitly espouse. One way of making sense of this is to say that there is split between theory and action. Chris Argyris and Donald Schon suggested that two theories of action are involved. They are those theories that are implicit in what we do as practitioners and managers, and those on which we call to speak of our actions to others. The former can be described as theories-in-use. The words we use to convey what we, do or what we would like others to think we do, can then be called espoused theory. This was an important distinction and is very helpful when exploring questions around professional and organizational practice (see Chris Argyris and theories of action for a full treatment of this area).

To fully appreciate theory-in-use we require a model of the processes involved. To this end Argyris and Schon (1974) initially looked to three elements:

Governing variables: those dimensions that people are trying to keep within acceptable limits. Any action is likely to impact upon a number of such variables - thus any situation can trigger a trade-off among governing variables.

Action strategies: the moves and plans used by people to keep their governing values within the acceptable range.

Consequences: what happens as a result of an action. These can be both intended - those actor believe will result - and unintended. In addition those consequences can be for the self, and/or for others. (Anderson 1997)

For Argyris and Schön (1978: 2) learning involves the detection and correction of error. Where something goes wrong, they suggested, a starting point for many people is to look for another strategy that will address and work within the governing variables. In other words, given or chosen goals, values, plans and rules are operationalized rather than questioned. According to Argyris and Schön (1974), this is single-loop learning. An alternative response is to question to governing variables themselves, to subject them to critical scrutiny. This they describe as double-loop learning. Such learning may then lead to an alteration in the governing variables and, thus, a shift in the way in which strategies and consequences are framed. (See Chris Argyris and double-loop learning).

When they came to explore the nature of organizational learning Chris Argyris and Donald Schon (1978: 2-3) described the process as follows:

When the error detected and corrected permits the organization to carry on its present policies or achieve its presents objectives, then that error-and-correction process is single-loop learning. Single-loop learning is like a thermostat that learns when it is too hot of too cold and turns the heat on or off. The thermostat can perform this task because it can receive information (the temperature of the room) and take corrective action. Double-loop learning occurs when error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organization's underlying norms, policies and objectives.

Single-loop learning seems to be present when goals, values, frameworks and, to a significant extent, strategies are taken for granted. The emphasis is on 'techniques and making techniques more efficient' (Usher and Bryant: 1989: 87) Any reflection is directed toward making the strategy more effective. Double-loop learning, in contrast, 'involves questioning the role of the framing and learning systems which underlie actual goals and strategies' ( op. cit.).

Finger and Asún (2000) argue that this constitutes a two-fold contribution to pragmatic learning theory. First, their introduction of the notion of 'theory in action' gives greater coherence and structure to the function of 'abstract conceptualization' in Kolb's very influential presentation of experiential learning. 'Abstract conceptualisation now becomes something one can analyse and work from' (Finger and Asún 2000: 45). Second, they give a new twist to pragmatic learning theory:

Unlike Dewey's, Lewin's or Kolb's learning cycle, where one had, so to speak, to make a mistake and reflect upon it... it is now possible... to learn by simply reflecting critically upon the theory-in-action. In other words, it is not longer necessary to go through the entire learning circle in order to develop the theory further. It is sufficient to readjust the theory through double-loop learning ( ibid.: 45-6)

To be fair to John Dewey, he did not believe it was necessary to go through a series of set stages in order to learn (although he is often represented as doing so). However, Finger and Asún's main point stands. The notion of double-loop learning adds considerably to our appreciation of experiential learning.

The reflective practitioner - reflection-in- and -on-action

Donald Schon's third great contribution was to bring 'reflection' into the centre of an understanding of what professionals do. The opening salvo of The Reflective Practitioner (1983) is directed against 'technical-rationality' as the grounding of professional knowledge. Usher et. al. (1997: 143) sum up well the crisis he identifies. Technical-rationality is a positivist epistemology of practice. It is 'the dominant paradigm which has failed to resolve the dilemma of rigour versus relevance confronting professionals'. Donald Schon, they claim, looks to an alternative epistemology of practice 'in which the knowledge inherent in practice is be understood as artful doing' ( op. cit.). Here we can make a direct link between Donald Schon and Elliot Eisner's (1985; 1998) interest in practitioners as connoisseurs and critics (see Eisner on evaluation).

The notions of reflection-in-action, and reflection-on-action were central to Donald Schon's efforts in this area. The former is sometimes described as 'thinking on our feet'. It involves looking to our experiences, connecting with our feelings, and attending to our theories in use. It entails building new understandings to inform our actions in the situation that is unfolding.

The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which have been implicit in his behaviour. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation. (Schön 1983: 68)

We test out our 'theories' or, as John Dewey might have put it, 'leading ideas' and this allows to develop further responses and moves. Significantly, to do this we do not closely follow established ideas and techniques - textbook schemes. We have to think things through, for every case is unique. However, we can draw on what has gone before. In many respects, Donald Schon is using a distinction here that would have been familiar to Aristotle - between the technical (productive) and the practical.

We can link this process of thinking on our feet with reflection-on-action. This is done later - after the encounter. Workers may write up recordings, talk things through with a supervisor and so on. The act of reflecting-on-action enables us to spend time exploring why we acted as we did, what was happening in a group and so on. In so doing we develop sets of questions and ideas about our activities and practice.

The notion of repertoire is a key aspect of this approach. Practitioners build up a collection of images, ideas, examples and actions that they can draw upon. Donald Schon, like John Dewey (1933: 123), saw this as central to reflective thought.

When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire. To see this site as that one is not to subsume the first under a familiar category or rule. It is, rather, to see the unfamiliar, unique situation as both similar to and different from the familiar one, without at first being able to say similar or different with respect to what. The familiar situation functions as a precedent, or a metaphor, or... an exemplar for the unfamiliar one. (Schön 1983: 138)

In this way we engage with a situation. We do not have a full understanding of things before we act, but, hopefully, we can avoid major problems while 'testing the water'. When looking at a situation we are influenced by, and use, what has gone before, what might come, our repertoire, and our frame of reference. We are able to draw upon certain routines. As we work we can bring fragments of memories into play and begin to build theories and responses that fit the new situation.

There have been three important areas of criticism with regard to this model (beyond those wanting to hang onto 'technical rationality'). First, the distinction between reflection in and on action has been the subject of some debate (see Eraut 1994 and Usher et al 1997). Indeed Donald Schon may well have failed to clarify what is involved in the reflective process - and there is a problem, according to Eraut, around time - 'when time is extremely short, decisions have to be rapid and the scope for reflection is extremely limited' (1994: 145). There have also been no psychological elaborations of the psychological realities of reflection in action (Russell and Munby 1989). However, when we take reflection in and on action together it does appear that Schon has hit upon something significant. Practitioners are able to describe how they 'think on their feet', and how they make use of a repertoire of images, metaphors and theories. However, such processes cannot be repeated in full for everything we do. There is a clear relationship between reflection in and on action. People draw upon the processes, experiences and understandings generated through reflection on action. In turn, things can be left and returned to.

We have to take certain things as read. We have to fall back on routines in which previous thought and sentiment has been sedimented. It is here that the full importance of reflection-on-action becomes revealed. As we think and act, questions arise that cannot be answered in the present. The space afforded by recording, supervision and conversation with our peers allows us to approach these. Reflection requires space in the present and the promise of space in the future. (Smith 1994: 150)

Second, there is some question as to the extent to which his conceptualisation of reflective practice entails praxis. While there is a clear emphasis on action being informed, there is less focus on the commitments entailed. Donald Schon creates, arguably, 'a descriptive concept, quite empty of content' (Richardson 1990: 14). While he does look at values and interpretative systems, it is the idea of repertoire that comes to the fore. In other words what he tends to look at is the process of framing and the impact of frame-making on situations:

As [inquirers] frame the problem of the situation, they determine the features to which they will attend, the order they will attempt to impose on the situation, the directions in which they will try to change it. In this process, they identify both the ends to be sought and the means to be employed. (Schön 1983: 165)

The ability to draw upon a repertoire of metaphors and images that allow for different ways of framing a situation is clearly important to creative practice and is a crucial insight. We can easily respond in inappropriate ways in situations through the use of an ill-suited frame. However, what we also must hold in view is some sense of what might make for the good (see Smith 1994: 142-145).

Third, it could be argued that while Donald Schon is engaged here in the generation of formal theory - 'what we do not find in Schon is a reflection by him on his own textual practice in giving some kind of account of that he does of reflection-in-action and the reflective practicum... He does not interrogate his own method'. (Usher et. Al 1997: 149). A more sustained exploration of his methodology may well have revealed some significant questions, for example, the extent to which he 'neglects the situatedness of practitioner experience' ( ibid.: 168). This is a dimension that we have become rather more aware of following Lave and Wenger's (1991) exploration of situated learning. It may well be that this failure to attend to method and to problematize the production of his models and ideas has also meant that his contribution in this area has been often used in a rather unreflective way by trainers.

Conclusion

The impact of Donald Schon's work on reflective practice has been significant - with many training and education programmes for teachers and informal educators adopting his core notions both in organizing experiences and in the teaching content. Indeed, there is a very real sense in which his work on reflective practice has become 'canonical' - frequently appealed to by trainers in a variety of professional fields (Usher et . al. 1997: 143). As such they have suffered from being approached in ways that would have troubled Donald Schon. Rather too often, practitioners are exhorted to 'apply' his theories and exemplars to their own situations and experiences. For him reflective practice was to be enacted. It may be that his theory of reflective practice is far less 'critical' than it appears to be, 'since it is not directed to its own situated practice of doing theory' (Usher et. al. 19977: 147). However, it remains very suggestive - and for has some very real echoes in people's accounts of their processes as 'professionals'.

In a similar fashion, his work with Chris Argyris still features very strongly in debates around organizational learning and the possibilities, or otherwise, of learning organizations. And while there is good deal of rhetoric around the notion of the learning society, as Stuart Ranson has convincingly argued, it is Donald Schon's work on learning systems that still provides the most thorough theoretical treatment.

Taken together with his work on design and upon the 'resolution of intractable policy controversies' via 'frame reflection' this is a remarkable catalogue of achievements. Interestingly, though, it is difficult to find a sustained exploration of his contribution as a whole. While there are discussions of different aspects of his thinking (e.g. Newman 1999 analysis of Schon's 'epistemology of reflective practice'), as far as I know, his work has not been approached in its totality. This is a great pity. Going back to books like Beyond the Stable State pays great dividends.

Further reading and references

Argyris, M. and Schön, D. (1974) Theory in Practice. Increasing professional effectiveness, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Landmark statement of 'double-loop' learning' and distinction between espoused theory and theory-in-action.

Schön, D. A. (1973) Beyond the Stable State. Public and private learning in a changing society, Harmondsworth: Penguin. 236 pages. A very influential book (following Schön's 1970 Reith Lectures) arguing that 'change' is a fundamental feature of modern life and that it is necessary to develop social systems that can learn and adapt. Schön develops many of the themes that were to be such a significant part of his collaboration with Chris Argyris and his exploration of reflective practice.

Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith. 374 + x. Influential book that examines professional knowledge, professional contexts and reflection-in-action. Examines the move from technical rationality to reflection-in-action and examines the process involved in various instances of professional judgement.

Schön, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 355 + xvii pages. Development of the thinking in the 1983 book with sections on understanding the need for artistry in professional education; the architectural studio as educational model for reflection-in-action; how the reflective practicum works; and implications for improving professional education.

References

Anderson, L. (1997) Argyris and Schön's theory on congruence and learning [On line]. Was available at http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/sawd/arr/argyris.html

Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1974) Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1978) Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.

Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1996) Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think, New York: D. C. Heath.

Eisner, E. W. (1985) The Art of Educational Evaluation. A personal view, Barcombe: Falmer.

Eisner, E. W. (1998) The Enlightened Eye. Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Eraut, M. (1994) Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence, London: Falmer.

Etzioni, A. (1968) The Active Society. The theory of societal and political processes, New York: Free Press.

Finger, M. and Asún, M. (2000) Adult Education at the Crossroads. Learning our way out, London: Zed Books.

Hainer, R. M. (1968) 'Rationalism, pragmatism and existentialism' in E. Glatt and M. W. Shelly (eds.) The Research Society, New York: Gordon and Breach.

Husén, T. (1974) The Learning Society, London: Methuen.

Hutchins, R. M. (1970) The Learning Society, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Newman, S. (1999) Philosophy and Teacher Education: A Reinterpretation of Donald A. Schon's Epistemology of Reflective Practice, London: Avebury

Pakman, M. (2000) 'Thematic Foreword: Reflective Practices: The Legacy Of Donald Schön', Cybernetics & Human Knowing, Vol.7, no.2-3, 2000, pp. 5-8. http://www.imprint.co.uk/C&HK/vol7/Pakman_foreword.PDF

Ranson, R. (1998) 'Lineages of the learning society' in S. Ranson (ed.) Inside the Learning Society, London: Cassell.

Richardson, V. (1990) 'The evolution of reflective teaching and teacher education' in R. T. Clift, W. R. Houston and M. C. Pugach (eds.) Encouraging Reflective Practice in Education. An analysis of issues and programs, New York: Teachers College Press.

Russell, T. and Munby, H. (1991) 'Reframing. The role of experience in developing teachers professional knowledge' in D. A. Schön (ed.) The Reflective Turn. Case studies in and on educational practice, New York: Teachers Press, Columbia University.

Schön, D. A. (1967) Invention and the evolution of ideas, London: Tavistock (first published in 1963 as Displacement of Concepts).

Schön, D. A. (1967) Technology and change : the new Heraclitus, Oxford: Pergamon.

Schön, D. A. (1985) The design studio: an exploration of its traditions and potentials, London : RIBA Publications for RIBA Building Industry Trust.

Schön, D. A. (1991) The Reflective Turn: Case Studies In and On Educational Practice, New York: Teachers Press, Columbia University.

Smith, M. K. (1994) Local Education, Buckingham: Open University Press.

Usher, R. et al (1997) Adult Education and the Postmodern Challenge, London: Routledge.

Links

Schön - Educating the reflective practitioner. Address to the 1987 meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

Acknowledgement: The picture of The Reflective Practitioner is by .nele and is reproduced here under a Creative Commons licence (Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 Generic) - flickr http://www.flickr.com/photos/snenad/3644579768/).

The picture of Donald Schon is reproduced here according to the terms of the Free Art Licence and sourced from Wikipedia Commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_schon_pic.jpg

How to cite this piece: Smith, M. K. (2001, 2011). 'Donald Schön: learning, reflection and change', The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. [ https://infed.org/mobi/donald-schon-learning-reflection-change/. Retrieved: insert date].

© Mark K. Smith First published July 2001.

Last Updated on April 7, 2021 by infed.org

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Donald Schon (Schön): learning, reflection and change

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Contents: introduction · donald schon · public and private learning and the learning society · double-loop learning · the reflective practitioner - reflection-in- and -on-action · conclusion · further reading and references · links · how to cite this article Note: I have used Donald Schon rather than Donald Schön (which is the correct spelling) as English language web search engines (and those using them!)

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Professional development

Finally! The revised Embedding formative assessment pack for schools and colleges to run their own two-year professional development programme on formative assessment is now available worldwide. In Europe, this can be ordered through SSAT, in Australasia through Hawker-Brownlow, and in North America from Learning Sciences International. Further details of the pack are here.

Also, a series of high-quality video presentations by Dylan Wiliam, with a total running time of over two hours, is now available free world-wide. Details are here.

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Professional development Finally! The revised Embedding formative assessment pack for schools and colleges to run their own two-year professional development programme on formative assessment is now available worldwide. In Europe, this can be ordered through SSAT, in Australasia through Hawker-Brownlow, and in North America from Learning Sciences International.

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Forgetting can be infuriating, particularly when you're trying to learn a new skill or absorb vital information. When you can't recall the knowledge you need, stress can build and your confidence can take a knock. It may even lead to wasted time, missed opportunities, and costly mistakes.

But when you understand why you forget, you can take steps to prevent it, and make sure that what you learn, sticks!

In this article, we explore The Forgetting Curve, an enduring model that demonstrates how memories are lost over time and what we can do to reinforce the things that we learn, so that we can remember them more effectively.

The Importance of Memory

Memory is important for our survival. Our brains are good at storing information that helps us to avoid physical or psychological harm.

We are particularly good at remembering the things that we need to know - details that are of vital importance to our survival. For example, foods we should avoid, pathways or areas we should stick to, and the people who are important in our lives. We also tend to remember experiences that trigger powerful emotions - such as surprise, fear, success, or relief - for longer.

But this means that many of the things that we want to learn (or that others need us to know) can drop out of our memory all too easily.

This is where the Forgetting Curve comes in!

What Is the Forgetting Curve?

German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus wanted to understand more about why we forget things and how to prevent it. His research produced the Forgetting Curve - a visual representation of the way that learned information fades over time (see figure 1, below).

Figure 1 - The Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus experimented with his own ability to remember using a list of nonsense syllables, which he attempted to recall after different lengths of time. His experiences and results revealed a number of key aspects of memory:

Memories weaken over time. If we learn something new, but then make no attempt to relearn that information, we remember less and less of it as the hours, days and weeks go by.

The biggest drop in retention happens soon after learning. This is reflected by the steep fall at the start of the Forgetting Curve (see figure 1). Without reviewing or reinforcing our learning, our ability to retain the information plummets. For example, you may leave a webinar or meeting with your head full of new facts and figures, only to find that you can remember very little of it just hours later.

It's easier to remember things that have meaning. Things with little or no meaning (like the nonsense syllables Ebbinghaus tried to learn) conform most closely to the Forgetting Curve. So, for instance, if you're listening to a talk on a subject that you don't really understand or have little interest in, you'll likely forget it faster than if it were on a subject that you found really engaging or exciting.

The way something is presented affects learning. The same set of information can be made more or less memorable, depending on how well it's communicated. You'll likely find it easier to remember something that's been organized logically and presented clearly. But you may well forget that haphazard, scribbled shopping list!

How you feel affects how well you remember. Ebbinghaus believed that physiological factors, such as stress and sleep, play a significant part in how well we retain information. Many people experience this as a vicious cycle - they feel stress, which makes it harder to remember, creating even more stress. There's also strong evidence to suggest that sleep can help our brains to sort and store information.

Note 1:

Ebbinghaus' research dates back to the 1880s. However, it is still widely used and highly regarded. In 2015, a research team successfully reproduced his findings, and concluded that his methods and theories still hold true today.

Note 2:

Some aspects of memory can change with age. Your short-term memory may feel weaker, for example, and it can be more challenging to learn completely new things. But Ebbinghaus' work showed that sensible strategies and good self-care can help to keep your memory strong.

Aside from aging, a number of other physical and mental factors can alter how you think and learn. If you're ever worried about a change in your memory, be sure to seek medical advice.

How to Prevent Forgetting and Boost Your Memory

It's tempting to think that Ebbinghaus' work paints a bleak picture of learning. But it's not all negative. In fact, his research highlighted several things we can do to retain information for longer. In this section, we look at four strategies you can use to improve your power of recall:

1. Use "Spaced Learning"

The most important discovery Ebbinghaus made was that, by reviewing new information at key moments on the Forgetting Curve, you can reduce the rate at which you forget it!

This approach is often referred to as "spaced learning" or " distributive practice." (See figure 2, below.)

Figure 2 - Using Spaced Learning to Combat the Forgetting Curve

Even though our memory fades quickly, a review session soon after the original learning can improve it. This session should happen when recall has slipped significantly, but hasn't fallen so low that you're essentially starting over.

Reviewing and refreshing information regularly halts the Forgetting Curve. (In figure 2, the dotted part of each curve shows what would likely happen otherwise.) And, although forgetting starts again after each review session, it's slower than before. That's why each new curve shown in figure 2 is shallower than the last.

The gaps between your review sessions can be longer as time goes on. So, you might refresh your learning from a lecture the following day, then two days later, then after a week, then after 30 days... and you'll still know all the key information a month on! Reviewing information like this, at strategic points after you originally learned it, will stretch your recall and strengthen the memories encoded in your brain. You'll also discover any gaps that you need to focus on and relearn, if necessary.

Note:

Exactly how you time and space your review sessions will depend on a number of factors: the type of material you're learning, how much detail you need to know, and how long you want to keep it fresh in your mind. And, if other information disrupts or distracts you, you'll likely have to put in more work to keep your learning strong.

2. Overlearn

Another strategy Ebbinghaus explored was "overlearning" - that is, putting in more than the usual amount of effort when you learn something. He found that doing this improved retention, and slowed the steep drop seen on the Forgetting Curve.

He also pointed out that, by using certain memory strategies, we can improve our chances of retaining even hard-to-learn information.

3. Make Information Meaningful

Do everything you can to make the material that you need to learn clear, relevant and purposeful, and establish a strong reason for retaining it. The more you know how something will benefit you in the long term, the more likely your memory will prioritize it.

Reducing distractions and other demands - known as your " cognitive load" - should also help with this.

4. Keep Challenging Your Memory

If you come to review some information and discover gaps in your memory, don't despair! This is the most productive time for stretching your recall. Learning done at this point will be all the stronger because of the mental challenge involved.

If you're imparting learning or information to an audience, or delivering training, make it as interactive as possible. Even just asking questions will encourage people to sort and strengthen the information in their minds.

Key Points

The Forgetting Curve is an influential memory model. It shows how learned information slips out of our memories over time - unless we take action to keep it there.

The steepest drop in memory happens quickly after learning, so it's important to revisit the information you've learned sooner rather than later. After that, regular reviews will help to reinforce it. But you can leave longer and longer gaps between these review sessions. This is known as "spaced learning."

Doing this will help to reinforce your learning and improve your power of recall, so that you can remember what you've learned in the long term. Other strategies you can use to improve your memory are: overlearning information, making what you want to learn meaningful, and challenging your memory regularly.

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The Forgetting Curve: Why We Forget, and What We Can Do About It

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Forgetting can be infuriating, particularly when you're trying to learn a new skill or absorb vital information. When you can't recall the knowledge you need, stress can build and your confidence can take a knock. It may even lead to wasted time, missed opportunities, and costly mistakes.

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Albert Bandura's social learning theory (SLT) suggests that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Bandura realized that direct reinforcement alone could not account for all types of learning, so he added a social element to his theory, arguing that people learn by observing others (Nabavi, 2012).

His theory is regarded as the bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories, encompassing attention, memory, and motivational processes (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008)

The SLT states that in response to observation, imitation, and modeling, learning can occur even without changing behavior (Bandura, 1965).

This article introduces Bandura's social learning theory and explores key concepts, real-life examples, and some fascinating experiments.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

What Is Bandura's Social Learning Theory?

To understand Bandura's theory, let's first look at the originator.

Who is Albert Bandura?

Albert Bandura, born in 1925 in Alberta, Canada, became interested in psychology while studying biological sciences at the University of British Columbia (Nabavi, 2012).

Graduating with a degree in psychology, Bandura continued his studies and in 1952 was awarded a PhD in Clinical Psychology from the University of Iowa. He was elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1974 and awarded the Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology in 2004 (Nabavi, 2012).

In the 1960s, Bandura became known for his social learning theory (SLT). His approach recognized reinforcement and the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the emotional reactions, attitudes, and behaviors of others in learning (Bandura, 1977a).

In 1986, the SLT developed into the social cognitive theory, incorporating the idea that learning takes place in a social context, "with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior," and a cognitive context that considers past experiences that shape engagement in behavior (LaMorte, 2019).

Because of his continuing research, Bandura became known among academics as the father of cognitive theory (Nabavi, 2012).

What is the social learning theory?

Learning is about interacting with the environment and making a permanent change in knowledge or behavior that improves human performance (Driscoll, 1994).

According to Bandura's SLT, we learn from interacting with others in a social context. We observe, assimilate, and imitate others' behavior when witnessing positive or rewarding experiences (Nabavi, 2012).

Bandura (1977a) agreed with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning yet, crucially, added the following:

Mediating processes take place between the stimuli and response.

Behavior is learned through observation of the environment.

As a result, both environmental and cognitive factors combine to influence human learning and behavior.

The SLT states that we acquire behaviors through a combination of reinforcement and imitation, where "imitation is the reproduction of learning through observation" (Gross, 2020, p. 489).

Stages of the Theory: A Diagram

Bandura's social learning theory provides a helpful framework for understanding how an individual learns via observation and modeling (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018).

Cognitive processes are central, as learners must make sense of and internalize what they see to reproduce the behavior. Psychological processing is required to match cognition and behavior between the observation and the performance (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018).

The following diagram represents the three interconnected underlying themes of the SLT: environmental, personal, and behavioral factors (modified from Bandura, 1977b).

SLT processing

The SLT suggests that we learn from one another throughout our lives via the following processes (Nabavi, 2012):

Observation
We observe other people's behavior.

Imitation
Following observation, we assimilate and imitate the observed behavior.

Modeling
We are more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people we perceive as similar to ourselves.

While behaviorists claim learning must result in a permanent behavior change, social learning theorists demonstrated the importance of cognition, recognizing that learning can occur in the absence of behavior (Bandura, 1965).

Behaviors learned through modeling

Bandura proposed that modeling or learning is composed of four mediational processes or conditions that must be met (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018; Nabavi, 2012):

Attention
We must pay attention to the model. Our attention increases when behavior is more striking, different, or prestigious, and when the model is more similar to ourselves.

Retention
We must be able to remember the observed behavior; this can be increased throughrehearsal.

Reproduction
We must be capable of replicating the behavior just observed. Note that a novice may not be developmentally ready to reproduce the action.

Motivation
We must be motivated to demonstrate what we have learned. This can be influenced by bothreinforcement and punishment.

The following diagram shows the stages involved in the modeling process (modified from Nabavi, 2012):

In a 2018 study using the SLT to explore learning from role models, students confirmed the processes above, describing how they were "selectively and consciously paying attention, using retention strategies, reproducing observed behavior and being motivated to imitate" (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018, p. 1).

10 Key Psychology Concepts

Interpretation of the Social Learning Theory depends on the following key concepts.

SLT foundational concepts

While there are several concepts crucial to our understanding of the SLT, the following are foundational (Nabavi, 2012; Introduction, 2020):

People learn through observation.

Reinforcement and punishment have an indirect effect on behavior and learning.

Cognitive factors contribute to whether a behavior is acquired.

Learning involves modeling, yet does not require behavioral change.

Reinforcement and punishment

Both reinforcement and punishment are essential factors in the observer's motivation to replicate the behavior they have seen (Nabavi, 2012):

Both factors indirectly impact learning (but are not the sole cause).

Both factors influence the degree to which an observer exhibits a learned behavior.

The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes, such as attention and learning.

Modeling & role models

The SLT demonstrates that humans learn and imitate behaviors observed in other people. The people observed are called models, and the process of learning is described as modeling.

Bandura identified three basic model types involved in observational learning (Nabavi, 2012):

Live model
An individual is observed acting out or showing the behavior.

Verbal instruction model
The behavior is explained or described.

Symbolic model
A real or fictional character displays the behavior online, on TV, in a book, etc.

A lecturer who attends and enjoys a training course may imitate and model the instructor's technique and style to improve their teaching methods and student engagement. Similar modeling occurs when children watch parents read, students see mathematical problems solved, and bystanders witness an act of bravery (Bandura, 1986, 2006).

3 Real-Life Examples

Let's look at the application of SLT in real life.

Criminology and aggression

According to the SLT, "aggressive behaviors are learned through reinforcement and the imitation of aggressive models " (Gross, 2020, p. 489).

Bandura showed that aggressive tendencies, especially in children, are vicariously reinforced by seeing others rewarded for or benefiting from their aggressive behavior.

Are aggressive behaviors learned from violence on TV and in films? It depends on viewers' perceptions, including factors such as (Gross, 2020):

Are the violent portrayals in realistic settings? Violence in news and documentary programs is typically more upsetting.

Is the violence justified or rewarded?

Does the viewer closely identify with the characters?

Is there a graphic and realistic depiction of the victim's pain and suffering?

The SLT is also valuable in understanding criminal and deviant behavior. A review of existing studies found that the SLT could make sense of events at both a micro and a macro level, considering the temporal and ecological context (Akers & Jensen, 2006).

Social learning theory in social work

The SLT has implications for social work. Indeed, "modeling is seen as one of the key factors in the development of prosocial behavior" and occurs in families, workplaces, and education (Davies, 2013, p. 74).

The theory can help social workers better understand how specific behavior has developed and how to intervene, either to act as a role model or to encourage others.

Skill learning

Learning from role models is a widely accepted learning method, yet in education, the term remains vague and inconsistently used (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018, p. 1).

A 2018 study studied the effect of role modeling in teaching and learning in medical students (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018). Students reported that learning from role models was "complex and haphazard," and the study recognized that the process of learning from role models was challenging, but could be helped by (Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018):

Ensuring proximity and repeated observation of role models' actions and their behavior

Providing insight into the hidden thought processes behind the observable behaviors

Being given the opportunity to reproduce and practice behavior accompanied by reflection

Fascinating Experiments and Studies

The SLT has been studied through several fascinating and memorable studies, including:

Bobo doll experiment

In 1973, Bandura set out to understand the role of modeling in learning and aggression. To test the hypothesis that imitation played a large part in behavior, he created situations where children between three and five years old watched adults acting aggressively toward a large plastic doll, known as a 'Bobo' doll (Davies, 2013; Gross, 2020).

When allowed to play with the doll themselves, the children exhibited aggression to a degree that matched the scene they had witnessed.

Subsequently, when researchers removed toys, they observed the degree of aggression in the frustrated children. Bandura found that the children who had witnessed prior aggressive behavior were more likely to display it themselves.

However, Bandura identified that the acquisition of aggressive behaviors did not necessarily mean the child would imitate what they had seen (Gross, 2020).

Introduction of TV

"Natural experiments allow the researcher to take advantage of fortuitous and naturally occurring events" (Gross, 2020, p. 491).

Two well-known studies researched the introduction of TV into communities where it hadn't previously existed (Williams, 1986; Charlton & Hannan, 2005).

Following the arrival of television in St. Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean, Charlton and Hannan (2005) found no noticeable difference in the children's behavior. However, the study concluded that mitigating social factors might have helped, including being part of a small population where everyone knows one another and parents maintaining a high degree of control over their children's behavior.

Contextual and cultural factors can moderate exposure to media violence or aggressive behavior (Gross, 2020).

Promoting positive parenting

Video feedback has been used successfully as a social learning theory intervention to promote positive parenting. In a 2017 study, parents who received helpful feedback became better role models, child-parent attachment improved, and there was a reduction in behavioral problems in children (Juffer, Bakermans-Kranenburg, & van IJzendoorn, 2017).

Combining the biological perspective with the SLT

Recent research has combined new findings in biological risk factors into mainstream social learning theories of criminal behavior (Fox, 2017).

"While learning clearly has social origins among peers and conditioning in society, it is also a biochemical process" (Fox, 2017, p. 25). Research, while ongoing, suggests that "many biological factors influence our learning, and consequently our behavior" (Fox, 2017, p. 28).

An improved understanding of such underlying factors, including perception, encoding, and reinforcement, may explain why some individuals are more likely to learn from the antisocial behavior of peers.

10 Strengths & Weaknesses of the Theory

Bandura's SLT has had a profound impact on learning theory and psychology in general.

As with all psychological theories, there are strengths and weaknesses, and research is continually adding to our knowledge (Introduction, 2020; Wortley, 2008).

Strengths of the SLT

The SLT is incredibly flexible in explaining a person's various ways of behaving and learning. An environmental change can lead to a behavioral one.

The SLT explains that learning can happen in various ways, including observation and direct, hands-on experiences.

The SLT has been applied in many settings that have consistently shown strong relationships between social learning concepts and behavior.

The degree, probability, and frequency of reinforcement impact imitation.

Studies involving children observing aggression have shown that it impacts their subsequent behavior in controlled situations.

Criticism and limitations

The SLT does not consider the aspect of accountability in actions. The theory suggests that how a person behaves is primarily down to context rather than how they process information.

The SLT ignores developmental milestones. Such development stages typically occur irrespective of the environmental setting.

The SLT does not account for behavior when there is no role model.

Negative behavior such as criminal activities can occur without prior exposure to such behavior.

The SLT can be difficult to test because of ethical issues. Indeed, experiments such as the 'Bobo' doll study would no longer be allowed.

Resources From PositivePsychology.com

We have many resources that can help you or your clients learn more effectively as well as overcome challenges during the learning process.

Adopt a Growth Mindset
A growth mindset is particularly helpful when one is preparing to learn something new.This exercise helps clients recognize instances of fixed mindset in their thinking and actions and replace them with thoughts and behaviors more supportive of a growth mindset.

Growth Mindset Phrases for Children
Likewise,this handout presents examples of different phrases educators can use to encourage children to maintain a growth mindset.

Reflective Questions for Personal Academic Performance
This reflection exercise presents a series of prompts inviting students to think about what they are learning, why they are learning, and how they can improve the learning process.

Learning From My Work
This short questionnaire helps adults, teenagers, or children assess their performance and learning orientation when completing homework or other projects.

17 Positive Psychology Exercises
If you're looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

A Take-Home Message

Psychologist Albert Bandura developed the SLT in response to the limitations of behavioral theories of learning.

While behaviorists focused on how the environment and reinforcement affect behavior, Bandura recognized that people learn by observing how others behave, including the rewards and punishment they receive.

Through a series of experiments, Bandura confirmed the ability of humans to acquire new behavior through observation and imitation. The SLT (later becoming the social cognitive theory) put forward the idea that learning occurs within a social environment, resulting from a shared interaction between person, environment, and behavior (Introduction, 2020).

While it has some limitations, the SLT successfully explains the acquisition of new behavior in many environments. The SLT is particularly valuable in explaining how children learn by imitating family members, friends, and other influential figures and will perform the behavior if the reward is sufficient.

Whether applied to education, social work, or criminology, the SLT is a valuable theory that can be used with other ideas and practices to bring about change. Although some historical studies do not meet the ethical research standards of today, the lessons learned remain valuable and insightful for education and behavioral change.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don't forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free.

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What Is Bandura's Social Learning Theory? 3 Examples

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This article introduces Bandura's social learning theory and explores key concepts, real-life examples, and some fascinating experiments.

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Sir Ken Robinson 'Do schools kill creativity?'

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Sir Ken Robinson 'Do schools kill creativity?'

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Sir Ken Robinson makes an entertaining and profoundly moving case for creating an education system that nurtures (rather than undermines) creativity.

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The power of believing that you can improve

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Carol Dweck researches “growth mindset” — the idea that we can grow our brain’s capacity to learn and to solve problems. In this talk, she describes two ways to think about a problem that’s slightly too hard for you to solve. Are you not smart enough to solve it … or have you just not solved it yet? A great introduction to this influential field.

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Dual coding is the idea of using different types of stimuli to help learners encode information in their brains more effectively, enabling it to be more easily retrieved later on. In the classroom, the main two types of stimuli that are used are visual and verbal.

Visual information is directly encoded into our working memory, which is the part of our short-term memory that temporarily manages and stores information, and it processes in a synchronous way. This means that we can retrieve the information regardless of the order we saw it in.

For example, take a look at the photo below and then close your eyes and try to visualise it.

You should be able to imagine the sunflowers, the dog and the person walking all at once.

In contrast, we recall verbal information in the specific pattern we saw or heard it in. For example, if you read and then try to recall the phrase 'a person walking their rescue dog in a field of sunflowers in Hertfordshire', 'a person' will most likely come at the start of your recollection and 'in Hertfordshire' will come at the end.

As verbal information is sequential, we have to take in the information as it comes to us - we cannot instantaneously absorb multiple things as we can with the image. Particularly when we are trying to encode large amounts of information, verbal stimuli are therefore less efficient than visual stimuli.

However, there are certain advantages to verbal information because it gives you greater specificity. Without it, you would have had no way of knowing that the dog is a rescue dog or that the field is in Hertfordshire, which could be important pieces of information.

Dual coding theory suggests that by using both visual and verbal cues, we can more effectively keep information in our long-term memory.

Putting dual coding into practice

Let's look at a classic example that you might see in a science textbook, with visual and verbal information presented side by side.

There are positives to this approach. If a student gets momentarily distracted, they can re-engage with the explanation afterwards because it's still visible, and the explanation can be delivered without mistakes. This might be particularly helpful for a less experienced teacher who isn't confident in their delivery of the explanation.

However, the potential downside can be explained by the split-attention principle, which suggests that when learners have to switch between two different sources of information, it is an inefficient use of their time and effort and can be overwhelming.

According to the split-attention principle, bringing together multiple sources of information - for example, a visual and a verbal piece of information - into a single integrated source can make information easier to encode than displaying them separately. For example, image B would be better than image A.

Another approach could be to show learners an image and have a teacher explain it aloud at the same time. The benefit of this would be that the learner could process the visual (the image) and the verbal (the teacher's explanation) simultaneously, and it would have the added benefit of allowing the teacher to model the pronunciation of particular words that might be unfamiliar to learners.

However, if there is only a teacher explanation, the learners' ability to re-engage with that explanation later on is very limited, especially if a student or listener gets distracted during it.

Another approach could be to use a visualiser. This allows teachers to gradually present information to learners and to tweak their explanation, if necessary, if students are struggling. This might not be possible if a teacher doesn't have that much artistic ability, or if their handwriting isn't clear. In that case, an animated presentation might be clearer and more seamless when it comes to the explanation.

As these examples have shown, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to implement dual coding theory, and the best approach to teacher instruction will depend on the information that's being imparted and the available resources.

Common mistakes

Some people interpret dual coding as the idea that visual and verbal keys must always be included in learning materials, regardless of how relevant or helpful they are, but this can do more harm than good. If learners are given too much information simultaneously, they will be unable to process all of it.

For example, the icons in the image below neither relate to the verbal information nor do they add any useful new information. The central image does not have a clear link to essay writing either. If any of the visual or verbal information in a learning resource doesn't support understanding, it is adding an unnecessary extra element for the learner to comprehend and spend time thinking about.

So, how does CENTURY take dual coding into account when we create content?

We put a lot of thought into how a concept is explained in each of our videos. Before our teachers get to the recording stage, they prepare a detailed script and presenter notes to ensure that the animations and images appear at the same time as the voiceover, and our video editor will double check that everything is synchronised. Everything is very precise and planned out to ensure maximum comprehension for learners.

We don't include any redundant images or animations that might distract learners - we want to make sure that when animations are used, they're really drawing attention to what we want students to be focusing on.

For example, the above clip has been taken from a nugget on column addition in one of our primary maths courses, and it demonstrates how carefully timed animations are used to illustrate a particular concept. They compliment and mirror what the voiceover is saying, and draw attention to what the learners should be focusing on. Any text that does appear is incremental and is not going to overwhelm the learner.
Book a demo to find out more about how CENTURY can help to enhance the teaching and learning at your school or college.

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What is dual coding theory and how can it help teaching?

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Dual coding is the idea of using different types of stimuli to help learners encode information in their brains more effectively, enabling it to be more easily retrieved later on. In the classroom, the main two types of stimuli that are used are visual and verbal.

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A TLA strategy for the 21st century

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Time To Think has identified ten behaviours that generate the finest independent thinking.
We call them the Ten Components of a Thinking Environment®.In the presence of these ten behaviours people think for themselves with rigour, imagination,
courage and grace.

Our acclaimed courses, developed through observation and research since 1985, teach the application of these behaviours to teams, leaders, coaches and individuals.

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Time To Think has identified ten behaviours that generate the finest independent thinking. We call them the Ten Components of a Thinking Environment®.In the presence of these ten behaviours people think for themselves with rigour, imagination, courage and grace. Our acclaimed courses, developed through observation and research since 1985, teach the application of these behaviours to teams, leaders, coaches and individuals.

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The EEF is an independent charity dedicated to breaking the link between family income and educational achievement.

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Growth Mindset and the Moonshot strategy

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Growth Mindset and the Moonshot strategy

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What's possible in the next five or 10 years? It's hard to tell given the exponential rate of technology related change. In the last ten years, we've seen the development of smartphones and tablets, Instagram and Snap, ride and room sharing, 3D printing and self-driving vehicles. We'll see more important advances in the next decade than the last-most will involve artificial intelligence.

A few impact investors like Elon Musk are working on moonshot projects-massively ambitious endeavors that will change where, how well, and how long we live. What big advances are possible in learning and education? Here are 20 ideas we're tracking (an updated and expanded list from April). They move from expected breakthroughs to more speculative advances.

1. Portable Profiles. Personalized and competency-based learning, in K-12 and for life, will be unlocked by comprehensive learner profiles. We see two complementary developments:

States will require and support an expanded electronic student record (we call it a data backpack)

Parents and learners will manage an expanded learner profile and provide portions of it to learning providers.

Profiles are most likely to be made portable using blockchain, a secure and distributed learning ledger.

2. Learning Platforms. Personalized learning is promising but hard to manage manually. Advances in learning platforms will enable individual learning pathways optimizing experiences (see #). They will be easy to configure for specific learning models and school models (see #3).

Two years ago we compiled a list of what teachers and EdLeaders wanted from platforms including:

Power and track personal learning plans;

Manage assignments and dynamic grouping;

Support development of standards-aligned projects;

Make it easy to combine proprietary, open, district and teacher-developed content;

Combine formative assessments in a standards-based gradebook (see #5);

Incorporate social, collaborative, productivity and presentation tools;

Integrate with other systems and provide single sign-on for lots of apps; and

Connect students, parents and teachers anywhere on any device.

Next gen platforms will incorporate many of the advances below dynamic scheduling, AR and VR (#9), and better interfaces (#13).

3. Platform Networks. Personalized learning is promising but hard for individual schools to figure out. Schools join voluntary networks like New Tech Networkto take advantage of a well-developed school model, platform, and professional learning opportunity. Thousands of schools work with Project Lead The Way (PLTW), a curriculum network that offers courses on a platform with PD. As platforms improve, a growing percentage of schools will join platform networks.

Platform networks hold the potential for a network effect. "We view scale as positive," said Phil Regier, Dean for Educational Initiatives at Arizona State University (ASU). "We're going to use scale to get better. Digital learning tends to be scale games. As you get bigger you can make the technology better."

Speaking on a Gates Foundation podcast, Regier noted the Global Freshman Academy, an online learning partnership with edX as an example of bigger is better. It allows learners to take open classes anytime and only pay after passing a class. "The math class is fantastic. The bigger it gets the better it gets," said Regier.

Platform networks also make it easier to build urban, rural and thematic microschool networks. Small towns can open small schools supported by networks. Parks, galleries and museums, colleges and companies can host small schools.

4. Literacy. Boosting worldwide literacy-among young and old-might be the biggest and most important moonshot. X Prize is sponsoring a Global Learning Prize (for children) and an Adult Literacy Prize. Add second language acquisition and you have a really big goal (see five part podcast series on language acqusition).

5. Interoperability. It's great that most U.S. students benefit from multiple forms of instructional feedback every week but it's frustrating that little of it is easy to combine. The moonshot is interoperability agreements and super gradebooks that automagically combine many different kinds of formative feedback into a mastery tracker and surface it with simple data visualizations.

6. Competency systems. We increasingly live in a 'show what you know' world. But shifting away from schools based on age cohorts requires a new assessment infrastructure. Recently released MasteryTrack uses a standard set of assessments to determine mastery. Next-gen systems will help teachers blend of multiple measures including exit tickets, adaptive tests, and performance tasks.

Microcredentials are a digital form of certification that indicate when a person has demonstrated competence in a specific skill set. As a progress tracking and signaling system, micro-credentials are gaining traction in education since they offer a promising approach to personalized, competency-based professional learning. We think sequences of microcredentials will soon take the place of courses and credits for both student and teacher learning.

Competency systems, including microcredentials, (and cheap safe transportation, #11) will power anywhere anytime learning. Portfolios with learning artifacts will become important parts of learner profiles (#1).

7. Regional Shift to Competency. The most interesting regional work in K-12 is the move to proficiency-based learning (also called competency-based) in New England. Great Schools Partnership is facilitating school transformation, state policy shifts to proficiency and recognition of proficiency-based diplomas by all the institutions of higher learning in New England.

Sponsoring state or regional shifts like the work in New England would advance competency-based learning and create demand for competency platforms. Extending opportunities to out of schools (see LRNG network) and adding weighted portable funding would an important development.

8. End of the big test. When every school knows how every student is doing in consistent and reliables ways it will no longer be necessary to stop school for a week in the spring to determine achievement.

Top networks and districts are already there-they combine multiple measures to know how students are doing in each outcome area every day. What they don't have is a trusted means of communicating student progress to stakeholders including the state.

The first step to ending the big test is a comparability study of leading networks in a state interested in an alternative to the current psychometric drama. A state like Colorado (or district like Denver) could collect and analyze data sets from DSST, KIPP, Strive, and Rocky Mountain Prep. This would demonstrate adequate comparability and reliability of their assessment systems, result in a comparison algorithm between networks, and set the stage for a comparability framework between components (e.g., ST Math, DreamBox, i-Ready).

As networks and districts could demonstrate the reliability and comparability of their assessment systems, they could opt out of part or all of the state testing system like an updated version of the New York Performance Standards Consortium (discussed here). The shift to digital learning and improved ability to analyze big data sets makes it time to end the big end of year test. (This would eventually require an update to federal policy once the infrastructure to do this is in place-but that should be possible because everyone, except the testing vendors, hates the current state of affairs).

9. Virtual Reality & Augmented Reality. Last Christmas, virtual reality (VR) was the breakthrough gadget. With more economical devices and educational content, VR will be a regular and transformative part of every learner's week. VR will improve career education, language acquisition and global competence. (Listen to why Seth Andrew is excited about VR.)

Augmented reality (AR) with a mixed real-time view of the real world and requested and suggested information will also become prevalent in education with improved interfaces (#5). Imagine field trips that cover the same local route-one week is art and architecture, then demographics and economics, then air and soil quality.

It will be a combination of user interface and powerful learning experiences that make VR and AR moonshot achievements in learning.

10. HR and Talent Development. A top trend in the tech world this year is the 400 startups in HR and talent -most powered by artificial intelligence.

With focused development, educators should expect that it will soon be easier for applicants to find the right job and for schools to find the best possible staff members. AI-powered tools will also improve teacher substitute systems, employee scheduling, HR services, and smarter personalized professional learning.

11. Transportation. With in a decade, forward leaning districts will useself-driving buses and vans (6-12 passenger) and will contract with transport companies for pool cars (think Uber Pool with a background check hauling 3-5 students). This " swarm transportation " approach will unlock personalized schedules and community learning opportunities.

12. Operations. In most states, there won't be a lot of new money flowing to K-12. The good news is that there are new opportunities for " lean districts " to save money and improve service. Smart tools will be improving meal planning, procurement and staff and student scheduling. All of these improvements will allow schools to invest more in relationships and supports.

13. Human-Computer Interface. Last month, Elon Musk launched Neuralink, which aims to make implants for the human brain that can wirelessly interface with a computer. Mind controlled computers would be a breakthrough in learning as well as business and entertainment. Breakthroughs in user interface-voice, gesture, eye and thought-will be transformative to learning.

14. SEL Measures & Supports. Schools, districts, and networks are rapidly adopting outcome frameworks that embrace mindsets, habits of success, and/or social and emotional learning. There is still an opportunity to better define and measure these important dispositions and skills.

Productive ways to help young people develop self-management and social awareness will be a breakthrough. Biosensors, feedback systems and smart nudges are likely to be part of smart social-emotional learning (SEL) systems.

15. Assistive Tech. The advent of mobile and touch technology was a godsend for youth with special needs, particularly those on the autism spectrum. Advances in UI (#10), translation, text to voice, voice to text and SEL supports (#12) will aid special needs students. The breakthrough could be global access to AT.

16. Motivation. Young (and old) people are motivated by different experiences and drawn to different interests. Learning and behavioral science will unlock secrets of human performance particularly motivational profiles yielding sequences that produce persistence and performance. (See this six-part series on motivating and monitoring performance.)

17. Open Tools. Impact entrepreneurs are creating value by picking a problem, developing some domain expertise, building a dataset and applying smart tools. We call the new formula for making a difference Cause + Code.

What would help more young people get involved in difference making are rich problem statements (like Global Goals or Grand Challenges for Engineering), and open data analysis and machine learning tools.

18. Lifelong Learning. With the rise of the automation economy, lifelong learning is the new imperative-the platforms, incentives and supports that help adults learn employment-relevant skills. Just beyond Coursera, Udemy and EdX are platforms that recommend, personalize and modularize learning. They may leverage relationships (e.g., college alumni), will support multiple providers and have strong links to emerging employment opportunities.

19. Performance Enhancement. Three years ago it was little brain shocks-transcranial direct current stimulation-that were supposed to make you smarter. Two years ago there was a lot of buzz about magic pills-behavioral neuropharmacological enhancement-particularly nootropics that increase productivity and sharpen focus.

More recently mindfulness and meditation have become widely used to help hone performance. Some combination of practices and pills is likely to boost learning and performance.

20. Genomic Editing. CRISPR is a tiny molecular scissors that can alter nucleotides of DNA precisely and simply-and the safety and accuracy are improving fast. At some point soon it will be used to repair defects and boost intelligence. The ethical questions surrounding gene editing, and access to such life altering technologies, are monumental.

What's on your moonshot list?

For more, see:
Stay in-the-know with all things EdTech and innovations in learning by signing up to receive the weekly Smart Update . This post includes mentions of a Getting Smart partner. For a full list of partners, affiliate organizations and all other disclosures please see our Partner page

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What's possible in the next five or 10 years? It's hard to tell given the exponential rate of technology related change. In the last ten years, we've seen the development of smartphones and tablets, Instagram and Snap, ride and room sharing, 3D printing and self-driving vehicles.

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An Asset-Based Approach to Education: What It Is and Why It Matters - NYU Steinhardt Teacher Residency Program

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An asset-based approach to education is key in achieving equity in classrooms across the country. In recent years, while equity and access efforts shined a light on marginalized and underrepresented communities, some efforts treated schools and communities like they needed to be “saved.” With an ass…

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Jack Mezirow's Transformative Learning Model

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Jack Mezirow's Transformative Learning Model

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Summary: Transformative learning is a theory of adult learning that utilizes disorienting dilemmas to challenge students' thinking. Students are then encouraged to use critical thinking and questioning to consider if their underlying assumptions and beliefs about the world are accurate.

Originator: Jack Mezirow (1923-2014)

Keywords: adult education, higher education, academic development, disorienting dilemmas, assumptions, beliefs, worldview, change, transformation, critical reflection

Transformative learning theory was developed by Jack Mezirow in the late 1900s. He used this theory to describe how people develop and use critical self-reflecting to consider their beliefs and experiences, and over time, change dysfunctional means of seeing the world. Mezirow was interested in peoples' worldviews and what leads people to change their particular view of the world.

Mezirow describes transformative learning as "learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change."

So, what must happen for a person to change their view of the world? Mezirow believed that this occurs when people face a "disorienting dilemma." Disorienting dilemmas are experiences that don't fit into a person's current beliefs about the world. When faced with a disorienting dilemma, people are forced to reconsider their beliefs in a way that will fit this new experience into the rest of their worldview. This often happens through "critical reflection" in the context of dialogue with other people.
A Case Study
Researcher Michael Christie presents the following case study as a real life example of transformative learning theory in action. Christie describes his experience teaching adult woman in a Graduate Diploma course for Adult and Vocational Educators. Throughout the course, he asked his students to "keep a critical incident file of their experiences."

The content of the course provided many new ideas that functioned as disorienting dilemmas for these woman. The woman were forced to think through their assumptions in a number of areas, including beliefs about gender roles. Christie states, "For example, the belief that 'a woman's place is in the home' was undermined, the assumptions underpinning it challenged, and a new perspective enacted."
Applications of Transformative Learning Theory
Disorienting dilemmas often occur in the context of academic learning environments, as teachers provide space to critically engage with new ideas. Teachers who want to utilize transformative learning in their classrooms can consider implementing the following opportunities for students.

Providing opportunities for critical thinking - Teachers can create opportunities for critical thinking through providing content that introduces new ideas. Students then need the opportunity to engage with new content through journaling, dialoguing with other students, and critically questioning their own assumptions and beliefs.

Providing opportunities to relate to others going through the same transformative process - Transformation often happens in community as students bounce ideas off one another and are inspired by the changes friends and acquaintances make.

Providing opportunities to act on new perspectives - Finally, research indicates that it is critical for teachers to provide the opportunity for students to act on their new found beliefs. There is some indication that true transformation cannot take place until students are able to actively take steps that acknowledge their new belief.

References
[i] Christie, M., Carey, M., Robertson, A., & Grainger, P. (2015). Putting transformative learning theory into practice. Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 55(1), 10-30

[ii] Mezirow, J. (2009). Transformative learning theory. In J. Mezirow, and E. W. Taylor (Eds), Transformative Learning in Practise: Insights from Community.

[iii] Howie, P. & Bagnall, R. (2013). A beautiful metaphor: Transformative learning theory. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 32(6), 816-836.

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Summary: Transformative learning is a theory of adult learning that utilizes disorienting dilemmas to challenge students' thinking. Students are then encouraged to use critical thinking and questioning to consider if their underlying assumptions and beliefs about the world are accurate.

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B F Skinner's Behaviourist Model/Operant Conditioning

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B F Skinner's Behaviourist Model/Operant Conditioning

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Lev Vygotsky and Learning from others: ZPD and Scaffolding

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Lev Vygotsky and Learning from others: ZPD and Scaffolding